Food Bioprocess Technol
DOI 10.1007/s11947-016-1825-8
ORIGINAL PAPER
Processing of Parboiled Wheat Noodles Fortified with Pulsed
Ultrasound Pomegranate (Punica granatum L. var. Malas) Peel
Extract
Milad Kazemi 1 & Roselina Karim 1 & Hamed Mirhosseini 1 & Azizah Abdul Hamid 2 &
Sahar Tamnak 1
Received: 7 January 2016 / Accepted: 2 November 2016
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016
Abstract The main objective of this study was to im-
prove the antioxidant properties of parboiled wheat noo-
dles (salted and yellow alkaline noodles) by adding dif-
ferent concentrations of pomegranate peel extract (PPE)
into the noodle formulations (0, 0.75, and 1.50%) in
order to produce the acceptable new product. The total
phenolic contents and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) radical scavenging activity varied from 4.07 to
8.61 mg GAE/g and from 23.20 to 95.16%, respectively.
The white salted noodle fortified with 1.50% PPE had
the highest antioxidant activity among all prepared noo-
dles. The fortified noodles showed significant (p 0.05)
differences in terms of color and textural properties as
compared to the control noodle. The fortified white
salted noodles had a light brown color with a soft tex-
ture, whereas the fortified yellow alkaline noodles were
substantially darker and harder than the white salted noo-
dles. The fortified white noodles had a shorter optimum
cooking time than the yellow noodles. The addition of
PPE to the formulation of both noodles led to a reduction
of pH. The current study revealed that the fortified noo-
dles had more homogeneous and compact microstructure
than the control noodle. There was no significant differ-
ence (p > 0.05) between the overall acceptability of both
fortified noodles.
* Roselina Karim
rosaz@upm.edu.my
1
Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and
Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
2
Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and
Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
Keywords Fortification . Pomegranate peel extract . Yellow
alkaline noodle . White salted noodle . Phenolic compounds .
Antioxidant activity
Introduction
In the last decade, an upward trend has been observed in
demand for the natural, healthy, and nutraceutical products
because consumers are more conscious about their body
health (Siro et al. 2008). It has been reported that fruits and
vegetables have many beneficial health effects on prevention
of disease due to their bioactive compounds (Rajarathnam
et al. 2015). It has also been proven that the consumption of
a suitable amount of antioxidants provides many benefits for
human health either via electron capture or reducing free rad-
icals (Scalbert et al. 2005). Furthermore, the use of natural
antioxidants in the food industry is highly preferred by the
consumers over the synthetic ones, because they are more
economical and safer than synthetic antioxidants (Pokorn
1991). Fortification of food products with different plant-
based functional compounds affects the texture and sensory
attributes of foods. Therefore, the addition of these ingredients
to the food formulation should be done in a way which
makes the lowest effect on the consumers preference
(Lavelli et al. 2015).
Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) peel comprises about
40 to 50% of the total fruit weight (Moorthy et al. 2015). It is
considered as the waste of the fruit industry even though it
contains higher antioxidant activity compared to the edible
portion (Li et al. 2006). The pomegranate peel is rich in phe-
nolic compounds that possess many functional properties such
as antioxidant, antitumor, antidiabetic, and cardiovascular
health effects (Viuda-Martos et al. 2010). It was hypothesized
that there is a possibility to fortify the parboiled noodles with

the natural antioxidants of pomegranate peel. In the last de-
cade, the application of pomegranate peel extract (PPE) has
attracted the attention of food researchers (Akhtar et al. 2015).
It has been reported that PPE has the ability to improve
chicken products shelf life and antioxidant activity during
chilled storage (Kanatt et al. 2010). PPE can enhance the an-
tioxidant properties of chicken and meat patties (Naveena
et al. 2008; Devatkal et al. 2010). Recently, PPE has also been
found useful for increasing the antioxidant level in ice cream
(am et al. 2014).
The application of new extraction techniques such as pulsed
ultrasound-assisted extraction (PUAE) for extraction of poly-
phenol compounds has recently gained a great interest among
researchers and manufacturers. It is also considered as an en-
vironmentally friendly technique due to the decrease of solvent
usage (Awad et al. 2012). PUAE involves specific intervals
among the generated ultrasonic waves during ultrasound pro-
cessing. This results in a shorter extraction time, resulting in a
lower energy consumption and lower heat generation in com-
parison with the continuous ultrasound-assisted extraction
(CUAE). The lower heat generation enhances the extraction
efficiency of bioactive compounds such as phenolics, which
are sensitive to thermal processing (Awad et al. 2012).
Noodles have become progressively popular around the
world, mainly because of their low cost, ease of preparation,
variety, versatility, enjoyable flavor, and the low cooking tem-
perature (Fu 2008; Han et al. 2013). Moreover, noodle prod-
ucts were ranked as the worlds second largest food industry,
next only to bread (Heo et al. 2013). More than 40% of the
total wheat flour in Asia is used for making noodles (Chang
and Wu 2008). The global consumption of instant noodles
increased around 13.368 billion packets from 2009 to 2013.
Approximately, 105.59 billion packets (bags and cups) of in-
stant noodles were sold in the world market from 2013 to 2014
(WINA 2014). Yellow alkaline noodle (YAN) and white
salted noodle (WSN) are two major types of Asian noodles
which are made from simple raw materials including wheat
flour, water, and salt (Inglett et al. 2005). The incorporation of
alkaline salt into the YAN formulation not only brings the pH
values to a range of about 9 to 11 but also has an impact on the
flavor and color of the noodle. In contrast, WSN is produced
by using flour, water, and sodium chloride without addition of
any alkaline salt (Fu 2008; Hatcher 2001). It was hypothesized
that this might affect the properties of both noodles after for-
tification with PPE.
In most cases, noodles are considered as suitable foods
providing energy; however, they are not of those healthy food
products which can provide several functional properties for
the consumers (Choo and Aziz 2010). Therefore, the fortifica-
tion of such products with healthy compounds like natural
antioxidants can induce more desirable healthy features for
noodle lovers (Li et al. 2012). The main goal of this study
was to process new parboiled wheat noodles fortified with
Food Bioprocess Technol
PPE from a PUAE. Besides, the antioxidant activity of PPE
can be still stable after pH and thermal stresses during process-
ing and cooking of the noodles indicating that it might have the
potential to be stable after improving other food products such
as pasta, cheese, milk, and dairy products. To the best of our
knowledge, there is no published report investigating the effects
of PPE on physicochemical properties, texture, antioxidant ac-
tivity, microstructure, and sensory attributes of YAN and WSN.
Materials and Methods
Chemicals and Materials
Wheat flour (PEN M brand) which is suitable for making fresh
wet noodles (10.66% protein) was purchased from Aik Seng
Edar (M) Sdn. Bhd. in Cheras 56000, Kuala Lumpur. Ripened
pomegranates (P. granatum L. var. Malas) were provided from
the Agricultural Science and Natural Resources Center
(Isfahan, Iran). The stage of maturity for the collected fruits
was ready to be used by the juice industry. All chemicals and
solvents including 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH),
FolinCiocalteaus phenol reagent, gallic acid, ethanol, and
methanol were purchased from Fisher Scientific
(Leicestershire, UK). The food grade sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3), potassium carbonate (K2CO3), and sodium chlo-
ride (NaCl) were supplied by Meilun Food Chemical Sdn.
Bhd. (Selangor, Malaysia).
Pulsed Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Pomegranate
Peel
PUAE of pomegranate peel was performed according to the
method described by Kazemi et al. (2016). The pomegranate
fruits (P. granatum L. var. Malas) were rinsed with running tap
water, and then the peels were manually removed from the
fleshy white mesocarp and other adhering materials. The peels
were air-dried after 7 days during autumn (20 2 C). The
dried peels were milled using a grinder (Panasonic, MX-798S,
Selangor, Malaysia) and then sieved through a sieve having an
opening of 180 m to obtain a fine peel powder. Finally, the
peel powder was put in the moisture proof bottles and stored
in a freezer at 20 2 C. Pomegranate peel powder (10 g)
was mixed in 100 ml ethanol (70%) as a food grade solvent.
Then, the extraction was done by using an ultrasound
LABSONIC P (Gottingen, Germany) at a constant frequen-
cy of 24 kHz. The ultrasound processor was attached to a
sonotrode (probe) with the area of 1.53 cm2 with a maximum
output of 105 W/cm2. The intensity level of sonication can be
set between 20 and 100% of the nominal power (105 W/cm2).
Moreover, the duty cycle can be set between 10 and 100%.
Duty cycle is defined as the proportion of the pulse duration
period divided by the cycle time (expressed in percentage).
Food Bioprocess Technol
Cycle time equals to the sum of pulse duration and pulse
interval periods. The pulse duration and pulse interval refer
to the Bon^ and Boff^ times of the ultrasound processor, re-
spectively. PUAE was performed for 10 min at 50% duty
cycle and intensity level of 105 W/cm2 . According to
Kazemi et al. (2016), the applied extraction condition led to
the highest antioxidant activity of PPE. The collected extract
Fig. 1. Fortification of parboiled noodles with pomegranate peel extract
(PPE): a pulsed ultrasound-assisted extraction of pomegranate peel
extract; b processing of fortified noodles. PUAE, PPE, WSN, and YAN
was concentrated by a rotary evaporator (N-1001S-W; Eyela,
Tokyo, Japan) to remove ethanol from the extract at 40 C.
Then, the sample was put in a freezer at 86 C for 1 day. The
frozen sample was lyophilized using a freeze dryer (Labconco
FreeZone 18, Model 77550, MO, USA) to remove water and
achieve PPE powder. Finally, the extract powder was stored in
a freezer (20 C) for further processing (Fig. 1a).
refer to the pulsed ultrasound-assisted extraction, pomegranate peel
extract, white salted noodle, and yellow alkaline noodle, respectively
 Food Bioprocess Technol

