DIAGENETIC SALINITY CYCLES AND SEA LEVEL ALONG A MAJOR UNCONFORMITY, MONTE
CAMPOSAURO, ITALY
ANITA E. CSOMA,1* ROBERT H. GOLDSTEIN,1 ANDREA MINDSZENTY, 2 AND LUCIA SIMONE3
1 Department of Geology, University of Kansas, 1475 Jayhawk Blvd., 120 Lindley Hall, Lawrence, Kansas 66045-7613, U.S.A.
2 Applied and Environmental Geology Department, Eo
3 Earth Sciences Department, University Federico II, Naples 80138, Italy
e-mail: Anita.E.Csoma@conocophillips.com
ABSTRACT: In shallow-water carbonates, position of the water table
and the chemistry of early diagenetic fluids are controlled in large part
by sea-level and climate fluctuations. These fluctuations may result in
cyclic progression from marine diagenesis or sedimentation, to mixing
zone, meteoric, mixing zone, and then marine diagenesis or sedimen-
tation. Herein we term such a cyclic progression as a diagenetic salinity
cycle. This diagenetic study along a single unconformity in Cretaceous
limestones of Monte Camposauro, southern Apennines, Italy, demon-
strates the presence of four diagenetic salinity cycles and their link to
relative changes in sea level. Data consist of field observations, trans-
mitted light and cathodoluminescence microscopy, fluid inclusions, and
carbon and oxygen isotopes. They show that twenty-one unconformity-
related diagenetic features predated deposition of marine limestones
above the unconformity. Fossiliferous internal sediments and stable-
isotope data from radiaxial fibrous calcite and recrystallized aragonite
are used to indicate marine diagenesis. Fluid-inclusion and stable-iso-
tope data are used to indicate precipitation of calcite cement in all
mixing ratios of the mixing-zone environment and in the freshwater
phreatic zone. Paleocave morphology indicates vadose and water-table
dissolution, and bauxite sediments support extensive vadose diagenesis.
In each diagenetic salinity cycle, there is evidence for relative fall or
rise of sea level, indicated by transitions from marine sedimentation to
mixing zone and freshwater phreatic diagenesis, marine phreatic to
freshwater vadose diagenesis, vadose diagenesis to marine phreatic dia-
genesis, and freshwater phreatic diagenesis to normal marine sedimen-
tation.
During the time interval of the development of the unconformity
(beginning some time in the Aptian and ending in the early middle
Cenomanian) at least seven third-order eustatic fluctuations have been
hypothesized during an overall second-order eustatic rise. At a given
elevation, the third-order eustatic fluctuations would not be able to
produce four diagenetic salinity cycles without tectonic uplift of 3.5 to
8 mm/ky. Our study illustrates that the formation and the timing of
diagenetic salinity cycles are highly sensitive to paleoelevation.
Diagenetic salinity cycles, preserved along unconformities, can be
used to interpret relative changes of sea level and to predict the pres-
ence of depositional sequences in downdip positions. Conversely, down-
dip depositional sequences, tectonic history, and sea-level history can
be used to predict some aspects of diagenetic alteration updip.
INTRODUCTION
An ultimate goal of many studies of carbonate diagenesis is to predict
the porosity evolution of carbonate rocks on the basis of their setting and
history. Previous studies (e.g., Ward 1973; Esteban and Klappa 1983; Pier-
son and Shinn 1985; Ward and Halley 1985; Hird and Tucker 1988; Read
and Horbury 1993; Saller et al. 1994; Melim 1996; Melim et al. 2001;
Mylroie and Carew 1995) demonstrated that in shallow-water carbonate
deposits, sea-level fluctuations and climate are major controls on both the
* Present Address: ConocoPhillips Company, Upstream Technology, 600 North
Dairy Ashford, Houston, Texas, 77079, U.S.A.
JOURNAL OF SEDIMENTARY RESEARCH, VOL. 74, NO. 6, NOVEMBER, 2004, P. 889903
Copyright q 2004, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 1527-1404/04/074-889/$03.00
tvos L. University, Pazmany P. setany, 1/c, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
rate and the style of early, near-surface carbonate diagenesis. Most recently
Whitaker et al. (1999) used a coupled two-dimensional forward model to
evaluate the importance of climate, platform morphology, rates of sediment
production, erosion, redeposition, accommodation, and carbonate mineral-
ogy in early diagenetic processes. They showed that the distribution and
magnitude of the vadose and the freshwater phreatic zone are controlled
by relative sea level and other variables.
In this study, we evaluate the hypothesis that along coastal unconfor-
mities marking a major hiatus there should be a diagenetic record reflecting
the intersection of the sea-level curve with the unconformity. The diage-
netic record should reflect relative sea-level fall and rise recorded as chang-
es from marine, mixing-zone, meteoric, mixing-zone diagenesis to marine
environments sequentially. Cretaceous shallow-water carbonate deposits of
Monte Camposauro, southern Apennines, Italy, were studied in order to
test this hypothesis. Monte Camposauro is particularly suitable for this
study because there is an unconformity marking a major hiatus (Aptian to
Cenomanian) during which third-order eustatic sea-level changes are
known (Carannante et al. 1988; Carannante et al. 1994; Hardenbol et al.
1998).
Below the studied unconformity, the Aptian limestone is extensively
karstified and preserves a complex diagenetic record consisting of multiple
events of dissolution, cementation, and internal sedimentation. On the basis
of detailed field relationships, transmitted-light and cathodoluminescence
petrography, and fluid-inclusion and stable-isotope analyses, this study doc-
uments repeated events of alternation between diagenesis in marine, mix-
ing-zone, meteoric, mixing-zone, and marine conditions sequentially. These
repeated events produced a cyclical alternation among diagenetic processes
and products, which can be expressed as diagenetic salinity cycles. A com-
plete diagenetic salinity cycle starts with marine diagenesis or sedimenta-
tion followed by a progression from mixing zone, meteoric, and mixing-
zone diagenesis to marine diagenesis or sedimentation (Fig. 1). For con-
venience, we define the end of a diagenetic salinity cycle as the first return
of marine conditions in the paragenesis.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The study sites are quarries of Cava di Marmi di Vitulano, Monte Cam-
posauro, southern Apennines, Italy (Fig. 2A). Complex structure developed
at Monte Camposauro during Neogene deformation of the southern Ap-
ennines carbonate shelf domain, part of the original Adria continental plate
(e.g., DArgenio 1967; DArgenio et al. 1973). Although the interior of the
Adria plate was stable during the Cretaceous, its margins experienced ex-
tensive deformation (e.g., DArgenio et al. 1973; DArgenio and Alvarez
1980). During the earliest Cretaceous, the northwestern margin of the Adria
plate collided with the southern European margin (Fig. 2B), marking the
onset of the Alpine orogeny. The collision accompanied the counterclock-
wise rotation of the Adria plate as it decoupled from Africa along a trans-
form fault (e.g., Ziegler 1988).
During the Cretaceous, the isolated carbonate platforms of the Adria
plate experienced recurrent protracted stages of subaerial exposure; this is
in marked contrast with the drowning or retreat of other carbonate plat-
forms during the same time interval (e.g., Schlager 1981; DArgenio and
Mindszenty 1991, 1995). DArgenio and Mindszenty (1991) and Mindszen-
890 A.E. CSOMA ET AL.

