Journal of Applied and Environmental Sciences 2010 Vol. , No. . pp.

00-00
Online service provided at www.japenvs.japenvs.com
E-mail: japenvs@yahoo.com

Impacts of rock quarrying on Akwukwuo tributary of the Ivo River in

Ishiagu Ebonyi State, Nigeria

*1
Chima, G.N., 2Nwaugo , V.O. and 1Ezekwe, I.C.
1
Department of Geography/Planning, Abia State University, Uturu, Code ? Nigeria. 2Department of
Environmental Resources Management, Abia State University, Uturu, Code? Nigeria

Received 21 August, 2009; Revised 12 April, 2010; Accepted 23 April, 2010

ABSTRACT

Ivo River is the major source of water supply for the people around Ishiagu in Ebonyi State Nigeria; and its
Akwukwuo stream tributary is used as a channel for mine dewatering effluents. The quality of the stream water was
assessed with the view of determining the effect of industrial effluents on the water quality of the stream. The
water samples were analyzed for physico-chemical parameters and heavy metals. This study discovered that over
34,000 litres of untreated effluents containing to about 2.14 x 108mg/day of dissolved substances and about
121.4mg of heavy metals are discharged into the environment daily. Groundwater abstractions and stream
impoundment have affected the discharge of the stream. The discharge of mine effluents into the stream increased
conductivity above standards for drinking water and guidelines for industrial effluents discharge into rivers.TDS
also increased downstream making the water unsuitable for irrigation purposes. Strict enforcement of environmental
guidelines for the management of effluents in Nigeria and setting up a task force to look into the state of the
environment in mining communities and monitor waste management operations of mining companies is
recommended.

Keywords: Ivo River, rock quarrying, mining effluents, Water quality, Pollution, Nigeria

INTRODUCTION may traverse long distances in days before a

Fresh water resources are coming under intense
stress in developing countries because of rapid
growth in population and industrialization. Water
quality degradation is caused by urbanization,
industrialization, deforestation, mining, agriculture
and energy use and abuse, especially the use of
water bodies as sinks. Industrial and mining wastes
are discharged into water bodies with little or no
regard to the assimilative capacities of the water
bodies. It is erroneously believed that these bodies
of water could serve as a limitless dumping ground
for wastes.
The natural purification of polluted waters in
itself is never fast, while heavily polluted water
*
Corresponding author
: geochima@yaho.com
: + 234 803 492 1065
significant degree of purification is achieved (1,2,3).
Pollution of water bodies is a global issue that has
no respect for national or international boundaries.
The degrees of pollution and natural purification
are measurable physically, biologically and
chemically. The protection of the aquatic life of
any potential receiving water body therefore calls
for constant assessments of the hydraulic and
water quality conditions of receiving water bodies
(4).
In advanced countries, environmental monitoring
agencies are more effective and environmental
laws are strictly followed. General environmental
quality monitoring is compulsory and the monitoring
of the quality of water resources is done on a
regular basis (5-11). As a result, any abnormal
changes in the environmental or water quality
condition can easily be detected and appropriate