Processing of Parboiled Noodles
The fortified noodles were prepared according to Rosyid et al.
(2011). The YAN consisted of 100 g wheat flour, 34 ml dis-
tilled water, 1 g sodium chloride, 0.6 g sodium carbonate, and
0.4 g potassium carbonate. These salts were dissolved in dis-
tilled water (17 ml) to make an alkaline salt solution. Then, the
flour was mixed using a heavy-duty KitchenAid mixer
(KitchenAid Inc., St. Joseph, MI, USA) for 1 min before
adding the alkaline salt solution. In this study, the amount of
PPE added to the noodle formulation were 0, 0.75, and 1.50%
of the total weight of prepared noodles. Therefore, different
amounts of PPE were dissolved in the remaining distilled
water (17 ml) for the production of PPE-fortified YAN
(Table 1). These concentrations of PPE were chosen based
on the preliminary trials. When PPE concentrations were low-
er than 0.75%, the antioxidant activity of the noodles did not
increase significantly (p > 0.05) as compared to the control
noodles. The results also showed that the addition of higher
PPE (>1.5%) to the noodle formulation did not significantly
(p > 0.05) increase the antioxidant activity as compared to
1.5% value-added noodles. Besides, the results showed that
the addition of higher PPE concentration (>1.5%) to the noo-
dle formulations had some negative effects on the taste and
color of noodles. Noodles which contained higher concentra-
tion of PPE (>1.5%) had a very undesirable dark color as well
as an unpleasant bitter taste. Therefore, the incorporation of
higher PPE amounts into the formulation of noodles is not
economic, and also it might have negative effects on the sen-
sory properties of the noodles. The PPE and alkaline solutions
were mixed with flour for 4 min at speed 2. Then, the crumbly
mixture was compressed by using a compressor to form a firm
mass of dough. The prepared dough was then passed through
a noodle machine (MT Knead & Press MT25B, Guangzhou,
China) for six times with a gradual reduction in the roller gap
size to obtain the dough sheets. Immediately after sheeting,
the dough was cut into noodle strands by using a cutting roll.
Then, the noodle strands were pre-cooked in boiling water
(noodle to water ratio, 1:10 w/w) for 50 s. Thereafter, the
noodle strands were rinsed with running tap water and then
drained to remove excess water. After that, they were mixed
with 3 ml vegetable oil (palm oil) to reduce the stickiness of
the noodle strands. Finally, the products were packed in poly-
ethylene bags and stored in the freezer at 20 C before further
analysis (Fig. 1b). In this study, WSN was prepared using the
same procedure. However, it did not contain any alkaline salt
(Table 1).
pH Measurement
The pH of parboiled noodles was measured by means of an
electrode attached to a digital pH meter (model MP220,
Mettler-Toledo, Greifensee, Switzerland). The experiment
was carried out based on the method used by Li et al.
(2011). Each noodle (10 g) was homogenized with 90 ml dis-
tilled water using ULTRA-TURRAX T25 digital homoge-
nizer (IKA-Werke GmbH & Co. KG, Staufen, Germany) for
5 min. The electrode was standardized using different buffer
solutions (i.e., pH, 4, 7, and 9). The determination was per-
formed in triplicate for each noodle.
Extraction of Antioxidant from Parboiled Noodles
The antioxidants were extracted from WSN and YAN
according to the method described by Choo and Aziz
(2010) with minor modification. One hundred grams of each
noodle was added to 1 l boiling water and cooked for its
optimum cooking time. Then, the boiling water was drained
out, and the noodles were cooled by running tap water
(25 1 C) for 1 min. The drained noodles were mixed
and homogenized with 200 ml of methanol. The mixture
was stirred by a magnetic stirrer (Heidolph, MR 3001 K,
Heidolph Instruments GmbH & Co. KG, Schwabach,
Germany) at 300 rpm at room temperature for 60 min.
Then, the mixture was filtrated using Whatman No. 1 filter
paper, followed by centrifugation (Sigma 3-18K, Sartorius,

Table 1 The chemical

composition of different Noodle type Ingredients (g)
formulated noodles
Wheat Water Sodium Sodium Potassium PPE
flour chloride carbonate carbonate

Control WSN 100.00 34.00 1.00

WSN + 0.75% 100.00 34.00 1.00 1.02
PPE
WSN + 1.5% PPE 100.00 34.00 1.00 2.04
Control YAN 100.00 34.00 1.00 0.60 0.40
YAN + 0.75% 100.00 34.00 1.00 0.60 0.40 1.02
PPE
YAN + 1.5% PPE 100.00 34.00 1.00 0.60 0.40 2.04

WSN white salted noodle, YAN yellow alkaline noodle, PPE pomegranate peel extract
Food Bioprocess Technol
Gettingen, Germany) at 3000g for 10 min. The supernatant
was re-filtered by Whatman No. 1 filter paper. After that, the
solvent was evaporated from the mixture by a rotary evapo-
rator (N-1001S-W; Eyela, Tokyo, Japan) at 40 C. Then,
20 ml of distilled water was added to each concentrated
noodle extract and the mixture was put in a freezer at
86 C to prevent any microbial activity and undesirable
chemical reactions. The frozen sample was lyophilized using
a freeze dryer (Labconco FreeZone 18, Model 77550, MO,
USA) to obtain PPE powder. Finally, the powder was stored
at 20 C until further use. Table 2 shows the chemical
composition of pomegranate peel extract.
Determination of Antioxidant Properties
DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity
The free radical scavenging activity of the noodle extract was
determined according to the method proposed by
Prabhasankar et al. (2009). Briefly, 2.0 ml DPPH solution
(0.08 mM in methanol) was added to the test tube containing
2.0 ml aliquot of noodle extract (10 mg/ml). The mixture was
shaken using a vortex for 30 s and kept at room temperature
for 30 min in darkness. The absorbancy of all sample solutions
was measured at 517 nm by a spectrophotometer (Shimadzu
UV-1650 PC, Tokyo, Japan). Three replications were made
for each noodle. The results were expressed as the inhibition
percentage of DPPH radical (% inhibition DPPH ) based on
the following equation:


AbsDPPH AbsSample
%Inhibition DPPH  100 1
AbsDPPH
where AbsDPPH is the absorbance of DPPH solution without
the noodle extract, while AbsSample is the absorbance of DPPH
solution with the noodle extract.
Measurement of Total Phenolic Content
The total phenolic compound of the noodle extract was deter-
mined by the method reported by Jayaprakasha and co-
researchers (2001). In this study, 100 mg extract of each
Table 2 Chemical
composition of Composition Content (%)
pomegranate peel extract
Protein (%) 1.91 0.11
Ash (%) 1.39 0.23
Fat (%) 1.71 0.10
Dietary fiber (%) 13.49 0.46
Sugar content (mg 16.61 0.61
glucose/g)
noodle was dissolved in 10 ml water. The mixture (1 ml)
was mixed with 5 ml of tenfold diluted FolinCiocalteu re-
agent and 4 ml sodium carbonate solution (7.5%). After keep-
ing the mixture for 30 min at room temperature (25 1 C),
the absorbancy was measured at 765 nm by a UVvisible
spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV-1650 PC, Tokyo, Japan).
The total phenolic compounds of the noodle extract were de-
termined in triplicate for each sample and expressed as gallic
acid equivalents.
Color Determination
The color of parboiled noodle strands was determined by
means of a HunterLab colorimeter (A60-1012-402 Model,
HunterLab, Reston, VA, USA). Three different color dimen-
sions including L* (luminosity), hue angle (h), and Chroma
(C*) were analyzed. Hue is the attribute of color by which a
color is perceived to be yellow, red, green, blue, orange, pur-
ple, or intermediate between adjacent pairs of these colors,
considered in a closed cycle or ring. Chroma is a color attri-
bute used to determine the degree of color purity (Landschoot
and Mancino 2000). All measurements were performed at
least in triplicate. Numerical values of a* and b* were con-
verted into hue angle (h) and Chroma (C*) by using the
following equations (Balestra et al. 2011):
 . 
h- tan1 b* a* when a > *0 and b* > 0 2
p
C* a*2 b*2 3
Analysis of Cooking Properties
Measurement of Cooking Loss
The cooking loss was determined using a previously pub-
lished method (AACC 2000). Each noodle (25 g) was cooked
in 250 ml boiling water (noodle to water ratio, 1:10 w/w) until
the optimal cooking time was reached. Then, the cooking
water was transferred into a volumetric flask (250 ml) and
the volume was reached to 250 ml using distilled water (to
restore the evaporated water during the boiling process). The
volumetric flask was shaken manually to homogenize the so-
lution. The weight of dry matter was determined in 25 ml
cooking water after drying in an oven at 105 C until reaching
a constant weight. Then, the solid loss content in 25 ml
cooking water was multiplied by a factor of 10 to find the total
grams of solid loss in 250 ml cooking water. The results were
expressed as grams of matter loss per 100 g of noodle (dry
basis). The cooking loss was determined in triplicate for each
noodle.

Determination of Optimal Cooking Time
The optimum cooking time for each noodle was determined
using the American Association of Cereal Chemists Method
16-50 (AACC 2000). The noodle (25 g) was cooked in 300 ml
distilled water in a beaker. Optimum cooking time was eval-
uated by recording the disappearing time of the noodle strand
core. The noodle strands were squeezed between two trans-
parent glass slides at every 15-s interval during cooking. The
experiment was done in triplicate for each noodle.
Firmness Analysis
The firmness of the parboiled noodles was determined using a
texture profile analyzer (TA-XT2, Stable Micro Systems,
UK). The firmness analysis was carried out according to Li
et al. (2012) with minor modification. The distance of the
probe from the heavy plate of a texture analyzer and the com-
pression force were calibrated by using a 5 kg weight before
starting the test. The measurements were performed by plac-
ing a parboiled noodle strand horizontally in the center of the
flat plate. The noodle strand compressed twice to 70% of their
original height by using a P/36R probe. This was done at the
pre-test speed of 4 mm/s, the test speed of 1 mm/s, and the
post-test speed of 5 mm/s with a 5-s gap between each com-
pression. The compression distance of the probe and the trig-
ger force were 10 mm and 25 g, respectively. The reported
results were based on the average of five replications.
Microstructure Analysis
The microstructure of parboiled noodles was screened by a
scanning electron microscope (SEM, LEO 1455VP,
Cambridge, UK) at both high and low magnifications
(2000 and 500). This experiment was done due to the pre-
vious method reported by Han et al. (2012a). In order to con-
duct the fixation process, the strands of noodles were cut into
the length of 3 mm and dipped into 0.1 mol/ml phosphate
buffer (pH 7.4) which contained 2.5% glutaraldehyde. Then,
they were kept for 4 h at 4 C. Samples were then placed in
different volume fractions of ethanol and water (60, 70, 80,
90, 95, and 100%) for 15 min in each solution. Next, noodles
were soaked in tertbutyl alcohol, frozen at 86 C, and dried
using a freeze dryer (Labconco FreeZone 18, 77550, MO,
USA). The surface of freeze-dried samples was sputter-
coated with gold and fixed on the specimen holder. Finally,
the microstructure of the noodles was observed under the mi-
croscope at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV.
Sensory Evaluation
Sensory evaluation was performed using a hedonic test, as
previously described by SantAnna et al. (2014). The sensory
Food Bioprocess Technol
characteristics of the cooked noodles were evaluated by 50
untrained panelists (9 males, 41 females) comprising of stu-
dents and staff from the Faculty of Food Science and
Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). Six different
formulations of noodles including the fortified noodles and
the control samples were prepared for sensory evaluation.
The noodles were boiled in filtered water (noodle to water
ratio, 1:10 w/w) for their optimum cooking time. Then, 30 g
noodles was placed in polyethylene plastic containers, which
were fitted with lids, 15 min before the test. The containers
were labeled using a three-digit random number. All noodles
were randomly presented to each judge with a bowl of chicken
soup (approximately 75 C) as a carrier. Panelists were re-
quested to assess their preferences toward the color, firmness,
stickiness, taste, and overall acceptability of the noodles using
a 9-point hedonic scale with score B9^ = Blike extremely,^
score B5^ = Bneither like nor dislike,^ and score B1^ = Bdislike
extremely.^
Statistical Analysis
In the current study, the effects of noodle type and PPE con-
centration on the antioxidant activity, cooking properties,
physicochemical characteristics, and microstructure of YAN
and WSN were investigated. The effect of PPE addition to the
noodle formulation on the sensory attributes was also evalu-
ated. The data were subjected to two-way and one-way anal-
yses of variance (ANOVA). A confidence level of 95% was
considered for determining the differences among the mean
values by applying Tukeys test. Data analysis was performed
using Minitab version 16 statistical package (Minitab Inc.,
PA, USA).
Results and Discussion
pH Changes
The current study obviously showed the importance and im-
pact of pH of the fresh parboiled noodle on its antioxidant and
physicochemical properties and on its microstructure. As a
result, it was necessary to measure the pH of noodles before
and after fortification. The pH of YAN and WSN fortified with
PPE were significantly (p 0.05) lower than control noodles
(Table 3). The control alkaline noodle containing alkaline salt
showed the highest pH among all samples. In the presence of
PPE, the pH values were considerably decreased from 9.48 to
8.62 and from 6.46 to 5.63 in YAN and WSN, respectively.
The decrease in pH of noodles was due to the inherent pH of
the extract which has a moderately acidic pH (4.6). Ramli
et al. (2009) also indicated that the fortification of yellow
noodle by the addition of banana pulp and peel led to the pH
reduction of the fortified noodle compared with the control
Food Bioprocess Technol