FIG. 1.Schematic diagram illustrating the development of a diagenetic salinity cycle in rocks at the position of the white circle. A complete diagenetic salinity cycle
starts with A) marine sedimentation or diagenesis, followed by a progression from B) mixing zone, C) meteoric phreatic and vadose, and D) mixing-zone diagenesis to
A) marine diagenesis or sedimentation. The white dotted line represents the water table, which in coastal environments is controlled primarily by the position of sea level.

ty et al. (1995) concluded that a lithospheric bulge (uplift), induced by
orogenic collision, was responsible for long-lived exposure of some sectors
of the southern Apennines carbonate shelf domain. Subaerial exposure re-
sulted in extensive karstification and, in many places, bauxite deposition
(Carannante et al. 1987; Carannante et al. 1994).
At Monte Camposauro, two quarries, Cava Uria Inferiore and Cava Uria
Superiore, expose two stratigraphic units of interest for this study (Figs. 3,
4). The lower limestone unit consists mainly of bioclastic wackestone
packstone, interpreted as back-reef lagoon deposits (e.g., Carannante et al.
1988; Michelio 2001). These lagoonal deposits contain miliolids, orbitolin-
ids, biserial foraminifers, cuneolinids, and ostracodes. The presence of
Praechrysalinida infracretacea LUPERTO SINNI and Sabaudia minuta
HOFKER foraminifers indicate an Aptian age (Michelio 2001). This Aptian
limestone is crosscut by dissolution- and fracture-controlled cavities and is

FIG. 2.Geological setting of study area. A) Location. Study concentrates on quarries of Marmi di Vitulano (Cava Uria Inferiore and Cava Uria Superiore), Monte
Camposauro, southern Apennines (after Carannante et al. 1987). 1. Quaternary volcanics. 2. Outcrops of Mesozoic and Tertiary carbonate platforms. 3. Cretaceous bauxite
and paleokarst occurrence. 4. Monte Camposauro Marmi di Vitulano quarries. B) Tectonic and paleogeographic reconstruction of the Mediterranean area during Aptian
and Albian (after Ziegler 1988). Monte Camposauro was part of the southern Apennines carbonate shelf domain (Campania platform sensu Ziegler 1988). 1. Deltaic and
shallow-marine, mainly sandstone. 2. Shallow-marine, mainly shale. 3. Shallow-marine mixed carbonates and clastics. 4. Shallow-marine, mainly carbonates. 5. Deeper-
marine clastics or carbonates. 6. Deeper-marine, mainly sandstone (flysch). 7. Basins floored by oceanic crust. 8. Active fold belts. 9. Anorogenic, cratonic. 10. Faults and
wrenches. 11. Subduction zones. 12. Continental slope. LIG. Ligurian ocean.
 DIAGENETIC SALINITY CYCLES 891

FIG. 3.Stratigraphy of Monte Camposauro. The Aptian limestone is extensively altered, and it is separated from the nonkarstified Cenomanian limestone by a sharp
but irregular erosional surface (field photo). Cretaceous time scale is after Hardenbol et al. (1998). Black pen for scale is 13 cm.

overlain by an irregular erosional unconformity (Carannante et al. 1987;
Carannante et al. 1988; Carannante et al. 1994).
The upper limestone unit overlies the unconformity. It consists of bio-
clastic grainstones composed mainly of rudist fragments, and contains very
rare and poorly preserved individuals of Dictyopsella libanica HOFKER
indicating a Cenomanian age (Michelio 2001). Sediment fillings and cross-
cutting relationships indicate that the dissolution-controlled cavities (Fig.
4) in the Aptian limestone formed during subaerial exposure, before Cen-
omanian deposition of the upper limestone unit.
Previous studies described multiple events of fracture-controlled cavity

FIG. 4.Schematic stratigraphic column of

Monte Camposauro, southern Apennines, Italy.
892 A.E. CSOMA ET AL.
formation, dissolution, and multiple events of cementation and internal sed-
imentation in the Aptian limestones (e.g., DArgenio 1967; Carannante et
al. 1987; Carannante et al. 1988; Carannante et al. 1994). In addition,
petrographic and stable-isotope study of the cavity fills (Carannante et al.
1988; Carannante et al. 1994) described calcite precipitation from solutions
of fluctuating chemistry and suggested cyclic diagenesis related to the un-
conformity.
METHODS
Petrography and Mineralogy
Field observations focused on determining the sequence of diagenetic
events that predate deposition of the Cenomanian limestone unit and on
identifying evidence for fluctuations of the water table. Seventy-five sam-
ples were collected from the two quarries studied. Sampling focused on
the different diagenetic features observed in the outcrops. Fifty thin sections
were studied with transmitted-light microscopy. Cathodoluminescence mi-
croscopy, using a Technosyn cold cathodoluminescence instrument, was
used to examine the paragenesis further, to evaluate the degree of recrys-
tallization of diagenetic phases and to correlate cementation events (sensu
Meyers 1974). In recrystallized cements, patchy fluorescent areas crosscut
primary concentric growth zones, allowing differentiation between recrys-
tallized and nonrecrystallized cements. Operating conditions were 340 mA
and 18.7 kV.
Fluid Inclusions
Final melting temperature (Tm ice) analyses of primary fluid inclusions
were used to determine the salinity of precipitating fluids. Tm ice indicates
depression of the freezing point by salt. We assume that the composition
of the salts in the inclusions are seawatersalt equivalent, and we use the
seawater model of Goldstein and Reynolds (1994, p. 102) to calculate the
mixing ratios for intermediate-salinity inclusions.
Eighty doubly polished thick sections of inclusion-containing cements
were prepared using cold mounting and a low-speed saw to avoid damage
to the fluid inclusions. Samples were studied with cathodoluminescence
microscopy only after fluid-inclusion analysis to avoid alteration of the
original population of fluid inclusions. Detailed fluid-inclusion petrography
documented phase ratios prior to microthermometry. One phase, all-liquid
inclusions in calcite cements, were stretched by heating to 1208C for 12
hours to create vapor bubbles. Microthermometric measurements were per-
formed using a Fluid Inc-modified, U.S.G.S.-design, gas-flow heating and
freezing stage, mounted on a polarizing microscope. Tm ice was measured
with 6 0.18C reproducibility, which translates to about 5% uncertainty in
calculated seawaterfreshwater mixing ratios.
Carbon and Oxygen Isotopes
Stable carbon and oxygen isotopes were used for further analyses of the
origin of diagenetic phases. Eighty-four microsamples of calcite cements
were milled using a manually operated dental drill and a modified, stage-
mounted dental drill fitted with tungsten carbide dental burs. In addition,
automated microsampling of finer-scale cements was conducted using an
IsoCarp microsampler. Despite careful microsampling, some of the car-
bonate-cement samples unavoidably were contaminated by later (post-un-
conformity), microfracture-filling calcite.
Stable isotopes were analyzed in two laboratories: at the Institute of
Nuclear Research of the Hungarian Academy of Science, using a mass
spectrometer specially developed for light isotopes, and at the University
of Iowa, using a Finnigan-MAT 252 IRSM with a Kiel III automated car-
bonate device. Duplicates of carbonate sample splits were used to determine
reproducibility between the two labs. d18O reproducibility is better than
0.3, and d13C reproducibility is better than 0.12. CaCO3 powders were
roasted in vacuo at 3808C for one hour to remove volatile contaminants
and then desiccated. Carbonates were reacted with two drops of anhydrous
phosphoric acid at 758C at the Iowa lab, and 3 ml of anhydrous phosphoric
acid at 258C at the Hungarian Academy lab. Samples were analyzed using
an international KH2 (PDB) standard and NIST powdered carbonate stan-
dards (NBS-18, 19, 20). Analytical precision (1s) on these standards is
better than 0.1 for both d18O and d13C at the Iowa lab and better than
0.3 for both d18O and d13C at the Hungarian Academy lab. Results are
reported relative to V-PDB (Table 1).
OBSERVATIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS
A schematic diagram (Fig. 5) of the paragenetic sequence provides a
framework for the following presentation of petrographic data. On the basis
of superposition and crosscutting relationships from the field and in the
laboratory, we identified a sequence of twenty-one diagenetic features (1
to 21 described below) from the deposition of the Aptian sediments to the
deposition of the marine Cenomanian sediment overlying the unconformity.
The twenty-one features are described below in the order in which they
formed. Petrographic, fluid-inclusion, and stable-isotope data (Figs. 6, 7;
Table 1) are described for each diagenetic salinity cycle. Discussion and
interpretation follow descriptions for each cycle. Interpretation of isotopic
data (for nonrecrystallized cements) as low-temperature in these discussions
is based on the pre-Cenomanian timing established from superposition and
crosscutting relationships and the presence of primary all-liquid fluid in-
clusions. Any later, higher-temperature effects are confined to hair-like
fracture fills. Interpretations are summarized in Figure 8.
Diagenetic Salinity Cycle IObservations
Feature 1.Aptian skeletal sediment and micrite envelopes. Deposition,
bioerosion, and micritization of the skeletal fragments of the Aptian back-
reef lagoonal sediment represent the earliest part of the paragenetic se-
quence (Fig. 5). Micrite envelopes developed mostly on foraminifer and
mollusk skeletons. Envelopes are 5 to 25 mm thick, are dully luminescent,
and generally are the only features that preserve the original shape of the
aragonitic skeletal fragments (Fig. 9A).
Feature 2.Moldic pores. Dissolution of aragonitic shells of mollusks
resulted in the development of moldic pores (Fig. 5). Moldic pores are
outlined by micrite envelopes, and are the sites of subsequent internal sed-
imentation (feature 3) and cementation (feature 4; Fig. 9A).
Feature 3.Microsparitic internal sediment in moldic pores (Figs. 5,
9A). The homogeneous microspar is dully luminescent.
Feature 4.Bladed calcite cement in moldic pores (Fig. 5). Bladed
cement crystals are 10 to 50 mm long and coarsen centripetally (Fig. 9A).
These cements are common throughout the exposure of the Aptian unit,
where they completely fill all the moldic pores. Bladed calcite does not
show evidence for gravity-controlled crystal growth. Most is nonlumines-
cent, but some of the latest stages have one or two thin, brightly lumines-
cent growth bands. Fluid inclusions are distributed along growth zones,
evidently of primary origin. Inclusions (0.5 to 2 mm in diameter) contain
a single aqueous phase at room temperature. Tm ice values are 21.7 to
20.68C (Fig. 6); d18O values are 24.72 to 23.51; and d13C values are
25.27 to 20.86 (Table 1; Fig. 7A).
Feature 5.Tabular vuggy and cavernous pores (Fig. 5) and vertically
elongated vugs. The lateral extent of the tabular cavities ranges from deci-
meters to a meter, and they occur at a distinct, bedding-parallel horizon,
about 15 m below the unconformity (Fig. 10A). Above this horizon smaller
vugs, 2 to 10 cm wide and 10 to 20 cm long, and vertically elongated,
occur. Tabular cavities and elongated vugs have scalloped, solution-en-
larged margins (Fig. 10B) and cut biomolds and biomold fills.
Feature 6.Fossiliferous internal sediment in tabular cavities (Fig. 5).
Internal sediment consists of wackestone with dark-brown and gray laminae
 DIAGENETIC SALINITY CYCLES 893