1
Vol. Rock quarrying and Ivo River water quality in Ishiagu, Ebonyi, Nigeria.
action taken before the outbreak of epidemics. The
case is quite the opposite in many developing
countries where environmental laws are not in
place and where there are any, are rarely observed
(12).
Mining activities started in the Ishiagu area of
South Eastern Nigeria before 1950. To date, more
than one hundred surface (open cast) mines are
either in active use or have been abandoned.
Activities relating to the over fifty years of large-
scale mining operations in the area including lead-
zinc, barium mining and stone quarrying, are
suspected to have contaminated the regional
aquifer and perennial stream flow in the area, thus
endangering the lives of man and other organisms.
Contamination sources include rock blasting, mine
tailings, heap leach areas, spoil banks, and the
deliberate discharge of mine dewatering effluent
into streams and wetlands.
The sources of water supply in the area are from
surface and ground water as well as from rain
water harvesting. Surface water is tapped through
direct abstraction from the Ivo and Aku streams,
and some contact springs. There are shallow hand
dug wells and hand operated boreholes that tap
the ground water. All these water sources are
inadequate for the people who live in the study
area and are of doubtful potability (13, 14, 15).
Most of them are seasonal and dry up during the
dry season between November and March each
year. This already bad water supply situation is
exacerbated by pollution from mining activities.
Apart from reducing the potability of water
supply sources, rock blasting and the discharge of
untreated effluents containing varying amounts of
heavy metals into streams, wetlands, and soils, has
adverse effect on the environment (16,17,18).
Heavy metals from the rock mining process
accumulate and persist in the environment; and
may build up in the tissues of plants and animals
that depend on them in the food chain (19).
Exposure to increased levels of heavy metal
pollution, especially over extended period of time
can have adverse effects on man. These could
lead to severe damage to the vital organs including,
brain, kidney, the nervous system and even red
blood cells. According to Opuene (20) and Obie-
2
kezie (21), and Chima and Okpe (22) those mostly
at risk even with short term exposure are children
and pregnant women.
This study therefore aims at assessing the impact
of mining on a stream into which effluent from
one of the mining companies operating in the study
area is discharged. Continued discharge of
untreated effluents into the Ivo River system is a
major threat to the delicate ecological balance of
the area and quality of the river which is the main
source of water supply to the inhabitants of the
study area, and this calls for further investigations.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Study area
The study area falls within latitude 5512' N and
5592' N and longitude 7242' N and 7402' E. The
Akwukwuo stream is a small stream with a breadth
of about 5 meters and a length of about 2 kilometers
from its abutment as a contact spring around
Amonye Ishiagu. The Akwukwuo stream flows
South-eastwards and eastwards into the Ivo river
system at Okue Ishiagu. The Akwukwuo stream
flows right through the premises of one of the major
aggregate quarrying companies. It was a perennial
stream until the advent of mining in the study site.
The study area experiences a tropical climate
with rainfall all year round. The rainy season lasts
from April to October. The mean annual rainfall
for the area ranges from 1750-2000mm while that
of temperature ranges from 26.527.5C (23).
Other annual mean climatic figures include: 80kg-
cal/cm2 of solar radiation; up to 1750 hours of
sunshine; 70% for relative humidity and 1450mm
for evapo-transpiration (23).
Sampling Collection
Sampling was done in September 2007. Water
samples were collected twice daily between 5th
and 8th September 2007. Two samples of water
were taken at each sampling point. Samples were
collected with pre-rinsed 1 litre plastic containers
for the analysis of physico-chemical parameters.