Table 3 pH values and

antioxidant capacity of the Parameters Noodle PPE concentration (%)
cooked noodles (WSN and YAN) type
containing different 0.00 0.75 1.50
concentrations of pomegranate
peel extract (PPE)a pH WSN 6.46 0.04Ab 6.02 0.02Bb 5.63 0.04Cb
YAN 9.48 0.03Aa 9.04 0.03Bb 8.62 0.02Ca
DPPH radical scavenging activity WSN 23.20 0.37Cb 60.37 0.49Ba 95.16 0.12Aa
(%) YAN 27.17 0.37Ca 50.00 0.86Bb 74.93 0.74Ab
TPC (mg GAE/g extract) WSN 4.07 0.12Cb 6.47 0.05Ba 8.61 0.04Aa
YAN 4.30 0.02Ca 5.87 0.02Bb 7.94 0.05Ab

Different letters of each analysis correspond to significant differences by one-way ANOVA. Lowercase letters
indicate significant differences at p 0.05 between the noodle types containing a constant concentration of
pomegranate peel extract. Uppercase letters indicate significant differences at p 0.05 among different concen-
trations of pomegranate peel extract in the same type of noodle
WSN white salted noodle, YAN yellow alkaline noodle, PPE pomegranate peel extract, DPPH 2,2-diphenyl-1-
picrylhydrazyl, TPC total phenolic content
a
Values display the mean values of triplicate determinations SD

sample. Table 4 demonstrates the p value and F ratio obtained
from two-way ANOVA. It can be seen that all single and
interaction effects of independent variables significantly
(p < 0.05) affected the pH values of noodles. According to
Mirhosseini et al. (2008), a higher F ratio refers to the more
significant (p < 0.05) effect of independent variables or factor
on the response. Therefore, the type of noodle had the most
significant (p < 0.05) effect on its pH, while the interaction
effect of PPE concentration and type of noodle indicated the
least significant (p < 0.05) effect on the pH (Table 4).
Effect of PPE on the Antioxidant Activity of the Fortified
Noodles
The DPPH antioxidant activity of the noodles fortified with
1.50% PPE was approximately 2.5 and 4 times higher than the
non-fortified YAN and WSN, respectively (Table 3). In the
current research, the antioxidant potential of YAN was signif-
icantly (p 0.05) higher than that of WSN before adding PPE
(control noodles). This finding could be due to the presence of
alkaline salt in YAN, which separates the flavones in the
wheat flour from the polysaccharides (Hou 2001). This can
increase the accessibility of phenolic compounds of the YAN
extract. The fortification of noodles with different concentra-
tions of PPE (0.75 and 1.50%) resulted in higher antioxidant
activity in WSN compared with YAN. Incorporation of 1.5%
PPE into the formulation of YAN led to the increment in
DPPH radical scavenging activity from 27.17 to 74.93%.
However, the rate of increment in the antioxidant properties
of WSN was higher after adding PPE. DPPH radical scaveng-
ing activity of the control WSN was increased from 23.20 to
95.16% after incorporation of 1.5% PPE into the formulation.
In fact, the alkalinity had a negative effect on the antioxidant
property of polyphenols which are the main bioactive com-
pounds in PPE.
As reported by previous researchers (Ross et al. 2007;
Krca et al. 2007), the degradation and inactivation of bioac-
tive phenolic compounds occur by inducing alkali condition
in the system. It was found that the presence of hydroxyl (OH)
groups in phenolic compounds might be the main driver for
the irreversible degradation of phenolic compounds at alkaline
pH (Friedman and Jrgens 2000). The accurate mechanism of
these chemical transformations is still not known. However, a
possible elucidation is the formation of unstable quinone in-
termediates (Friedman 1997). Quinones are chemically de-
fined as any member of cyclic organic compounds containing
two carbonyl groups. Although all phenolic compounds have
OH groups, the susceptibility of more complex structures are
negligible to the pH alterations (Friedman and Jrgens 2000).
Another plausible reason could be related to the destruction of
anthocyanin as a result of simultaneous effects of cooking
temperature and noodle optimal cooking time. It has been
shown that anthocyanin could be destroyed easily during ther-
mal processing and thus loses its nutritional properties (Patras
et al. 2010). The fortified YAN had a longer optimum cooking
time (4.5 min) than WSN (2.5 min). Consequently, the longer
optimum cooking time could lead to a reduction in antioxidant
capacity of the fortified YANs.
Total phenolic content of the fortified noodles varied from
4.07 to 8.61 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g (Table 3). As
the percentage of PPE concentration was increased, total phe-
nolic contents of YAN and WSN increased from 4.3 to 7.94
and from 4.07 to 8.61, respectively. The phenolic compounds
of PPE were more stable at low pH than high pH. WSN had a
higher total phenolic content than YAN. The total phenolic
content showed a highly significant (p 0.000) correlation
with radical scavenging activity (Pearson correlation = 0.936).
Finally, it can be concluded that the addition of PPE into both
types of noodles positively increased their antioxidant activity.
The results also indicated that PPE concentration had the most
 Food Bioprocess Technol

Table 4 p Value and F ratio of

two independent variables for Response variable Independent variable
different dependent variablesa
X1 X2 X1X2

TPC (mg GAE/100 g extract) p Value 0.000 0.000 0.000

F ratio 5928 131 87
Inhibition of DPPH (%) p Value 0.000 0.000 0.000
F ratio 18,330 4000 1748
Cooking loss (%) p Value 0.000 0.000 0.030
F ratio 38 237 5
Cooking time (min) p Value 0.000 0.000 0.000
F ratio 66 7276 889
pH p Value 0.000 0.000 0.000
F ratio 834 36,891 76
Hue angle p Value 0.000 0.000 0.000
F ratio 4832 8595 2923
Chroma p Value 0.000 0.000 0.000
F ratio 98 30 319
L* p Value 0.000 0.000 0.000
F ratio 607 368 64
Firmness p Value 0.276 0.000 0.009
F ratio 1.4 61.2 7.2

TPC total phenolic content, DPPH 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl

a
X1 and X2 display the single effects of pomegranate peel extract concentration (%) and type of noodle, respec-
tively. X1X2 illustrates the interaction effect of pomegranate peel extract concentration (%) and type of noodle.
Significant at p 0.05

