Manual Lab 1

Department of Chemical Engineering
College of Engineering
Qatar University
Manual: Chemical Engineering

Laboratory I
CHME-324
Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer lab
June, 2010
Table of content
Course Syllabus...................................................................................................................1
Lab Rule Observations and Compliance.............................................................................6
Guidelines for Technical Report Writing.............................................................................7
F1: Energy losses in bends.................................................................................................12
F2: Fluid Friction in Pipes.................................................................................................24
F3: Centrifugal Pump Characteristic Curve......................................................................33
F4: Flow meter Demonstration Apparatus.........................................................................42
H1: Natural and Forced Convection Heat Transfer...........................................................50
H2: Conduction along a Simple Bar..................................................................................59
H3: Tubular Heat Exchanger.............................................................................................67
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Course Syllabus
CHME 324 Chemical Engineering Laboratory I (1-0-3)
Fall Term
Required Laboratory
Catalogue
Description: Experiments in Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer: Frictional Pressure Losses
in Pipes & Fittings, Pump Performance, Convection, and Double Pipe
and Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers.
Pre-requisites: CHME 213 Fluid Mechanics

ENGL 203 English Language II
Co-requisite: CHME 311 Heat Transfer
Instructor Mohammad Hasan Arshad

Office: College of Engineering Building, G228
Email: marshad@qu.edu.qa
Office hours: Tuesday, 10:30-11:30 AM
Tel. 403 4151
Class Schedule: Monday, 3:30-6:15 PM
Textbook: Chemical Engineering Laboratory I Manual
Ref. Books: Holman, J.P. "Heat Transfer", McGraw Hill, New York (1997).
Geankoplis, C.J. "Transport Processes and Separation Process
Principles", Prentice Hall, New Jersey (2003).
Fox, R.W., McDonald, A.T., and Pritchard, P.J. "Introduction to Fluid

Mechanics", John Wiley and Sons, New Jersey (2006)
Course
Objectives Experimental study of heat transfer and fluid flow. Emphasis is on open
laboratory projects with electronic instrumentation; experimental design
with analytical, numerical and graphical analysis of data.
1
Outcomes: Upon successful completion of this course, you will be able to:
1. Safely and effectively carry out experiments in a group setting [b, d, f].
2. Contribute in pre-lab oral exam [g]
3. Demonstrate the ability to use higher order of thinking and learning skills
by utilizing acquired technical engineering knowledge from previous
coursework [a]
4. Proficient in using technical literature such as handbooks, textbooks,
manuals, etc. to analyze data. [b]
5. Use appropriate software (e.g. Excel) to solve equations and statistically
evaluate and accurately interpret data. [b, k]
6. Prepare accurate and meaningful technical reports [g].
* The letter in [ ] reference the corresponding chemical engineering program

outcomes.
Topics:
Measuring Head Loss due to Friction in Pipes
Centrifugal Pump Performance and Analysis
Flow meters demonstration
Energy Loss in Bends
Fluid to Fluid Heat transfer (Tubular Heat Exchanger)
Heat Conduction (Simple Bar / Cylinders)
Convective Heat Transfer (Free and Forced Convection)
Computer
Usage: Microsoft Word and Excel
Laboratory
Projects: Applicable
Evaluation
Methods: 1. Prelab test 10%
2. Quizes 15%
3. Reports 50%
4. Laboratory rules 05 %
5. Final Exam 20%
ABET Category Content:

Engineering Science: 1.0 credits or 100%
Engineering Design: 0 credits or 0%
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Relationship of Course Outcomes to ChE Undergraduate Program Outcomes
This course supports the following program outcomes:
Published Program Outcomes

Course a b c d e f g h i j k
Outcomes
1 X X X
2 X
3 X
4 X
5 X X
6 X
Prepared by: Mohammad Hasan Arshad Date: September, 2010
3
Regulations and Behavior during the Lab Session
Laboratory coat should always be worn

Eating, drinking and smoking are not allowed in the lab
Please leave your place and apparatus as clean as you found them
One long report for each group is required
The report is due at the beginning of the next lab meeting after one week. It is the
responsibility of the group to ensure on time submission.
All the reports should have a cover page as attached. It contains the grading and
the items required in the lab
NO late reports will be accepted
Before leaving the lab, each student is expected to show his/her data to the lab
instructor and get his signature
No makeup for missed experiments. If any student has an excuse, the grade will
be divided by the number of experiments done. If there is no excuse, a zero will
be given
Full report includes: (One report from each group)
Title Page (Includes: Title, Students Name and Number and Date)
Table of content
List of figures
List of tables
Abstract
Introduction and Theory
Apparatus and Experimental Procedure
Results and Discussion
Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Appendices (Data and Calculation + others)
Each experiment will be performed by a group of three students. At the beginning of the
following experiment after one week, a clean and neat report written by the concerned
students should be submitted
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Department of Chemical Engineering
CHME 324 Chemical Engineering Laboratory I
Title Page (Full Report)
Title of the Experiment:
Submitted by: Group ( ) Section:

1. Name: ID:
2. Name: ID:
3. Name: ID:
Date of experiment:
Date of submission:
Grades:
Report presentation /15
Abstract and Objective(s).. / 10
Introduction and Theory /10
Raw Data ../05
Data Processing and calculations/20
Results and Discussion /25
Conclusions and Recommendations.. /10
References .. / 05
Total. /100
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Lab Rule Observations and Compliance
Students needs to observe lab rules and so they will be monitored based on the
followings.
Basis
1. Coming to LAB on time, and leaving the LAB

once the experiment is completed
2. Wear LAB coats during entire duration
3. Submit reports and pre-lab sheet at the
beginning of LAB session before start of
experiment.
4.* Wear gloves (wherever applicable). Be aware of
the possible hazards related to ones own
experiment and comply to those.
5. Follow proper start-up and shut down procedure
according to LAB manual provided.
6. Stick to own group experiment and not move
elsewhere leaving the running apparatus
unattended.
7. No eating, smoking, or chatting, use of mobile
phones, etc. during entire LAB session.
8. Maintaining cleanliness (leaving the equipments
at the end of experiment in the same clean state
as when entering the LAB). Not throwing thrash
papers here and there.
9. Show experimental observation sheet to
instructor before leaving the lab at the end of
experiment and get his signature.
* Basis 4 carries 2 points, other bases weighs 1 point each.
Guidelines for Technical Report Writing