Samples for heavy metal analysis were collected
with nitric acid pre-rinsed 1-litre containers and
treated with 2ml nitric acid (assaying 100%, trace
Chima et al. Journal of Applied and Environmental Sciences

metal grade, fisher scientific) prior to storage. This About 2 litres of effluents is pumped from the
was done to stabilize the oxidization states of the mines every 5 seconds amounting to about 34,560
metals. The samples were placed in coolers before litres of effluents per operations day. This means
transferring them to the laboratories. that about over 34,000 litres of untreated effluents
amounting to about 2.14 x 108mg/day (214.1kg/day)
Physico-chemical analysis of dissolved substances (Table 1: 34,560L x
Physico-chemical parameters of samples were 6,195mg/l average daily TDS for rainy and dry
determined using standard methods (24,25,26). seasons) which includes about 121.4mg (0.1214kg)
Measurement for pH, temperature, conductivity, (Table 1- average daily heavy metal loading for
turbidity, and salinity were done in situ, using Horiba dry and rainy season) heavy metals are discharged
water checker (model U-10) after calibrating the into the environment daily.
instrument with the standard Horiba solution. Total
Table 1. Levels of physico-chemical parameters in sampling points
dissolved solids (TDS) was measured with a
Characteristics Sampling
Lovibond cm-21 Tintometer. Total alkalinity, Point of
Upstream Downstream
hardness, calcium, and chloride was determined impact
by titration method while phosphate was pH 6.73 7.63 7.27
Temp. (oC) 27.1 30.0 21.4
determined using the stannous chloride method. Conductivity (S/cm) 226.0 2960 1240
Nitrate measurement was by the brucine method. Turbidity (NTU) 9.0 89 157
Salinity (%) 0 1.4 0.5
Sulphate determination was by the turbidimetric TDS (mg/l) 160.0 3150 870
method, while magnesium concentration was Eh (mg/l) 21.0 -51 -24
Alk (mg/l) 172.0 175 58
determined by the calculation method (26). Heavy Cl-1(mg/l) 8.9 8.9 4.4
metals were determined using Perkin-Elmer and N- NO3 (mg/l) 0.29 0.04 0.52
SO4-2(mg/l) 1.0 27.1 22.1
Analyst 100 Atomic Absorption Spectrophoto- PO4-3(mg/l) 0.33 0.37 0.04
meter (AAS). Ca+2 (mg/l) 26.2 134.7 15.4
Mg+2 (mg/l) 1.9 58.3 54.8
Field sampling was also supplemented by the Fe(mg/l) 3.73 3.98 5.42
interview method. On the spot interview method Mn (mg/l) 0.51 0.21 0.47
Zn (mg/l) 0 0 0
was used to obtain information on the effects of Pb (mg/l) 5E-04 0 5E-04
mining on river flow regime in relation to Cd (mg/l) 0 0.05 0
Hard (mg/l) 73.0 576.0 264.0
impoundments and groundwater dewatering
effects of mining. The enormous abstraction of groundwater from
mining operations has not only negatively affected
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION water wells (lowering groundwater head by about
0.64m) around the neighbourhood of the mines but
The stream in Okue Ishiagu is one of the many has also affected the discharge of the stream. The
streams in the Ivo River Basin. It has been neighbourhood now depend on the company for
narrowed by filling to create more space for mining the supply of domestic water as most of the wells
by the company. The flow of this stream has been are no longer very productive (15).
reduced to almost a rainy season event due to It is not likely that the discharged effluent is
dewatering and mine water supply abstraction affecting the upstream section of the stream
effects and surface water impoundment. because of the distance of about 300 metres of the
Impoundment was carried out to create more upstream sampling position from the point of impact
space for company operations and to enhance run (POI); higher gradient and stream flow in the
off of discharged effluents. The impact of this direction of discharge. The temperature of the
being a damming effect on the stream. Land effluent was 30 oC as compared to 27.1oC for
previously used in the cultivation of swamp rice is downstream and 21.4oC for upstream. The effluent
now swallowed up creating a permanent lake therefore raised the temperature of the stream
which plays host to mosquitoes and other pests. temperature by about 6oC and reduced dissolved