significant (p < 0.05) effect on total phenolic content and
DPPH radical scavenging activity of the noodles. On the other
hand, the interaction effect between noodle type and concen-
tration of PPE had the least significant (p < 0.05) effect on
total phenolic content and DPPH radical scavenging activity
of the noodles (Table 4).
Effect of PPE on the Color of the Fortified Noodles
The results showed that the addition of PPE into the noodles
greatly (p 0.05) affected L*, Chroma, and hue angle values
(Table 5). The colors of freshly prepared WSN and YAN are
whitish cream and bright yellow, respectively (Fig. 2).
Incorporation of 0.75 and 1.5% PPE into the formulation of
WSN significantly (p 0.05) turns its color from whitish
cream to cream and light brown, respectively. It could be
related to the presence of anthocyanin pigments in PPE. On
the other hand, the pale yellow color that was observed in
control YAN was due to a reaction between the available
flavone compounds naturally present in wheat flour and the
alkaline salt which was added during the preparation. In fact,
the flavones in wheat flour detach from the polysaccharides in
the presence of alkaline salt and resulted in a brighter yellow
noodle (Hou 2001). The flavone compounds present in wheat
flour are responsible for the yellowish color of alkaline
noodles, composed of different types of apigenin molecules
depending on the variety of wheat (Asenstorfer et al. 2006).
These phenolic compounds are oxidized by molecular oxygen
to quinones at alkaline pH. Quinones can undergo condensa-
tion reactions with the amino and sulfhydryl groups of wheat
proteins. This may result in the formation of brown color
pigments (melanins) with high molecular weight
(Damodaran and Parkin 2008).
The addition of 0.75 and 1.50% PPE to the formulation of
YAN led to a significant change of color in the sample from
yellow to yellowish brown and brown, respectively. This phe-
nomenon is related to the increment in polyphenol content in
YAN formulation that can intensify the aforementioned oxi-
dation reactions. In addition, the differences in color of YAN
and WSN could be explained by the fact that anthocyanins of
PPE are more stable at the acidic condition (pH ranging from 4
to 6 like WSN) than at the alkali condition (like YAN) (Krca
et al. 2007; Fossen et al. 1998). The degradation of anthocy-
anin at alkaline pH could probably be another reason for the
dramatic color changes of YAN (Fig. 2). By increasing PPE
concentration, the lightness values (L*) of noodles fortified
with PPE negatively diminished compared with the non-
fortified noodles. It was clear that WSN was lighter than
YAN in both fortified and control noodles. The L* values of
WSN were 70.52, 60.94, and 53.30 in the presence of 0, 0.75,
Food Bioprocess Technol

Table 5 Color properties of the

fortified noodles (WSN and Color properties Noodle type PPE concentration (%)
YAN) at different concentrations
of pomegranate peel extract 0.00 0.75 1.50

L* WSN 70.52 0.27Aa 60.94 0.04Ba 53.30 0.40Ca

YAN 68.63 0.70Aa 44.40 0.38Bb 39.29 0.67Cb
Chroma WSN 13.49 0.62Bb 16.82 0.32Aa 17.31 0.54Aa
YAN 21.83 0.43Aa 17.38 0.52Ba 12.00 0.07Cb
Hue angle () WSN 87.40 0.10Ab 85.45 0.28Ba 82.95 0.51Ca
YAN 89.60 0.07Aa 65.00 0.17Bb 58.60 0.48Cb

Values represent the mean values of triplicate determinations SD. Different letters of each analysis correspond to
significant differences by one-way ANOVA. Lowercase letters indicate significant differences (p 0.05) between
the noodle types with a constant concentration of pomegranate peel extract. Uppercase letters indicate significant
differences (p 0.05) among different concentrations of pomegranate peel extract in the same type of noodle
WSN white salted noodle, YAN yellow alkaline noodle, PPE pomegranate peel extract

and 1.50% pomegranate peel extract, respectively. The addi-
tion of PPE contributed to the increment of brown pigment
(dark-colored melanin) content in alkaline pH, which resulted
in a considerable reduction in L* value (Miskelly 1984; Hou
2001). Han et al. (2012b) stated that the lightness (L*) of the
fortified rice noodle was reduced when persimmon juice was
added into the noodle. In this study, type of noodle and its
interaction with PPE concentration had the highest and lowest
significant (p 0.05) effects on the hue angle (h) of noodles,
respectively (Table 4). However, there was a reverse trend for
the Chroma (C*) of noodles. The concentration of PPE and its
interaction with noodle type portrayed the major and minor
efficacies on the L* (luminosity) of noodles, respectively.
Effect of PPE on the Cooking Properties of the Fortified
Noodles
Diffusion of noodle particles into the cooking medium during
cooking is defined as the cooking loss. The results of this
research indicated that WSN had lower cooking loss values
Fig. 2. Color properties of white WSN control
salted noodle (WSN) and yellow
alkaline noodle (YAN) at different
pomegranate peel
extractconcentrations (%).
Control refers to the noodles
without pomegranate peel extract
(PPE)
than YAN in all noodle formulations (Fig. 3a). The pH of the
cooking media for WSNs which were value-added by 0, 0.75,
and 1.5% were 6.71, 6.48, and 6.26, respectively. However,
pH of cooking media after cooking of 0, 0.75, and 1.5% value-
added YANs were 8.08, 7.95, and 7.78, respectively.
Therefore, the higher cooking loss of YAN might be
pertaining to the issue that when the alkaline noodles were
boiled in water, the pH of water increased to about 8. As a
result, the solubility of - and -gliadins increased, thus in-
creasing the cooking loss. Another possible explanation for
these results may be attributed to the addition of alkaline salt
to YAN, which contributed to the increment of cooking loss
partly through leaching of alkaline salt (Rombouts et al.
2014).
The cooking loss of WSN and YAN was significantly
(p 0.05) increased as PPE concentration increased
(Fig. 3a). In fact, wheat flour provides a good structure for
the noodles because it contains glutenin and gliadin that can
form a gluten network in the noodle matrix (Antognelli 1980).
This gluten network can bind the starch granules and reduce
WSN 0.75% WSN 1.50%

YAN control YAN 0.75% YAN 1.50%

 Food Bioprocess Technol

loss of spaghetti and macaroni is expected not to be higher

Fig. 3. Cooking properties of noodles fortified with different
pomegranate peel extract concentrations: a cooking loss; b cooking
time of the noodles. Data shown are means SD. Values labeled with
different small letters for each concentration of pomegranate peel extract
are significantly (p 0.05) different. Values labeled with different capital
letters for each type of noodle are significantly (p 0.05) different. WSN
and YAN refer to the white salted noodle and yellow alkaline noodle,
respectively
solid loss during the cooking process. The increase which was
observed in the cooking loss could be attributed to the incor-
poration of phenolic compounds of PPE, which might disturb
the formation of the gluten network through reacting with the
proteins. Therefore, the addition of PPE to the noodles might
dilute the gluten network in the structure of noodles. As a
result, during cooking of these noodles, small solid particles
(e.g., soluble parts of starch and other soluble non-starch com-
pounds) are released from the noodle surface into the water
and resulted in higher values of cooking loss (Sun-Waterhouse
et al. 2013). The highest cooking loss for WSN and YAN were
5.24 and 6.4%, respectively, when 1.5% PPE was added to the
noodle formulations. According to Hoseney (1994), cooking
than 89%. As reported by Sirichokworrakit et al. (2015), the
addition of rice berry to the noodle formulation up to 40% led
to an increase in the cooking loss from 4.5 to 7.54%.
As shown in Fig. 3b, the cooking time of control WSN and
YAN was 3 and 3.5 min, respectively. The longer optimum
cooking time of control YAN could be related to the presence
of alkaline salt which facilitates the formation of the gluten
network during the cooking processes (Rombouts et al. 2014).
Gluten polymerization resulted in noodles with higher resis-
tance and firmness properties that require longer cooking time.
Through fortification of WSN with PPE, optimum cooking
time decreased to 2.5 min (Fig. 3b). The combination of phe-
nolic compounds with proteins and starches can occur (Sivam
et al. 2013) through mixing of PPE and wheat flour. It was
demonstrated that phenolic acids and tannin compounds
which are present in PPE can be combined with proteins
(gluten) and other polymers such as polysaccharides (starch)
to produce high molecular weight compounds (Damodaran
and Parkin 2008). The production of high molecular weight
compounds may cause a reduction in the degree of protein
cross-linking and hence disrupt the gluten matrix (Han and
Koh 2011). As a consequence, it provides a way for the easier
penetration of water to the noodle core, which ultimately re-
sulted in shorter cooking time. In contrast, the optimum
cooking time of the fortified alkaline noodle increased to
4.5 min. The reason for this issue is unclear; however, inter-
actions among protein, polyphenols, starch, and water might
be the main reason for such long cooking time.
Effect of PPE on the Firmness of the Fortified Noodles
Table 6 shows the firmness of parboiled noodles. The results
showed that the firmness of WSN and YAN was remarkably
influenced by the addition of PPE to the formulation of noo-
dles. In the current study, the firmness of the control YAN (i.e.,
YAN without pomegranate extract) was negligibly higher than
that of WSN. It could be due to the existence of different types
of salt in the formulation of noodles. It has been reported that
the presence of alkaline salt increases the constitution of the