TABLE 1.d18O and d13C values of carbonate cements, Monte Camposauro, Italy. of calcareous silt with fragments of calcite cement, thin-shelled ostracodes,
Data are reported per mil relative to V-PDB. gastropods, and a few small foraminifers (i.e., miliolids; Fig. 9B). Milli-
meter-scale burrows are also abundant.
Sample ID Cement Type Diagenetic Event d18O () d13C ()
1 Bladed calcite Event 4 23.51 20.86
2 Bladed calcite Event 4 23.75 22.94 Diagenetic Salinity Cycle IInterpretations
3 Bladed calcite Event 4 23.76 23.31
4 Bladed calcite Event 4 24.42 22.83 The Aptian marine sediment (feature 1) was deposited and micritized
5 Bladed calcite Event 4 24.65 25.27
6 Bladed calcite Event 4 24.66 24.14 under marine conditions. Because feature 2 was dissolution, and feature 3
7 Bladed calcite Event 4 24.72 24.89 was deposition of nondescript microsparitic internal sediment, the origin
8 Aragonite ray pseudomorph Event 7 21.80 1.19
9 Aragonite ray pseudomorph Event 7 22.26 0.38 of these features must be interpreted in the context of features 1 and 4.
10 Aragonite ray pseudomorph Event 7 22.38 1.22 Morphology and widespread distribution of bladed calcite cement (fea-
11 Aragonite ray pseudomorph Event 7 22.39 0.18
12 Aragonite ray pseudomorph Event 7 22.45 0.30 ture 4) indicate precipitation in a phreatic zone. Preservation of fine lu-
13 Aragonite ray pseudomorph Event 7 22.78 21.34 minescent growth zones suggests that this bladed calcite cement has not
14 Aragonite ray pseudomorph Event 7 22.79 0.01 altered appreciably since precipitation. Tm ice data from bladed calcite
15 Aragonite ray pseudomorph Event 7 22.82 20.23
16 Aragonite ray pseudomorph Event 7 22.91 20.05 cement indicate precipitation in the meteoricmarine mixing zone contain-
17 Aragonite ray pseudomorph Event 7 23.14 22.46 ing 89 to 31% seawater. The stable-isotope data further support a mixing-
18 Aragonite ray pseudomorph Event 7 23.43 21.29
19 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 8 21.31 1.22 zone interpretation for feature 4. The approximately linear covariant dis-
20 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 8 22.05 0.06 tribution of d13C and d18O values of this bladed calcite (feature 4; Fig.
21 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 8 22.36 20.01
22 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 8 22.83 20.45 7A) is attributable to mixing of freshwater and seawater (Lohmann 1988;
23 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 8 22.84 20.29 Banner and Hanson 1990).
24 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 8 23.12 0.39
25 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 8 23.55 20.56
If it is assumed that the molds (feature 2) did not form in marine pore
26 Bladed calcite Event 10 23.17 20.86 waters, then because deposition and micritization of feature 1 occurred in
27 Bladed calcite Event 10 23.46 20.91 a marine environment, and bladed calcite of feature 4 precipitated in a
28 Bladed calcite Event 10 24.11 24.47
29 Bladed calcite Event 10 24.13 24.33 mixing zone (89 to 31% seawater), it makes sense to interpret formation
30 Bladed calcite Event 10 24.28 25.08 of molds and internal sedimentation of features 2 and 3 in a transitional
31 Bladed calcite Event 10 24.34 25.29
32 Bladed calcite Event 10 24.50 25.56 environment, perhaps in a seawater-dominated mixing zone (Bogli 1964;
33 Bladed calcite Event 10 24.59 26.15 Runnells 1969).
34 Bladed calcite Event 10 24.61 24.92
35 Raxiaxial fibrous calcite Event 11 21.12 0.93 The tabular cavernous pores (feature 5) were previously interpreted as
36 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 11 21.52 20.32 water-table caves, likely formed under freshwater phreatic conditions (Car-
37 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 11 22.25 0.72
38 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 11 22.30 1.17
annante et al. 1987; Carannante et al. 1994) 15 m below the unconformity,
39 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 11 22.61 0.02 whereas vertically elongated vugs likely formed in vadose conditions. If
40 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 11 22.84 20.51 the tabular caves formed at the water table and the vertically elongated
41 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 11 22.99 0.23
42 Radiaxial fibrous calcite Event 11 23.13 21.30 vugs formed in the vadose zone, then the transition from the marine en-
43 Bladed-to-equant calcite Event 14 24.49 25.13 vironment of feature 1 to a water table (Fig. 8) 15 m lower for feature 5
44 Bladed-to-equant calcite Event 14 24.98 21.21
45 Bladed-to-equant calcite Event 14 24.98 24.87 can be interpreted as the result of a relative fall in sea level of at least
46 Bladed-to-equant calcite Event 14 25.15 25.93 15 m.
47 Bladed-to-equant calcite Event 14 25.43 27.85
48 Bladed-to-equant calcite Event 14 25.45 28.37
The presence of benthic foraminifers in the internal sediment of feature
49 Bladed calcite Event 16 22.77 0.54 6 indicates a return to marine or modified marine pore waters (Fig. 8). This
50 Bladed calcite Event 16 23.01 20.49 could be interpreted either as a relative rise in sea level of at least 15 m
51 Bladed calcite Event 16 23.02 0.32
52 Bladed calcite Event 16 23.13 0.07 to inundate the unconformity or as lateral transport of marine sediment
53 Bladed calcite Event 16 23.28 21.59 through the cave system without sea-level change.
54 Bladed calcite Event 16 23.30 20.16
55 Bladed calcite Event 16 23.33 0.78
56 Bladed calcite Event 16 23.45 20.74
57 Bladed calcite Event 16 23.50 20.71 Diagenetic Salinity Cycle IIObservations
58 Bladed calcite Event 16 23.66 21.99
59 Bladed calcite Event 16 23.69 21.75 Feature 6.Fossiliferous internal sediment in tabular cavities (Fig. 5)
60 Bladed calcite Event 16 24.15 20.09
61 Radial fibrous calcite Event 17 22.25 1.46
as described above.
62 Radial fibrous calcite Event 17 22.33 1.99 Feature 7.Pseudomorphs of aragonite ray cement (raggioni of Asser-
63 Radial fibrous calcite Event 17 22.66 1.08 eto and Folk 1980; Figs. 5, 10B). Pseudomorphs of these ray crystals occur
64 Radial fibrous calcite Event 17 22.90 2.04
65 Radial fibrous calcite Event 17 22.95 2.15 mostly in the tabular cavities of feature 5 that are 15 m below the uncon-
66 Radial fibrous calcite Event 17 23.01 2.37 formity, but they can also be found just 8 m below the unconformity.
67 Radial fibrous calcite Event 17 23.04 2.25
68 Radial fibrous calcite Event 17 23.05 1.58 Pseudomorphs of the ray cements are elongate features 0.5 to 3 cm long
69 Overgrowth calcite Event 18 22.50 20.07 with ragged or flat terminations normal to growth direction (Fig. 11A). In
70 Overgrowth calcite Event 18 22.62 0.09
71 Overgrowth calcite Event 18 22.81 0.46