3
Vol. Rock quarrying and Ivo River water quality in Ishiagu, Ebonyi, Nigeria.
oxygen by about 9.0mg/l to 8.1mg/l (27). Water
temperature directly affects the solubility of oxygen
and the presence of geochemical species. The
solubility of oxygen is temperature dependent, being
more soluble in cold water than in warm water.
Water temperature also affects metabolic activity
of bacteria (28).
The temperature of the effluent also exceeds
the USEPA, WAH (warm water aquatic habitat)
standards, which is maximum <25oC (27). In the
case of pH there was a reduction in activity as the
neutral mine effluent raised pH from 6.73 upstream
to 7.27 downstream. This pH falls within the
tolerable limit for most fish.
The most significant environmental impacts of
pH in surface water systems is its effect on the
solubility and thus the bioavailability of other ions.
Industrial effluents contain Fe, Pb, Cr, and Zn, Cd
or other toxic elements and pH affects the toxicity
and speciation of these substances. A drop in pH
causes insoluble substances to become more
soluble and thus available for absorption. For
example 4mg/l of Fe would not present a toxic
effect at a pH of 4.8, but as little as 0.9mg/l of Fe
at a pH of 5.5 can cause the death of most fishes
(27). Furthermore, the complex combination of
toxic substances that are simultaneously present
in effluents may act synergistically and therefore
impose a higher toxicity burden on the ecosystem
than may be predicted in laboratory studies (29).
Conductivity measures the ability of an aqueous
solution to carry an electrical current. This is
directly related to the amount of dissolved solids in
solution. The introduction of mine effluents with
conductivity of 2,960us/cm at POI into the stream
increased conductivity from 226us/cm upstream
to 1,240us/cm downstream far above the WHO
(1993) and EU (1998) standards for drinking water
as cited in Lenntech, (30). The effluents also
exceeds FEPA (31) recommended guidelines for
discharge of industrial effluents into rivers.
TDS, Turbidity and Salinity also increased from
upstream to downstream. TDS increased from
160mg/l upstream to 870mg/l downstream. The
TDS of the effluent at (POI) is in the range of
3,150 mg/l making it brackish water (32). The
RUL(Recommmended Upper Limit) for TDS in
4
irrigation water is 500mg/l (28) thus making the
stream water unsuitable for irrigation purposes
(32). Excess dissolved solids in water causes the
mineral tastes in drinking water, corrosion of
piping and elimination of desirable food plants and
habitat forming plant species and limits use of water
for irrigation and livestock production (27). Turbidity
and salinity increased from 9 NTU and 0%
upstream to 89 NTU and 1.4% downstream
respectively. Turbidity is the degree of clearness
of water or the degree of light penetration of water.
This is a direct effect of the amount of suspended
solids in the water column. The amount of light
that passes through a water body directly affects
photoreaction in that water body and therefore
affects photosynthesis and subsequently the
productivity of that water body. Salinity also
directly affects bioactivity in water bodies as an
increase in saline conditions will ultimately eliminate
biota that are conditioned to exist in fresh water
environments as in the study area.
Redox potential which is an indication of electron
activity and the existence of a contaminant plum
decreased from 21mv upstream to -24mv
downstream. Redox potential at POI is -51mV.
The redox potential being essentially a measure of
the state of electron activity between potentially
interacting ions, is an electrical potential which
affects the availability of oxygen. Well-oxygenated
waters with most cations in their most highly
charged forms (for instance when iron is present
as Fe3+ rather than Fe2+) display high values of Eh
(>100mV) while, waters with low or no dissolved
oxygen whose cations are in their least- charged
forms tends to display very low Eh (<100mV) or
even negative values (33). Decrease in Eh
therefore will create anaerobic conditions which
will truncate aerobic (biochemical activity) and lead
to the suffocation of aquatic organisms.
Hardness also increased from 73 upstream to
264 mg/l downstream making the stream hard
water (32). Hardness at POI is 576mg/l. Hardness
however reduces the toxicity and concentration
of metals. In hard waters some of the metal ions
form insoluble precipitates and drop out of solution
(27). This may explain the reduction in the
concentration of Cl-, PO4-3, Ca+2 and Mn ranged
Chima et al.
from 8.9, 0.33, 26.2, 0.5 (mg/l) upstream to 4.4,
0.04, 15.4, 0.47 (mg/l) downstream.
However Chloride and Calcium fall within
acceptable drinking water standard, while
phosphate and manganese surpass them. There
was also a marked increase in the concentration
of nitrate, sulphate and magnesium, while Lead,
Zinc and Cadmium were below detectable limits.
CONCLUSION
This study showed that the untreated mining
effluents discharged into the Akwukwuo arm of
the Ivo River resulted in serious water quality
problems in the study area. These problems have
manifested in water hardness, high TDS and
conductivity, low redox and exposure to heavy
metals. TDS increased downstream from mining
areas making the water unsuitable for irrigation
purposes. Chloride and Calcium fall within
acceptable drinking water standards, while
phosphate and Manganese surpass these
standards.
Enactment of new laws to guide mining
operations is hereby recommended while a strict
enforcement of environmental guidelines for the
management of effluents in Nigeria must be
adopted. The Ebonyi State Government should set