Table 6 Firmness of WSN and

YAN at different concentrations Texture parameters Noodle type PPE concentration (%)
of pomegranate peel extract
0.00 0.75 1.50

Firmness (N) WSN 16.13 0.93Aa 14.21 0.87Bb 13.60 0.82Bb

YAN 16.91 0.81Ba 18.69 0.86Aa 19.35 0.77Aa

The mean value SD represent the mean of five replications. Different letters of each analysis correspond to
significant differences by one-way ANOVA. Lowercase letters indicate significant differences (p 0.05) between
the noodle types with a constant concentration of pomegranate peel extract. Uppercase letters indicate significant
differences (p 0.05) among different concentrations of pomegranate peel extract in the same type of noodle
WSN white salted noodle, YAN yellow alkaline noodle, PPE pomegranate peel extract
Food Bioprocess Technol
a
Control YAN
YAN+0.75% PPE
YAN+1.50% PPE
Fig. 4. Scanning electron micrographs of the parboiled noodles surface:
a magnification of 500; b magnification of 2000. WSN, YAN, and PPE
refer to the white salted noodle, yellow alkaline noodle, and pomegranate
intermolecular disulfide bond that eases the formation of the
gluten network (Rombouts et al. 2014). In fact, the formation
of the gluten network has mainly been related to the develop-
ment of intermolecular disulfide bonds by sulfhydryl-disulfide
exchange reaction and oxidation of sulfhydryl groups of cys-
teine especially during hydrothermal treatment (Lagrain et al.
2008). At alkaline pH, -elimination from cysteine (which is
present in the gliadin structure) can occur, leading to the for-
mation of cysteine. Therefore, new free sulfhydryl groups are
formed which may intensify gluten cross-linking through
mechanisms mentioned above (Rombouts et al. 2010). This
was in agreement with Rombouts et al. (2014), who depicted
that the addition of alkaline salt and sodium chloride to the
noodle formulation resulted in slightly harder noodle than the
noodles containing sodium chloride.
The results showed that the firmness of YAN was signifi-
cantly increased from 16.91 to 18.69 N by increasing PPE
concentration from 0 to 0.75%. It seems probable that the
increase in firmness of YAN in the presence of PPE could
Control WSN
WSN+ 0.75% PPE
WSN+1.50% PPE
peel extract, respectively. Control refers to the noodles without
pomegranate peel extract
be due to the inclusion of alkaline salt in the noodle formula-
tion. It can be inferred that the formation of highly reactive
quinones as a result of polyphenol oxidation in the presence of
alkaline salt (Makkar and Becker 1996; Fossen et al. 1998;
Damodaran and Parkin 2008) may have created the harder
structure through reacting with the proteins and starches.
YAN fortified with 1.5% PPE had a relatively higher firmness
(19.35 N) compared to the YAN which was fortified with
0.75% of PPE (18.69 N). This could be probably due to the
constant concentration of alkaline salt in the formulation of
YAN. This means that, although polyphenol contents in-
creased when the higher concentration of PPE was added into
the noodle, the amount of available alkaline salt was constant.
Therefore, it can be postulated that the formation of quinones
induced by a reaction between the polyphenols and alkaline
salt was restricted. As a result, the rate of increment in the
firmness of YAN decreased when 1.5% PPE was added. The
longer optimum cooking time of fortified YAN than the non-
fortified YAN also confirmed the increase in the firmness of

b
Control YAN
YAN+0.75%PPE
YAN+1.50%PPE
Fig. 4 continued.
YAN after fortification by PPE. There is a strong positive
correlation (p = 0.000, r = 0.884) between cooking time and
firmness of alkaline noodles obtained in this study.
In contrast, the inclusion of PPE into WSN formulation
substantially (p 0.05) decreased the firmness from 16.13 to
13.6 N. After adding PPE, the phenolic compounds could
interact with the gluten network to form complex compounds
which resulted in softer and weaker structures. Moreover, the
interaction between amylose and protein phases can also af-
fect the textural characteristics of cereal products (Ring 1985).
The incorporation of PPE into the noodle formulation may
change the features of the protein matrix and possibly disrupt
the matrix of proteinstarch. The polyphenol compounds can
form linkages with amylose through van der Waals force and
hydrogen bonding. Consequently, the intermolecular connec-
tions of amylose might be weakened by hampering the forma-
tion of junction zone; hence, softer noodles were produced
(Zhu et al. 2009). In agreement with the present finding,
Sun-Waterhouse et al. (2013) also reported that the fortifica-
tion of fettuccine pasta by elderberry juice concentrate de-
creases the firmness of the fresh pasta. It was found that
Food Bioprocess Technol
Control WSN
WSN+0.75% PPE
WSN+0.75%PPE
WSN+1.50%PPE
noodle type and its interaction with PPE had the most and
least substantial (p 0.05) effects on the firmness of noodles,
respectively (Table 4).
Surface Morphology of Noodles Fortified with PPE
Surface observation of WSN and YAN at 500 and 2000
magnifications revealed that the surface morphology of con-
trol YAN and control WSN were very similar (Fig. 4a, b). It
was found that the surface of PPE-fortified noodles was more
homogeneous with less porosity than the control noodles
(Fig. 4a, b). It seems that the starch granules of different sizes
were embedded better in gluten and the PPE matrix in com-
parison with the single protein network in the control noodles.
The formation of polyphenol gels in the presence of water
could be another reason for the homogeneous surface of noo-
dles (Spencer et al. 1990). On the other hand, the microstruc-
ture analysis of the noodles revealed that the degree of density
and homogeneity decreased as the concentration of PPE was
increased from 0.75 to 1.50%. The addition of PPE to the
noodle formulation up to 1.50% led to a decrease in the
Food Bioprocess Technol
Table 7 Sensory acceptability of the fortified noodles by hedonic test
Sensory attributes WSN (%)
0.00 0.75
Color 5.83 1.03AB 5.76 1.16AB
Firmness 6.47 0.95A 6.08 0.90A
Stickiness 6.03 0.95A 6.08 0.97A
Taste 6.20 0.90A 5.70 0.94AB
Overall acceptability 6.45 0.81A 6.02 0.90AB
Values are expressed as means SD (n = 50); mean values with different capital letters within a row are significantly different (p 0.05). The 9-point
hedonic scale with scores 1, 5, and 9 represent extreme dislike, neither like nor dislike, and extreme like, respectively. Values of 0, 0.75, and 1.5 display
the concentration of pomegranate peel extract in the noodle formulation
WSN white salted noodle, YAN yellow alkaline noodle
network homogeneity among protein, starch granules, and
extract of pomegranate peel. Consequently, in comparison
with noodles that contained 0.75% PPE, a less uniform struc-
ture was formed, while it was rather less porous than the non-
fortified noodles. It has been reported that the phenolics pres-
ent in PPE are highly hydrophilic compounds (Quideau et al.
2011). Therefore, the addition of higher PPE concentration to
the noodle formulations might increase the water absorption
competitiveness between polyphenols and wheat components
(e.g., protein and starch). This issue might lead to the forma-
tion of a less uniform gel as depicted by the decrease in ho-
mogeneity of noodles containing 1.50% PPE compared to the
noodle containing 0.75% PPE.
Sensory Evaluation of the Fortified Noodles
The results showed that the color preference of noodles was
significantly (p 0.05) declined by increasing the PPE con-
centration (Table 7). The most and least acceptable colors
were shown by the control YAN and YAN fortified with
1.5% PPE, respectively. In fact, the darker noodles had lower
acceptability than the lighter noodles. The preference of pan-
elists was not significantly (p > 0.05) different in terms of
firmness and stickiness. In terms of taste, there was a signif-
icant difference (p 0.05) between control WSN and control
YAN. The fortification of WSN with PPE resulted in the
insignificant (p > 0.05) reduction in taste preference. In con-
trast, the preference of YAN taste revealed a minor increase.
On a 9-point hedonic scale, the overall acceptability of the
noodles was in the range of 5.72 to 6.45, indicating that these
fortified noodles were in the range of Bneither like nor
dislike^ to Blike moderately.^ The control WSN and YAN
fortified with 0.75% PPE had the highest and lowest overall
acceptability, respectively. In general, incorporation of PPE
into WSN and YAN was satisfactory which may encourage
the food manufacturers to apply this extract for the produc-
tion of functional noodles.
YAN (%)
1.50 0.00* 0.75 1.50
5.14 1.08B 6.70 1.07A 5.31 1.12B 5.24 1.20B
6.04 1.00A 6.24 1.08A 6.18 0.89A 6.11 0.97A
6.29 0.90A 5.96 0.99A 6.09 0.83A 6.36 0.98A
5.60 1.02AB 5.08 1.10B 5.20 0.98AB 5.48 1.00AB
5.82 0.86AB 5.91 1.06AB 5.72 0.93B 6.10 0.88AB
Conclusions
This research revealed that the fortification of YAN and WSN
with 1.5% PPE resulted in the product with the enhanced anti-
oxidant activity. The addition of the low amount (1.5%) of PPE
to the noodle formulation led to a noticeable improvement in its
antioxidant properties. WSN fortified with 1.5% PPE had the
highest antioxidant activity among all prepared noodles. The
current study revealed that the fortified noodles possessed a
darker (more brownish) appearance than the non-fortified prod-
uct. Also, the incorporation of different concentrations of PPE
significantly (p 0.05) affected the cooking loss, cooking time,
and firmness of noodles. It was found that the levels of PPE
applied for the fortification of noodles did not have any signif-
icant effect on the preference of the panelists in terms of firm-
ness, stickiness, taste, and overall acceptability. In this study,
control WSN, WSN with 0.75% PPE, and YAN with 1.5% PPE
were the most acceptable samples among all prepared noodles.
The current study showed that the darkest YAN noodle con-
taining 1.5% PPE might be attractive to health-conscious con-
sumers who are aware of the useful benefits of polyphenols on
human health. It was concluded that the addition of PPE into
WSN and YAN could also induce positive effects on the texture
and sensory attributes of the parboiled noodle. The current
study revealed that PPE can be used as a rich source of phenolic
compounds for the fortification of a new functional food.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial
support of the Food Technology Department of Universiti Putra
Malaysia.
References
AACC (2000). Official methods of the American Association of Cereal
Chemists. Saint Paul: American Association of Cereal Chemists.
Akhtar, S., Ismail, T., Fraternale, D., & Sestili, P. (2015). Pomegranate
peel and peel extracts: chemistry and food features. Food Chemistry,
174, 417425.