cross section most ray crystals are hexagons or distorted hexagons as a
72 Overgrowth calcite Event 18 23.19 20.64 result of cyclic twinned crystals (Fig. 11B).
73 Overgrowth calcite Event 18 23.91 21.15 The marginal parts of the pseudomorphic ray crystals consist of mosaics
74 Overgrowth calcite Event 19 23.69 21.83
75 Equant calcite Event 19 23.73 21.65 of loaf-shaped, cloudy, inclusion-rich calcite spar with smooth and wavy
76 Equant calcite Event 19 23.99 21.47 crystal boundaries. In this calcite spar, distribution of solid inclusions pre-
77 Equant calcite Event 19 24.76 24.76
78 Equant calcite Event 19 24.75 24.76 serves ghosts of flat terminations normal to growth direction (Fig. 11C).
79 Equant calcite Event 19 24.41 22.53 Inclusion-rich spar is nonluminescent and dully luminescent with abundant
80 Equant calcite Event 19 24.65 22.97
81 Equant calcite Event 19 24.93 21.12 irregularly shaped bright luminescent areas (Fig. 11D). The cores of the
82 Equant calcite Event 19 25.56 20.80 pseudomorphic ray crystals are composed of mold-filling equant calcite
83 Equant calcite Event 19 25.74 23.22
84 Equant calcite Event 19 26.15 24.29
cement, which exhibits centripetal coarsening. In cathodoluminescence il-
lumination, equant calcite cement has bright orange and dull concentric
894 A.E. CSOMA ET AL.
FIG. 5.Composite sketch illustrating the sequence of diagenetic features determined from crosscutting and superpositional relationships. The first feature identified (#1)
is the Aptian sediment and micrite envelops, and the last feature (#22) is Cenomanian sediment. Features are elaborated in text.
FIG. 6.Histogram of final melting temperatures of ice (Tm) from primary, all-
liquid fluid inclusions in calcite cements after they had been stretched in the labo-
ratory to generate vapor bubbles. Percent of seawater involved in seawaterfresh-
water mixing is calculated using the seawater salt-equivalent model of Goldstein
and Reynolds (1994). Freshwater is indicated by Tm of 0.08C, whereas 21.98C
indicates normal seawater salinity, 3.5 wt.% seawater salt equivalent.
growth zones (Fig. 11E). Fluid inclusions in the equant calcite cement are
all liquid. They are primary, as indicated by their distribution parallel to
cathodoluminescent growth bands. Tm ice values are 08C (Fig. 6). d18O
values of the inclusion-rich equant spar range between 23.43, and
21.80 and the d13C values range between 22.46 and 1.22 (Table
1). No stable-isotope data were measured from the inclusion free spar.
Feature 8.Radiaxial fibrous calcite cement in tabular cavities (Figs.
5, 10B). These calcites consist of elongate crystals 50 to 200 mm long and
exhibit undulose extinction and concave twin planes in their growth direc-
tion, which is indicative of radiaxial fibrous calcite (Bathurst 1959). Some
form crustose bundles of fibrous calcite crystals between and on the tips
of the raggioni; these are overlain by layers of fibrous calcite cement (Fig.
11B). Radiaxial fibrous calcite is mostly in the tabular cavities 15 m below
the unconformity, but it also can be found just 8 m below the unconformity.
There is no optical continuity between the underlying raggioni and later
radiaxial fibrous calcite cement. Microdolomite inclusions are present in
some of the crystals. Radiaxial fibrous calcite is nonluminescent with ir-
regular, patchy areas of dull luminescence (Fig. 11D). d18O values are
23.55 to 21.31, and d13C values are 21.90 to 1.22 (Table 1; Fig.
7A).
Feature 9.Fossiliferous internal sediment (Figs. 5, 10B). This internal
sediment, found in tabular cavities 15 m below the unconformity, consists
of alternating laminae of brownish wackestone and grayish peloidal lime
mudstone. The bioclasts in this sediment are not as abundant as those in
the sediment of feature 6, but thin-shelled ostracodes, gastropods, and a
few foraminifers are present.
Feature 10.Bladed calcite cement with acute terminations (Figs. 5,
10B). Bladed crystals are 25 to 200 mm long in an isopachous crust that
was found only in the tabular cavities 15 m below the unconformity. Bladed
calcite is nonluminescent with a few brightly luminescent growth bands.
 DIAGENETIC SALINITY CYCLES
FIG. 7.d18O and d13C values for diagenetic features observed. Striped rectangles are estimated values for marine calcite precipitated from Aptian to Cenomanian
seawater (Veizer et al. 1999). A) Cements precipitated within diagenetic salinity cycles I and II. B) Cements precipitated within diagenetic salinity cycles III and IV.
Fluid inclusions in this cement are all-liquid, and are interpreted as being
primary because they are distributed along luminescent growth bands. Tm
ice values are between 21.3 and 20.68C (Fig. 6). d18O values are 24.59
to 23.17 and the d13C values are 26.15 to 20.86 (Table 1; Fig.
7A).
Feature 11.Radiaxial fibrous calcite cement (Fig. 5). This cement
forms layers of isopachous crust in which inclusion-rich and inclusion-poor
zones alternate (Fig. 10B). This cement can be found throughout the ex-
posures of the Aptian limestone in tabular cavities and vertical vugs. Ra-
diaxial fibrous crystals are 100 to 300 mm long. Microdolomite inclusions
are present in some crystals. Radiaxial calcite is nonluminescent but con-
895
tains irregular areas with bright orange and dull luminescence. Although
the petrographic characteristics of this radiaxial calcite are similar to those
of feature 8, its paragenetic position distinguishes one cement generation
from the other. The d18O values range between 23.13 and 21.12,
and the d13C values are 22.77 to 1.17 (Table 1; Fig. 7A).
Diagenetic Salinity Cycle IIInterpretations
Internal sediment of feature 6 contains benthic foraminifers, which sug-
gest marine or modified marine conditions. For the pseudomorphs of ray
cement (feature 7), the overall morphology and relict structures in the
FIG. 8.Summary diagram illustrating the
diagenetic environments (seawater, mixing zone,
freshwater) of each diagenetic feature. Dark dots
represent fluid-inclusion data points and
interpreted diagenetic environments based on
petrography, stable isotopes, and fossiliferous
internal sediments. Fluid-inclusion data points
are plotted assuming a progression of salinity
from the earlier feature to the following feature,
and connected by dotted lines that indicate the
uncertainty in progression (from more saline to
less saline or from less saline to more saline).
Solid lines indicate known progressions
evidenced by superpositional and crosscutting
relationships. Question marks represent features
in unknown diagenetic environments. The
sequence of features is listed in order, from
oldest (feature 1) to youngest (feature 22),
without time scale.
896 A.E. CSOMA ET AL.