up a panel or task force to look into the state of
the environment in mining communities and monitor
waste management operations of mining
companies.
REFERENCES
1. Chapman, D. (1992). Water Quality
Assessments; A guide to the use of Biota,
Sediments and Water in Environmental
monitoring, UNESCO/WHO/ENEP.
2. Henry, J.G., Heinke, G.W. (2005). Environ-
mental Science and Engineering. Prentice-
Hall. New Delhi. Pp.421-491.
3. Garg, S.K. (2006).Sewage disposal and air
pollution engineering. Environmental
Engineering. (l l), 18th ed., pp. 228-278.
4. Longe, E.O.and Omole, D.O. (2008). Analysis
5
Journal of Applied and Environmental Sciences
of Pollution Status of River Illo, Ota, Nigeria.
The Environmentalist.
5. Neal, C., and Robson, A.J. (2000). A Summary
of River Water Quality Data Collected Within
the Land-Ocean Interaction Study: Core Data
for Eastern UK Rivers Draining to the North
Sea. Science of the Total Environment. 251/
252, 585-665.
6. United States Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA) (2000). 2000 National Water
Quality Inventory. http://www.epa.gov/
305b/2000report.
7. Robson, A. J., and Neal, C. (1997). A Summary
of Regional Water Quality for Eastern UK
Rivers. Science of the Total Environment
194 &195, 15-39.
8. United States Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA) (1996). Environmental Indicators
of Water Quality in the United States. EPA
841- R-96-002.
9. United States Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA) (1995). National Water Quality
Inventory 1994 Report to Congress. EPA
841- R-95-005, Washington DC.
10. United States Geological Survey (USGS)
(1995). Water Use in the United States. U.S.
Geological Survey. http://water.usgs.gov/
watuse
11. United States Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) (1991). 1991 Toxic
Release Inventories Public Data Release.
EPA-745-R-93-003 Washington
12. Fakayode, S.O. (2005). Impact assessment
of industrial effluent on water quality of the
receiving Alaro River in Ibadan, Nigeria.
Ajeam-Ragee 10:1-13.
13. Awalla, C.O., Ezeigbo H.I. (2002). An
Appraisal of Water Quality In The Uburu-
Okposi Area, Ebonyi State, South Eastern
Nigeria. J. Nig. Assoc. Hydrogeol. 13:33-
39.
14. Chima, G.N., Ijioma, M.A., Ezekwe, I.C. And
Nwaugo, V.O. (2009). Assessing Historical
changes in Heavy metals in the sediments of
the River Basin, South eastern Nigeria: Using
Regional Markers and multivariate statistics.
World J. Biotechnol. 10(1):1537-1548.
Vol. Rock quarrying and Ivo River water quality in Ishiagu, Ebonyi, Nigeria.
15. Ezekwe, I.C. (2009). Impact of mining
water resources in the Ishiagu area of
South eastern Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D
thesis, Dept. Of Geography/Planning, Abia
State University, Uturu, Nigeria.
16. Norberg, A. and Persson, H. (1984).
Acummulation of heavy metal ions by
Zoogloea ramigera. Biotechnol. Bioeng.
26:239-246.
17. Nakajima, A. and Sakaguchi, T. (1986).
Selective accumulation of heavy metals by
microorganisms. Appl. Microbiol.
Bactechnol. 24:59-64.
18. Malone, C.R. (1989).The Yucca Mountain
Project; storage problems of radioactive
waste: Environ. Sci. Technol. 23:1452-
Provide last page!
19. Montgomery, C.W. (2007). Environmental
Geology, updated 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill,
worldwide.
19. Opuene, K. (2005). Water Quality, Levels
and Impact of Heavy Metals and Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrcarbons (PAHs) in the Taylor
Creek Aquatic Ecosystem, Bayelsa State.
Unpublished PhD Thesis, Department of
Chemistry, UNN. Kindly correct also in
text the repeated references 19 2x,
please!!!
20. Obiekezie, S.O. (2005). Effects of mining
activities on physiochemical and
bacteriological qualities of water and soil in
Ishiagu area of Ebonyi State, Nigeria,
unpublished PhD Thesis, ABSU, Nigeria.
21. Chima, G.N. and Okpe, V. C. (2008). Water
supply problems in Nigeria: Implication on
women and children. The Journal on
Environment. 6(1): 62 74.
22. Imo State Ministry of Works and Transport
(1984). Atlas of Imo State Nigeria. C & G
Company, Italy.
Kindly update your references. This 2010. The most recent ref is 2008, please.
23. Rainwater, F. H., and Thatcher, L. L. (1960).
Methods for collection and analysis of water
samples. US Geological Survey Water Supply
Paper, 1454.
24. Brown, E., Skougslad, M.W., and Fishman,
Fishman, M. J. (1970). Methods for collecion
and analysis of water samples for dissolved
minerals and gases. US Geological Survey,
Techniques for water resources
investigations, Book 5, Chapter A1.
25. APHA (1985). Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater,
16 th -19th Ed. APHA-AWWA-WPCF,
Washington Dc.
26. Kentucky River Authority (KRA) (2000).
Water Quality Parameters, Kentucky River
Basin Report, Prepared August, 2000. http:/
/www.uky.edu/WaterResources/Watershed/
KRB_AR/krww_parameters.htm
27. Canadian Drinking Water Quality, (CDWQ).
Water Quality Summary Table. (2005).
www.hc-sc.gc.ca
28. Otokunefor, T.V. and Obiukwu, C. (2005).
Impact of refinery on the physicochemical
properties of a water body in the Niger Delta.
Applied Ecology and Environmental Research
3(1): 61-72.
29. Lenntech (2004). Comparative Table of WHO
and EU Standards. Lenntech Water
Treatment and Air Purification Holding B.V.
Delft. The Netherlands.
30. Federal Environmental Protection Agency
(FEPA) (1983). Effluents Limit for Discharge
into Surface Water. Nigerian Environmental
Protection Agency.
31. Todd, D.K. (1980). Groundwater Hydrology.
John Wiley and Sons. Canada.
32. Young, P.L. (2007). Groundwater in the
environment. An Introduction. Blackwell
Publishers, Austrialia.