Antognelli, C. (1980). The manufacture and applications of pasta as a
food and as a food ingredient: a review. International Journal of
Food Science & Technology, 15(2), 125145.
Asenstorfer, R. E., Wang, Y., & Mares, D. J. (2006). Chemical structure of
flavonoid compounds in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour that
contribute to the yellow colour of Asian alkaline noodles. Journal
of Cereal Science, 43(1), 108119.
Awad, T., Moharram, H., Shaltout, O., Asker, D., & Youssef, M. (2012).
Applications of ultrasound in analysis, processing and quality con-
trol of food: a review. Food Research International, 48(2), 410427.
Balestra, F., Cocci, E., Pinnavaia, G., & Romani, S. (2011). Evaluation of
antioxidant, rheological and sensorial properties of wheat flour
dough and bread containing ginger powder. LWT - Food Science
and Technology, 44(3), 700705.
am, M., yer, N. C., & Erdoan, F. (2014). Pomegranate peel pheno-
lics: microencapsulation, storage stability and potential ingredient
for functional food development. LWT - Food Science and
Technology, 55(1), 117123.
Chang, H. C., & Wu, L. C. (2008). Texture and quality properties of
Chinese fresh egg noodles formulated with green seaweed
(Monostroma nitidum) powder. Journal of Food Science, 73(8),
398404.
Choo, C. L., & Aziz, N. A. A. (2010). Effects of banana flour and -
glucan on the nutritional and sensory evaluation of noodles. Food
Chemistry, 119(1), 3440.
Damodaran, S., & Parkin, K. L. (2008). Fennemas food chemistry (Vol.
4): CRC Press Boca Raton, FL.
Devatkal, S. K., Narsaiah, K., & Borah, A. (2010). Anti-oxidant effect of
extracts of kinnow rind, pomegranate rind and seed powders in
cooked goat meat patties. Meat Science, 85(1), 155159.
Fossen, T., Cabrita, L., & Andersen, O. M. (1998). Colour and stability of
pure anthocyanins influenced by pH including the alkaline region.
Food Chemistry, 63(4), 435440.
Friedman, M. (1997). Chemistry, biochemistry, and dietary role of potato
polyphenols. A review. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 45(5), 15231540.
Friedman, M., & Jrgens, H. S. (2000). Effect of pH on the stability of
plant phenolic compounds. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 48(6), 21012110.
Fu, B. X. (2008). Asian noodles: history, classification, raw materials, and
processing. Food Research International, 41(9), 888902.
Han, H. M., & Koh, B. K. (2011). Effect of phenolic acids on the rheo-
logical properties and proteins of hard wheat flour dough and bread.
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 91(13), 24952499.
Han, L., Lu, Z., Hao, X., Cheng, Y., & Li, L. (2012a). Impact of calcium
hydroxide on the textural properties of buckwheat noodles. Journal
of Texture Studies, 43(3), 227234.
Han, L., Qi, S., Lu, Z., & Li, L. (2012b). Effects of immature persimmon
(Diospyros kaki linn. F.) juice on the pasting, textural, sensory and
color properties of rice noodles. Journal of Texture Studies, 43(3),
187194.
Han, L., Zhou, Y., Tatsumi, E., Shen, Q., Cheng, Y., & Li, L. (2013).
Thermomechanical properties of dough and quality of noodles made
from wheat flour supplemented with different grades of tartary buck-
wheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) flour. Food and Bioprocess
Technology, 6(8), 19531962.
Hatcher, D. (2001). Asian noodle processing. In G. Owens (Ed.), Cereals
processing technology (pp. 131157). Cambridge: Woodhead
Publishing Limited.
Heo, S., Lee, S. M., Bae, I. Y., Park, H.-G., Lee, H. G., & Lee, S. (2013).
Effect of Lentinus edodes -glucan-enriched materials on the tex-
tural, rheological, and oil-resisting properties of instant fried noo-
dles. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 6(2), 553560.
Hoseney, R. C. (1994). Principles of cereal science and technology (Vol.
Vol. 2nd). Saint Paul: American Association of Cereal Chemists
(AACC).
Food Bioprocess Technol
Hou, G. (2001). Oriental noodles. Advances in Food and Nutrition
Research, 43, 141193.
Inglett, G. E., Peterson, S. C., Carriere, C. J., & Maneepun, S. (2005).
Rheological, textural, and sensory properties of Asian noodles con-
taining an oat cereal hydrocolloid. Food Chemistry, 90(1), 18.
Kanatt, S. R., Chander, R., & Sharma, A. (2010). Antioxidant and anti-
microbial activity of pomegranate peel extract improves the shelf
life of chicken products. International Journal of Food Science &
Technology, 45(2), 216222.
Kazemi, M., Karim, R., Mirhosseini, H., & Hamid, A. A. (2016).
Optimization of pulsed ultrasound-assisted technique for extraction
of phenolics from pomegranate peel of Malas variety: punicalagin
and hydroxybenzoic acids. Food Chemistry, 206, 156166.
Krca, A., zkan, M., & Cemerolu, B. (2007). Effects of temperature,
solid content and pH on the stability of black carrot anthocyanins.
Food Chemistry, 101(1), 212218.
Lagrain, B., Thewissen, B. G., Brijs, K., & Delcour, J. A. (2008).
Mechanism of gliadinglutenin cross-linking during hydrothermal
treatment. Food Chemistry, 107(2), 753760.
Landschoot, P. J., & Mancino, C. F. (2000). A comparison of visual vs.
instrumental measurement of color differences in bentgrass turf.
Hortscience, 35(5), 914916.
Lavelli, V., Harsha, P. S. C. S., Mariotti, M., Marinoni, L., & Cabassi, G.
(2015). Tuning physical properties of tomato puree by fortification
with grape skin antioxidant dietary fiber. Food and Bioprocess
Technology, 8, 16681679.
Li, M., Zhang, J. H., Zhu, K. X., Peng, W., Zhang, S. K., Wang, B., et al.
(2012). Effect of superfine green tea powder on the thermodynamic,
rheological and fresh noodle making properties of wheat flour. LWT
- Food Science and Technology, 46(1), 2328.
Li, M., Zhu, K., Guo, X., Peng, W., & Zhou, H. (2011). Effect of
water activity (aw) and irradiation on the shelf-life of fresh noo-
dles. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 12(4),