FIG. 9.Transmitted-light photomicrographs illustrate different diagenetic features. Scale bar in each photomicrograph is 1 mm. A) Biomolds of dissolved aragonite
bioclasts (feature 2) are filled by microspar internal sediment (feature 3) and bladed to equant calcite cement (feature 4). B) Internal sediment (feature 6) composed of
bioclastic wackestonepackstone. Arrows point to small benthic foraminifers. C) Bladed calcite cement (feature 16) is postdated by radial fibrous calcite (feature 17),
overgrowth calcite (feature 18), and equant calcite (feature 19) cements. D) Solution-enlarged fracture of feature 20 is filled with bioclastic wackestone (feature 21); arrow
points to a benthic foraminifera.

cloudy equant spar (margins of the crystals) suggest neomorphism of a
precursor aragonite cement (e.g., Assereto and Folk 1980; Mazzullo 1980).
Nonluminescent and dully luminescent areas, the lack of concentric, lu-
minescent growth zones, and the distribution of solid inclusions are further
evidence of neomorphism. In contrast, inner parts of aragonite rays are
composed of equant calcite cement with luminescent growth zones and
space-filling fabrics, suggesting that it is a mold-filling cement. The alter-
ation of the aragonite rays to the cloudy and clear calcite spar has to be a
subsequent feature. The luminescent character of the clear spars is similar
to a subsequent feature (feature 19; cf. Figs. 11E, 12C); thus it is assumed
that the precipitation of spars now in the ray pseudomorphs are synchro-
nous with precipitation of feature 19, and will be interpreted with feature
19 (see below).
For the radiaxial fibrous calcite of the fabric of feature 8, irregular patch-
es with dull and bright luminescence and the lack of concentric luminescent
growth zones indicate neomorphism. The presence of microdolomite inclu-
sions points to recrystallization of a precursor cement, with higher mag-
nesium content (Lohmann and Meyers 1977).
The benthic foraminifers in sediments of feature 9 indicate marine or
modified marine conditions and suggest that the unconformity may have
been covered by seawater.
The exact fluid responsible for the precipitation of original aragonite ray
cement (feature 7) and radiaxial fibrous calcite (feature 8) cannot be de-
duced on the basis of crystal morphology. Aragonite and Mg calcite ce-
ments are known from a variety of settings (Pomar et al. 1979; Assereto
and Folk 1980; Kendall 1985; Saller 1986; Kimbell and Humphrey 1994;
Kim and Lee 2003). Thus, the interpretation of the origin of the pseudo-
morphic ray crystals (feature 7) and the radiaxial fibrous calcite (feature 8)
is based on stable isotope compositions and paragenetic position. d13C and
d18O values of the ray and radiaxial fibrous cements are generally more
negative than Cretaceous marine-calcite values reported by Veizer et al.
(1999). Although the most positive oxygen isotope value from the radiaxial
calcite (21.31) falls within the range of the marine-calcite values of
Veizer et al. (1999), the spread in the data suggests that pseudomorphic
ray and radiaxial fibrous cements might have been precipitated from sea-
water and then neomorphosed in fresher fluids, resulting in more negative
d13C and d18O values than the Cretaceous marine-calcite values reported
by Veizer et al. (1999). Marine origins for these cements are further sup-
ported by their paragenetic position sandwiched between marine fossilif-
erous internal sedimentation of features 6 and 9.
Nonluminescent acute bladed calcite of feature 10 preserves concentric
bright luminescent growth bands indicating that at least parts of the crystals
have not recrystallized. Salinity data from fluid inclusions of feature 10
indicate calcite precipitation in a meteoricmarine mixing zone containing
68 to 31% seawater. The d13C and d18O values are more negative than the
marine-calcite values of Veizer et al. (1999), and are consistent with mixing
of freshwater and seawater (Lohmann 1988; Banner and Hanson 1990).
Patchy luminescence and the presence of microdolomite inclusions in
radiaxial calcite of feature 11 indicate it has probably recrystallized from
Mg calcite. Its most positive oxygen isotope values (21.12 and
 DIAGENETIC SALINITY CYCLES 897

FIG. 10.Field photographs illustrating different diagenetic features. Numbers on the photographs represent diagenetic features. A) Intricate system of dissolution- and
fracture-controlled cavities and fillings. Hammer for scale is 30 cm. B) Bedding-parallel tabular caves (feature 5) are filled with fossiliferous internal sediments (features
6, 9, 12), pseudomorphic ray crystal cement (feature 7), radiaxial fibrous calcite cements (feature 8, 11), and acute bladed calcite cement (feature 10). Pencil for scale on
the right is 12 cm. C) Dissolution cavity (13) is filled with red bauxitic sediment (feature 15). Lens cap for scale is 5 cm in diameter.

21.52) are in the range of marine calcites of Veizer et al. (1999), which
suggest precipitation from seawater. The more negative values likely re-
sulted from recrystallization.
On the basis of the diagenetic environments deduced, it is possible to
summarize the relative sea-level history for Diagenetic Salinity Cycle II.
If we conclude that internal sedimentation (feature 6) and aragonite and
radiaxial fibrous calcite cementation (features 7 and 8) formed in a marine
diagenetic environment, then their formation in cavities formed at and
above the water table is evidence for a relative sea-level rise. The transition
from water-table cavities (feature 5; 15 m below the unconformity) to ra-
diaxial fibrous calcite (8 m below the unconformity) represents a relative
rise in sea level of at least 7 m. Mixing-zone cementation of feature 10
could indicate increased meteoric recharge to a subaerially exposed surface
or a relative fall in sea level to expose a surface to meteoric recharge. The
transition from mixing-zone cementation (feature 10) to marine cementa-
tion (feature 11) could have resulted from decreased meteoric recharge or
from a relative rise of sea level (Fig. 8). Distribution of the radiaxial calcite
(feature 11) throughout the Aptian limestone indicates that sea level must
have been above the unconformity.
Diagenetic Salinity Cycle IIIObservations
Feature 11.Radiaxial fibrous calcite cement. As described above (Fig.
5).
Feature 12.Fossiliferous internal sediment (Figs. 5, 9B, 10B) in tab-
ular cavities 15 m below the unconformity. Internal sediments are bioclastic
packstonewackestone containing thin-shelled ostracodes, small foramini-
fers, and small (0.20.5 mm) broken fragments of calcite cement (Fig. 9B).
This sediment fills all remaining void space in tabular cavities (Fig. 10B).
Feature 13.Fractures (510 cm wide) and large (530 cm diameter)
vugs (Figs. 5, 10A, C) that crosscut cements and sediments of features 5,
7, 8, 10, 11, and 12. Fractures and vugs have smooth and scalloped walls.
Vugs are commonly vertically elongate (5 to 50 cm long) and shaped like
898 A.E. CSOMA ET AL.

FIG. 11.Sketch, transmitted-light, and cathodoluminescence photomicrographs illustrating the petrographic characteristics of pseudomorphic aragonite ray (raggioni)
cement (feature 7). A) Sketch of ray crystals (feature 7) with flat or ragged terminations normal to growth direction. Margins of the crystals are composed largely of cloudy
calcite spar, and the cores are composed of mold-filling equant spar. Scale is 1 cm. B) Perpendicular cut of an aragonite crystal shows six-sided, pseudohexagonal
morphology, indicative of cyclic twinned aragonite crystal structure. Ray crystal is postdated by radiaxial fibrous calcite (feature 8). Crossed polars. Scale is 1 mm. C)
Photomicrograph illustrating the internal structure with relicts of solid inclusions in a ray crystal. Note that the inclusion relicts show square terminations normal to growth
direction, indicative of an originally aragonite orthorhombic morphology. Scale is 25 mm. D) Cathodoluminescence photomicrograph illustrating ray crystals that are
composed of neomorphic equant spar with bright patchy luminescent areas. Postdating radiaxial fibrous calcite (feature 8) is nonluminescent with dull luminescent areas.
Scale is 1 mm. E) Cathodoluminescence photomicrograph illustrating equant calcite spars in ray crystal. Calcite spar exhibits bright and dull luminescent growth zones.
This luminescence pattern is very similar to those of feature 19 (Fig. 12C). Scale is 1 mm.

downward-tapering pipes. These vugs occur as much as 28 m below the
unconformity.
Feature 14.Bladed to equant calcite cement in some of the large vugs
of feature 13 (Fig. 5). Bladed to equant calcite consists of large, clear, 200
to 500 mm crystals. The crystals form crusts on the cavity walls and have
some centripetal coarsening. Some of the cement crusts are thicker on the
bottoms (500 mm) of large pores than on the tops (200 to 250 mm) of the
pores, and cement abundance is highly variable among large vugs. This
cement is mostly nonluminescent, but does exhibit two or three dully and
brightly luminescent, concentric growth zones (Fig. 12A). Some of the
crystals contain small, 13 mm fluid inclusions, which define pendant
growth zones. d18O values are 25.45 to 24.45, and d13C values are
27.85 to 21.21 (Table 1; Fig. 7B).
Feature 15.Bauxite pebbles in fractures and in large vugs (Figs. 5,
10C). Abundant angular to subangular fragments of wall rock were depos-
ited along with the bauxite pebbles. Predominance of hematite and goethite,
accompanied by gibbsite and boehmite, classifies these as clasts of vadose
karst bauxite (Carannante et al. 1994; DArgenio and Mindszenty 1995).
Feature 16.Bladed calcite cement in all fractures and large vugs of
feature 13 (Fig. 5). Bladed calcite cement is interlayered with silt-size,
reddish, bauxitic internal sediment (Fig. 9C). Bands within the bladed cal-
cite cement (Fig. 9C) consist of subcrystals (5 to 20 mm), which have
smooth and wavy crystal boundaries. The bladed calcite cement is reddish
and cloudy because of abundant solid inclusions (dominantly silt-sized
boehmite and kaolinite) and small fluid inclusions (1 to 3 mm). Individual
crystals are 50 to 100 mm long and form an isopachous crust in the cavities.
Bladed calcite is generally nonluminescent except for the bands of sub-
crystals, which contain irregular brightly and dully luminescencent patches.
d18O values range from 24.15 to 22.77, and the d13C values range
from 21.99 to 0.78 (Table 1; Fig. 7B).
Feature 17.Radial fibrous calcite cement in all fractures and large
vugs of feature 13 (Fig. 5). Individual radial fibrous calcite crystals have
uniform extinction and are 0.3 to 2.5 mm long (Fig. 9C). Some parts of
the crystals are nonluminescent but contain abundant bright areas, whereas
other parts are uniformly nonluminescent (Figs. 12B, C). Fluid inclusions
are all-liquid, and in nonluminescent parts of crystals are distributed par-
allel to crystal boundaries, indicating their primary origin. Tm ice values
are between 21.7 and 21.38C (Fig. 6). d18O values range from 23.05 to
22.25, and d13C values range from 1.08 to 2.40 (Table 1; Fig. 7A).
Diagenetic Salinity Cycle IIIInterpretations
Radiaxial fibrous calcite (feature 11) precipitated from seawater (see ev-
idence and arguments in diagenetic salinity cycle II). The fossil content of
internal sediment (feature 12) indicates marine or modified marine waters.
The large vugs of feature 13 formed by dissolution, as evidenced by
scalloped margins and truncation of original rock fabric. The vertically
elongate, pipe-like shapes of some of these pores suggest freshwater vadose
 DIAGENETIC SALINITY CYCLES 899

FIG. 12.Cathodoluminescence (AC) and transmitted-light (D) photomicrographs illustrate diagenetic features 14 and 17 to 19. A) Blocky calcite cement (feature 14)
is generally nonluminescent, and it has dull and bright, luminescent growth bands. Scale is 1 mm. B) Radial fibrous calcite (feature 17) contains bright patches (center of
photo) within nonluminescent areas. Arrow points to hair-like bright luminescent fractures, which also cut across the Cenomanian limestone. Scale is 1 mm. C) Radial
fibrous calcite cement (feature 17) is postdated by bright and dull luminescent growth bands of overgrowth cement (feature 18). Overgrowth cement is followed by equant
calcite cement (feature 19), which has dull and bright luminescent growth bands, similar to those of the calcite spar in the centers of ray molds (see Figs. 11D, E). Scale
is 1 mm. D) Calcite cement of feature 19. Cloudy areas within the equant calcite cements contain fluid inclusions. The fluid inclusions are confined to concentric growth
zones observable in cathodoluminescence. These inclusions are interpreted as primary in origin. Triangle points to all-liquid inclusion. Scale is 25 mm.