526530.
Li, Y., Guo, C., Yang, J., Wei, J., Xu, J., & Cheng, S. (2006). Evaluation
of antioxidant properties of pomegranate peel extract in comparison
with pomegranate pulp extract. Food Chemistry, 96(2), 254260.
Makkar, H., & Becker, K. (1996). Effect of pH, temperature, and time
on inactivation of tannins and possible implications in
detannification studies. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 44(5), 12911295.
Mirhosseini, H., Tan, C. P., Hamid, N. S., & Yusof, S. (2008).
Optimization of the contents of Arabic gum, xanthan gum and or-
ange oil affecting turbidity, average particle size, polydispersity in-
dex and density in orange beverage emulsion. Food Hydrocolloids,
22(7), 12121223.
Miskelly, D. M. (1984). Flour components affecting paste and noodle
colour. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 35(4),
463471.
Moorthy, I. G., Maran, J. P., Muneeswari, S., Naganyashree, S., &
Shivamathi, C. (2015). Response surface optimization of ultrasound
assisted extraction of pectin from pomegranate peel. International
Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 72, 13231328.
Naveena, B. M., Sen, A. R., Vaithiyanathan, S., Babji, Y., & Kondaiah, N.
(2008). Comparative efficacy of pomegranate juice, pomegranate
rind powder extract and BHT as antioxidants in cooked chicken
patties. Meat Science, 80(4), 13041308.
Patras, A., Brunton, N. P., ODonnell, C., & Tiwari, B. (2010). Effect of
thermal processing on anthocyanin stability in foods; mechanisms
and kinetics of degradation. Trends in Food Science & Technology,
21(1), 311.
Pokorn, J. (1991). Natural antioxidants for food use. Trends in Food
Science & Technology, 2, 223227.
Prabhasankar, P., Ganesan, P., Bhaskar, N., Hirose, A., Stephen, N.,
Gowda, L. R., et al. (2009). Edible Japanese seaweed, wakame
Food Bioprocess Technol
(Undaria pinnatifida) as an ingredient in pasta: chemical, functional
and structural evaluation. Food Chemistry, 115(2), 501508.
Quideau, S., Deffieux, D., Douat-Casassus, C., & Pouysgu, L. (2011).
Plant polyphenols: chemical properties, biological activities, and syn-
thesis. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 50(3), 586621.
Rajarathnam, S., Shashirakha, M., & Mallikarjuna, S. (2015). Status of
bioactive compounds in foods, with focus on fruits and vegetables.
Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 55, 13241339.
Ramli, S., Alkarkhi, A. F., Shin Yong, Y., Min Tze, L., & Easa, A. M.
(2009). Effect of banana pulp and peel flour on physicochemical
properties and in vitro starch digestibility of yellow alkaline noo-
dles. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 60(4),
326340.
Ring, S. (1985). Some studies on starch gelation. Starch-Strke, 37(3),
8083.
Rombouts, I., Jansens, K. J. A., Lagrain, B., Delcour, J. A., & Zhu, K.-X.
(2014). The impact of salt and alkali on gluten polymerization and
quality of fresh wheat noodles. Journal of Cereal Science, 60(3),
507513.
Rombouts, I., Lagrain, B., Brijs, K., & Delcour, J. A. (2010). -
Elimination reactions and formation of covalent cross-links in glia-
din during heating at alkaline pH. Journal of Cereal Science, 52(3),
362367.
Ross, H. A., McDougall, G. J., & Stewart, D. (2007). Antiproliferative
activity is predominantly associated with ellagitannins in raspberry
extracts. Phytochemistry, 68(2), 218228.
Rosyid, T. A., Karim, R., Mohd Adzahan, N., & Mohamad Ghazali, F.
(2011). Antibacterial activity of several Malaysian leaves extracts on
the spoilage bacteria of yellow alkaline noodles. African Journal of
Microbiology Research, 5(8), 898904.
SantAnna, V., Christiano, F. D. P., Marczak, L. D. F., Tessaro, I. C., &
Thys, R. C. S. (2014). The effect of the incorporation of grape marc
powder in fettuccini pasta properties. LWT-Food Science and
Technology, 58(2), 497501.
Scalbert, A., Manach, C., Morand, C., Rmsy, C., & Jimnez, L. (2005).
Dietary polyphenols and the prevention of diseases. Critical
Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 45(4), 287306.
Sirichokworrakit, S., Phetkhut, J., & Khommoon, A. (2015). Effect of
partial substitution of wheat flour with riceberry flour on quality
of noodles. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 197,
10061012.
Siro, I., Kapolna, E., Kapolna, B., & Lugasi, A. (2008). Functional food.
Product development, marketing and consumer acceptancea re-
view. Appetite, 51(3), 456467.
Sivam, A., Sun-Waterhouse, D., Perera, C., & Waterhouse, G. (2013).
Application of FT-IR and Raman spectroscopy for the study of bio-
polymers in breads fortified with fibre and polyphenols. Food
Research International, 50(2), 574585.
Spencer, C. M., Cai, Y., Martin, R., Lilley, T. H., & Haslam, E. (1990).
The metabolism of gallic acid and hexahydroxydiophenic acid in
higher plants part 4; polyphenol interactions part 3. Spectroscopic
and physical properties of esters of gallic acid and (S)-
hexahydroxydiphenic acid with D-glucopyranose (4C1). Journal of
the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions, 2(4), 651660.
Sun-Waterhouse, D., Jin, D., & Waterhouse, G. I. N. (2013). Effect of
adding elderberry juice concentrate on the quality attributes, poly-
phenol contents and antioxidant activity of three fibre-enriched
pastas. Food Research International, 54(1), 781789.
Viuda-Martos, M., Fernndez-Lpez, J., & Prez-lvarez, J. (2010).
Pomegranate and its many functional components as related to hu-
man health: a review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and
Food Safety, 9(6), 635654.
World instant noodle association: expanding market (2014).
http://instantnoodles.org/noodles/expanding-market.html.
Zhu, F., Cai, Y. Z., Sun, M., & Corke, H. (2009). Effect of phytochemical
extracts on the pasting, thermal, and gelling properties of wheat
starch. Food Chemistry, 112(4), 919923.