diagenesis rather than phreatic diagenesis (Esteban and Klappa 1983). The
extent of vugs indicates a water-table position at least 28 m below the
unconformity. In bladed to equant calcite of feature 14, the patchy distri-
bution and greater abundance at the bases of pores implies a gravitational
effect and thus precipitation in the vadose zone, as does the presence of
pendant fluid-inclusion growth zones. The negative and highly variable
d13C values and relatively invariant d18O values are characteristics of a
meteoric calcite line (Meyers and Lohmann 1985; Lohmann 1988). The
very negative d13C (lowest 27.85) probably reflects soil gases (Allan
and Matthews 1982). The variable d13C values are consistent with the
variable degrees of rockwater interaction expected in the vadose zone
(Lohmann 1988).
The transportation of bauxitic clasts (feature 15) 28 m below the uncon-
formity through the throats of fractures and large vugs indicates that con-
tinued vadose diagenesis 28 m below the unconformity. A change from
vadose cementation to vadose sedimentation could have resulted from a
climate change.
Morphology and distribution of bladed calcite (feature 16) and radial
fibrous calcite (feature 17) indicate the reestablishment of a water-saturated
environment following subaerial exposure. Patchy areas of luminescence
in both cements suggest that each has been partially recrystallized. Tm ice
data of the radial fibrous calcite indicate precipitation in a seawater-dom-
inated mixing zone containing 89 to 68% seawater. The stable-isotope val-
ues of this feature are slightly more negative than Albian seawater (Fig.
7B), which is also consistent with a mixing-zone origin. Because the stable-
isotope values of cements of feature 16 are distributed between those of
freshwater cements of feature 14 and seawater-dominated mixing-zone ce-
ments of feature 17, it is reasonable to interpret the bladed calcite cement
(feature 16) as the product of a meteoricmarine mixing zone, albeit in
waters fresher than those that formed feature 17.
In diagenetic salinity cycle III, a change from marine conditions above
the unconformity (features 11 and 12) to freshwater vadose conditions (fea-
tures 13, 14, and 15) 28 m below the unconformity indicates that the water
table had dropped at least 28 m. Because this was likely a coastal area
(Carannante et al. 1988; Carannante et al. 1994), this transition indicates a
relative fall in sea level of at least 28 m. From deposition of feature 15 to
precipitation of feature 17, there was a change from a freshwater vadose
environment, at least 28 m below the unconformity to a seawater-domi-
nated mixing zone up to the unconformity. This transition indicates a rel-
ative sea-level rise of at least 28 m (Fig. 8).
Diagenetic Salinity Cycle IVObservations
Feature 17.Radial fibrous calcite cement as described above (Fig. 5).
Feature 18.Overgrowth calcite cement (Fig. 5). This cement is iso-
pachous (up to 0.2 mm thick) and is in optical continuity with the radial
900 A.E. CSOMA ET AL.
fibrous calcite of feature 17 (Fig. 5, 9C). Crystals are clear and exhibit
uniform extinction. Cathodoluminescence is bright (Fig. 12C) with micron-
scale internal growth zones. All-liquid fluid inclusions are distributed along
luminescent growth zones, indicating a primary origin. Tm ice values are
between 21.3 and 0.08C (Fig. 6). d18O values range from 23.19 to
22.50, and the d13C values range from 21.15 to 0.46 (Table 1; Fig.
7B).
Feature 19.Equant calcite cement (Figs. 5, 9C). In cathodoluminesc-
ence, this equant calcite has dull and moderate concentric growth zonation
(Fig. 12C). The interior zones have patchy luminescence as a result of
reflections from abundant fluid inclusions. This cement occludes the re-
maining pore space in the large vugs (feature 13) and possibly fills molds
in what was void space in the pseudomorphs of aragonite rays (feature 7).
Equant calcite lacks obvious gravity asymmetry. All-liquid fluid inclusions
are distributed along concentric growth zones (Fig. 12D), indicating a pri-
mary origin. Tm ice values range from 20.2 to 0.08C (Fig. 6). Most values
are at 0.08C (Fig. 6). d18O values range from 26.15 to 23.69, and d13C
values are between 24.76 and 0.75 (Table 1; Fig. 7B).
Feature 20.Solution-enlarged fractures that cut across all previous
diagenetic features (Figs. 5, 10A). Fractures are 5 to 10 cm wide and have
smooth and scalloped walls. Shapes of opposite sides of fractures do not
match, indicating that material has been lost from fracture walls. Fractures
could not be traced up to the unconformity, but there is no evidence of this
generation of fracturing or its fillings within the overlying Cenomanian
unit.
Feature 21.Fossiliferous internal sediment in the fractures of feature
20 (Fig. 5). This is a bioclastic wackestone with silt-size fragments of
calcite cement. Bioclasts consist of abundant benthic foraminifers, ostra-
codes, gastropods, and a few echinoderm spines (Fig. 9D). Clasts of this
wackestone are found reworked within the basal bed of the post-unconfor-
mity Cenomanian unit.
Feature 22.Erosion surface covered by Cenomanian sediment. (Figs.
3, 4, 5). This unconformity is a sharp and irregular surface. In contrast to
unconformities of similar age at other nearby locations (Carannante et al.
1987; Carannante et al. 1994) bauxite deposits are absent. The Cenomanian
limestone is a bioclastic grainstone. The presence of clasts of wackestone
of feature 21 within the basal bed indicates that all paragenetic features
that predate feature 22 occurred before deposition of the Cenomanian unit.
Diagenetic Salinity Cycle IVInterpretations
Radial fibrous calcite of feature 17 precipitated in the mixing zone with
68 to 89% seawater (see supporting evidence under the interpretation of
diagenetic salinity cycle III).
The preservation of fine luminescent growth zones in cements of feature
18 suggests that overgrowth cement has not recrystallized. Tm ice data
FIG. 13.Carbonate cements observed at
Monte Camposauro in relation to their
interpreted diagenetic environments. Dashed
rectangles indicate interpreted diagenetic
environments based on petrography and stable
isotopes. Black rectangles represent fluid-
inclusion data (features 4, 7, 10, 17, 18, 19) with
error bars of 6 0.18C. Calcite cement was
precipitated through the entire mixing range of
meteoric and marine waters.
indicate precipitation from fluids ranging from 0 to 68% seawater, with the
majority (7 of 11) indicating fluids # 10% seawater. The isopachous dis-
tribution of the overgrowth cement and the fluid inclusion-data indicate
precipitation in a meteoricmarine mixing zone to freshwater-phreatic set-
ting. Stable-isotope values of feature 18 calcites are slightly more negative
than the isotopic values of earlier, more seawater-dominated, mixing-zone
cements of feature 17. The negative shift in isotopic values is in accord
with the Tm ice data that indicate a meteoric dominance.
Preservation of dull and moderate concentric luminescent growth zones
in cements of feature 19 suggests lack of recrystallization. Cement mor-
phology and distribution suggest precipitation in a phreatic environment.
Tm ice values indicate precipitation in a freshwater-dominated system in
which only 0 to 10% seawater mixed with freshwater. The stable carbon
and oxygen isotope composition of equant calcite (feature 19) is highly
variable, and most of the values are more negative than those of overgrowth
calcite of feature 18. The more negative values suggest an increased con-
tribution of meteoric water and soil-zone CO2 (Allan and Matthews 1982;
Lohmann 1988), which is in accord with the Tm ice data. The transition
from a seawater-dominated system to a freshwater-dominated system be-
tween features 16 to 18 could be due to a relative fall of sea level or from
increased freshwater recharge associated with a climate change.
Scalloped margins and removal of material along the fracture walls of
feature 20 indicate dissolution after fracturing. The fractures are thus so-
lution enlarged. The setting of dissolution is not known; either mixed or
freshwater fluids could have migrated through the fractures and produced
this dissolution.
The benthic foraminifers and echinoderm spines in the internal sediment
of feature 21 indicate deposition in a marine environment in which sea
level was above the unconformity. The transition from meteoric conditions
(feature 19) to marine sedimentation and erosion (features 21 and 22) must
have been the result of a relative rise in sea level (Fig. 8).
DISCUSSION
Characteristics of Diagenetic Salinity Cycles at Monte Camposauro
In the following presentation, we discuss the characteristics of the dia-
genetic features observed in the four diagenetic salinity cycles. For this
discussion, a schematic diagram (Fig. 13) provides a summary of cement
types and their diagenetic environments.
Meteoric, marine, and mixing-zone cementation all occur at Monte Cam-
posauro (Fig. 13). An important contribution of this data set is the descrip-
tion and identification of mixing-zone cements. Several studies on mixing
zones discuss the hydrochemical characteristics of mixed fluids and predict
mainly dolomitization and overall dissolution in mixing zones, and, de-
pending on the mixing ratio or pCO2 of the freshwater end member, cal-
 DIAGENETIC SALINITY CYCLES 901

cium carbonate precipitation (e.g., Runnells 1969; Hanshaw et al. 1971;

Badiozamani 1973; Land 1973; Plummer 1975; Wigley and Plummer 1976;
Smart et al. 1988). A few studies (e.g., Moore 1973; Steinen 1974; Budd
and Land 1990; Kimbell and Humphrey 1994; Frank and Lohmann 1995,
1996) have documented precipitation of calcite and even aragonite in mix-
ing zones. Our data document that radial fibrous, bladed, overgrowth, and
equant calcite precipitated from mixed fluids (Fig. 13), and show that mix-
ing-zone cementation is more common than previously believed.
Morphology and mineralogy of cements are frequently used to determine
the diagenetic environments of precipitates. Classically, acicular forms of
high-Mg calcite and aragonite are interpreted as precipitates from seawater
or hypersaline brines, whereas equant low-Mg calcites are interpreted as
freshwater precipitates. Morphology controls have been considered by
many authors (e.g., Folk 1974; Lahann 1978; Given and Wilkinson 1985)
as the result of Mg:Ca ratio of precipitating fluids, kinetics of surface nu-
cleation, and the rate of supply of carbonate ions. Many studies, however,
have shown that morphology and mineralogy of diagenetic calcium car-
bonate phases are not unequivocal indicators of diagenetic environments,
by illustrating similar morphologies and mineralogies in different diage-
netic environments (e.g., Gonzalez et al. 1992; Kimbell and Humphrey
1994; Melim et al. 1995, 2001). This study further supports this notion by
illustrating that similar cement morphologies and mineralogies can occur
in different diagenetic environments. We have demonstrated that radial fi-
brous, bladed, overgrowth, and equant calcite cement precipitated from
mixed fluids. Equant low-Mg calcite cement precipitated from freshwater-
dominated mixing zones and freshwater. Thus, we believe that morphology
FIG. 14.Relative sea level and elevations needed to generate the four diagenetic
and mineralogy alone cannot be used to decipher the environment of ce- salinity cycles. Diagenetic salinity cycles are labeled as I, II, III, and IV. A) PHILy
ment formation. E 1994 basin-fill simulation program (Bowman et al. 1999) results using the Har-
In this study, identification of mixing-zone cements is based mostly on denbol et al. (1998) eustatic sea-level curve for the Cretaceous time period and
the final melting temperature of ice in fluid inclusions. Where primary various subsidence and uplift rates. Relative sea level indicates the elevation of sea
inclusions are available in carbonate cements, Tm ice gives a direct mea- level relative to the unconformity modeled (0 m). Dark gray shading denotes periods
sure of salinity of the precipitating fluid. Cathodoluminescence petrography of diagenetic salinity cycle development. Only a tectonic uplift between 3.5 and 8
mm/ky could have produced four diagenetic salinity cycles. B) Expanded relative
or SEM-backscattered electron imaging is normally necessary to determine sea level using 3.5 mm/ky uplift rate plotted as elevation of the stratigraphic surface
the timing of entrapment of fluid inclusions. Covariance of stable-isotope relative to the sea-level curve. The lowest relative sea-level position is plotted as
data alone is not particularly useful in identifying mixing-zone cements. A zero elevation. Two relative elevation intervals (dark gray, 8 to 35 m and 42 to 51
second independent data set, data on fluid-inclusion Tm ice, is necessary m) produce four diagenetic salinity cycles within the proper age interval.
to make the mixing-zone interpretation far more robust.
It has been argued that some of the radiaxial calcite recrystallized from
a higher-Mg precursor calcite. According to Sandberg (1983), Hardie
(1996), and Stanley and Hardie (1998), among others, precipitation of cal- using Cretaceous subsidence rates proposed for the Campania platform by
cite would be expected from Cretaceous seawater (calcite sea) because its DArgenio et al. (1999) and DArgenio and Alvarez (1980) and two hy-
chemistry likely deviated from that of modern marine seawater (aragonite pothetical uplift rates. It was found that neither of the published subsidence
sea). This study, as well as those of Ross (1991), Carannante et al. (1995), rates could have produced the subaerial exposure alternating with marine
and others, however, documents aragonite and Mg-rich calcite precipitation conditions necessary along the unconformity to produce diagenetic salinity
from Cretaceous seawater. This suggests that there are details of the calcite- cycles. Uplift rates between 3.5 and 8 mm/ky are needed to produce four
sea global seawater chemistry hypothesis that should still be evaluated fur- such diagenetic salinity cycles along the unconformity (Fig. 14A). Higher
ther. uplift rates also could have produced four diagenetic salinity cycles, but
the age of those cycles would have been inconsistent with the Aptian
Cenomanian age constraints on the unconformity. The 3.5 to 8 mm/ky
Preservation Potential: Paleotopography versus Sea-Level History
uplift interpretation is in agreement with studies proposing Cretaceous up-
At Monte Camposauro, four diagenetic salinity cycles preserve evidence lift in the region (DArgenio and Mindszenty 1991; Mindszenty et al.
for relative sea-level fall and rise. For the AptianCenomanian interval 1995).
represented by the unconformity, the Hardenbol et al. (1998) eustatic curve The modeling also illustrates how paleoelevation along an unconformity
proposed at least seven third order fluctuations with amplitudes of 20 to may affect the formation of diagenetic salinity cycles. Given the 3.5 mm/
50 m during an overall second order rise of about 90 m. If we adopt this ky uplift rate (Fig. 14B) there are two relative elevation intervals that pro-
as a model for the actual sea-level history and assume that higher-order duce four cycles within the proper age interval. If the lowest sea-level
eustatic changes were low in amplitude during the Cretaceous (Grotsch position is defined as the 0 point, then paleoelevations of 28 to 35 m and
1994; Gale et al. 2002), the four diagenetic salinity cycles of Monte Cam- 42 to 51 m record four diagenetic salinity cycles. For these two intervals,
posauro can be evaluated in terms of the Hardenbol et al. (1998) eustatic only one cycle has a common age. Between 0 to 20 and 70 to 80 m only
curve. one diagenetic salinity cycle is produced; between 20 to 22, 37 to 38, 53
The intersection of the eustatic curve with the unconformity was modeled to 54, and 63 to 70 m two salinity cycles are produced; and between 22
using various subsidence and uplift rates in the PHILt E 1994 (Bowman to 28, 35 to 37, 38 to 42, 51 to 53, and 54 to 63 three cycles are produced.
et al. 1999) basin-fill simulation program. Results are shown in Figure 14 For surfaces above 51 m, the cycles produced are not in the proper age
902 A.E. CSOMA ET AL.
interval. This short exercise shows the sensitivity of paleoelevation to for-
mation and timing of diagenetic salinity cycles.
The low amplitudes of Cretaceous third-order and higher-order sea-level
fluctuations normally would yield a relatively low probability of preserving
multiple diagenetic salinity cycles along a single unconformity or within a
thin stratigraphic interval. In contrast, times of higher-amplitude sea-level
fluctuations, such as those in the Pennsylvanian or Pleistocene, are more
likely to preserve multiple diagenetic salinity cycles along a single uncon-
formity or within a thin stratigraphic interval.
Predicting Sequence Stratigraphy from Diagenetic Salinity Cycles
The diagenetic and sea-level history of Monte Camposauro demonstrates
local uplift between the Aptian and Cenomanian depositional episodes. In
this system, one might expect to find progradational deposits in nearby
downdip positions where the locus of sediment generation has shifted in
response to uplift, and if anything, progradation or downstepping geome-
tries would be produced downdip of the platform top. In contrast, many
other carbonate platforms of similar age (e.g., Northwest Atlantic, Texas,
Mid-Pacific seamounts) were subsiding, resulting in aggradational and
backstepping geometries or drowning (Schlager 1981). The link demon-
strated herein between relative sea-level history and diagenesis also sug-
gests that sequence stratigraphy can be useful in prediction of diagenetic
patterns in updip settings at particular paleoelevations.
CONCLUSIONS
(1) The diagenetic study of Cretaceous carbonates of Monte Camposau-
ro, Italy, illustrates that along unconformities with a major hiatus there can
be a diagenetic record reflecting the intersection of sea level with the un-
conformity surface. Relative sea-level falls and rises are recorded as chang-
es from marine, mixing zone, meteoric, and mixing zone to marine envi-
ronments. In the Monte Camposauro example, these repeated events are
preserved as four diagenetic salinity cycles. A complete diagenetic salinity
cycle starts with marine diagenesis or sedimentation followed by mixing-
zone, meteoric, mixing-zone, and marine diagenesis or sedimentation.
(2) Marine and restricted marine conditions resulted in fossiliferous in-
ternal sedimentation and cementation by aragonite ray (raggioni) and Mg-
rich radiaxial fibrous calcite. These local observations contrast those of
global signals predicting calcite precipitation during this time interval.
(3) Subaerial exposure resulted in solution pipes and other dissolution
in the vadose zone, bauxitic internal sedimentation in the vadose and the
phreatic zone, tabular caves formed at the water table, and bladed to equant
calcite cementation in the vadose and equant calcite cementation in the
phreatic zone.
(4) Meteoricmarine mixing-zone conditions resulted in possible grain-
selective moldic dissolution, tabular caves, solution enlargement of frac-
tures, and acute bladed, radial fibrous, and overgrowth calcite cementation.
Cementation in the meteoricmarine mixing zone is more common than
previously believed. Fluid-inclusion and stable-isotope data document cal-
cium carbonate cementation through the full range of meteoricmarine mix-
ing.
(5) Fluid-inclusion Tm ice data have been found the most reliable tool
to identify mixing-zone cements. Morphology, mineralogy, or stable-iso-
tope composition alone is equivocal in interpreting mixing-zone diagenesis.
(6) The development of diagenetic salinity cycles associated with the
unconformity at Monte Camposauro was the result of the interplay between
eustasy and uplift. Applying the Hardenbol et al. (1998) eustatic sea-level
curve for the Cretaceous, an uplift rate of 3.5 to 8 mm/ky is needed to
produce the four diagenetic salinity cycles.
(7) This study demonstrates that formation and timing of diagenetic sa-
linity cycles are extremely sensitive to paleoelevation. Diagenetic salinity
cycles along a single unconformity or a thin stratigraphic interval are more
likely to be preserved during times of higher-amplitude sea-level fluctua-
tions than those of low amplitude.
(8) Diagenetic salinity cycles preserved along unconformities can be
used to interpret relative changes in sea level and can help to predict the
presence of depositional sequences in downdip positions. Conversely,
downdip depositional sequences, tectonic history, and sea-level history can
be used to predict some aspects of diagenetic alteration updip.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Most of this work was performed as part of Csomas doctoral dissertation at the
University of Kansas. Basin fill was modeled using PHILt E 1994 simulation pro-
gram distributed by the Marco Polo Software, Inc. The authors are grateful to S.
Carpenter at the University of Iowa, P.H. Nelson Stable Isotope Laboratory, and to
E. Hertelendi and I. Futo at the Institute of Nuclear Research of the Hungarian
Academy of Science, for help with stable-isotope analyses. We are grateful to Gy.
Lovas and A. Varga at the Eotvos L. University for their help with the X-ray dif-
fraction analyses. G. Carannante and G. Mallarino are thanked for their help in the
field, and B. DArgenio is thanked for his help regarding the geology of the study
area. Paul Enos, David Budd, Maria Mutti, and John Humphrey are thanked for
detailed reviews and constructive comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.
Funding was provided by the Department of Geology at the University of Kansas,
including J.E. Patterson Scholarship, D.A. McGee Scholarship, and fellowships from
Shell Oil and Phillips Petroleum Company. Further funds were provided by the
Applied and Environmental Geology Department at the Eotvos L. University, Bu-
dapest, by MIUR 2000 fund to L. Simone, Department of Earth Sciences, University
of Naples, by the Kansas Geological Foundation, and the American Association of
Petroleum Geologists.
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Received 15 November 2002; accepted 13 May 2004.