A-1 GENERAL REMARKS
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In this course you are asked to submit seven technical reports. Therefore, your
reports should seek to inform, instruct, and often to persuade that its interpretation of
data is the correct one. Greatest clarity with the least number of words becomes an
essential constraint. In general, use past tense, passive voice, and third person to describe
what was done. Pronouns as I, we, heshould be avoided (unless you are reflecting your
personal view). Backup your judgments with data and scientific facts and avoid
sensationalism.
Reports are to be printed on A4 plain white paper. Pages must be numbered and
only one face of the page is to be used. Margins are to be kept at a minimum one inch on
each side. Each section should begin on a new page.
Every table, graph, chart, drawing etc. must have a number and a title to
identify it and must be referenced in text body of the report. Figures, charts, and drawings
usually have their numbers and titles below whereas tables have their numbers and titles
above. Use Arabic numbers for all. Symbols, subscripts, abbreviations, superscripts and
letters must be defined the first time they occur in the text.
Plagiarism is not permitted, always give reference to the source of any piece of
information you copy from the literature. Cite your references as you proceed through the
report using embraced number (e.g., [1], [2]) and match a list of numbered references
at the end of your report. References must occur in (sequential) order in the body of your
report, therefore before you mention or cite reference [4], for example, you must have
referred to references [1], [2], and [3] and so on.
A-2 REPORT COMPONENTS
The following items are required for your technical written report. The report must be
organized in the order listed below with each section beginning on a new page.
1. Title Page
2. Table of Contents
3. List of Tables
4. List of Figures
5. Abstract
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6. Objective(s)
7. Introduction
8. Experimental: Set-up and Procedure
9. Original Data
10. Sample Calculations
11. Results and Discussions
12. Conclusions and recommendations
13. References
14. Appendices
A short description of the report elements as stated above is given below:
1. Title Page
Use title page provided to you in syllabus.
2. Abstract
The abstract is the only basis for another reader's decision whether or not your
work is of relevance to him. This requires careful writing. It should briefly state the
objective of the experiment, the most important results obtained and do the results
compare with the theory. An abstract should not exceed two-thirds of a page. The abstract
is best written after you finish the write up of your report and before you prepare the
Table of Contents.
3. Table of Contents
List every division and heading in the report and give the number of the page on
which it starts to appear. It is essential that titles and subtitles match those occurring in
the text. Therefore, the best approach here is to cut the titles and headings from the body
of the report and paste them in the Table of Contents. It is evident thus that this part of the
report is best written after preparing the final report in its ultimate organized structure.
4. List of Tables
List every table along with its title and give the number of the page on which it appears.
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5. List of Figures
List every drawing and graph with its title and give the number of the page on
which it appears.
6. Introduction and Theory
This is intended to give the unfamiliar reader the required background so that
he/she can follow up and understand your work. Use your own words to provide some
background information about your experiments and a discussion of why the experiment
was carried out (i.e., the importance of the study). Include enough information about the
theory needed for a reader who is unfamiliar with the topic of your experiment. This
section also contains the background for the calculations and the derivation of the
equations involved. Sources of equations and derivations should be referenced and the
equations must be numbered. The last paragraph in the introduction must bring into focus
the direct objective(s) of the performed experimental work.
7. Experimental: Set up and Procedure
A description, together with a schematic diagram of the equipment (if any) is

needed. The experimental procedure, in steps, is also included. Dont copy paste from
manual. You need to write in the past tense since you have finished the experiment. The
uncertainties of each measured property must be clearly stated.
8. Original Data
The original data sheets used in the laboratory, with the title and the date of the
experiment, should appear in this section. Instructor's approval must appear on that sheet.
9. Sample Calculations
Complete step by step calculations using the original data and showing the
transformation of the experimental data into calculated results
10. Results
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Exploit your creativity to cast your results in any informative way be it a graph, a
tableetc. Tables and graphs must have titles and numbers. The numbers should be in
the order of their appearance in the report. Curves should be drawn such that they show
the best average representation of the data. If more than one curve is plotted on the same
graph, different symbols for data points can be used to distinguish between them. Do not
include a graph or a table and not say anything about it. Results must be discussed and
compared with theory and/or literature. Each table or graph should be explained in
writing and the trends of curves must be justified. Sources of errors, if any and their
relation to the obtained data must be stated. Different paragraphs must be used to discuss
different tables or graphs. Always refer to figure number when discussing this figure.
11. Conclusions
In this section, a summary of the results obtained is given. It could be written

either in the form of a list or as a series of loosely related topic sentences. This section
must not exceed two thirds of a page.
12. Recommendations
Provide your suggestions or ideas to modify the procedure or the equipment in

order to improve the experiment, state them and explain why they should be done. Such
recommendations are highly appreciated.
13. References
All references cited in the report should be listed in the order of their appearance
in the report. Your text and lab manual can serve as your primary source material, but you
might also wish to search out and use other sources. A proper reference for a book should
include the name of the author(s), the title, the publishers, and place and year of
publications (e.g., S. E. Kegley, and J. Andrews, The Chemistry of Water, University
Science Books, California, 1998). For a journal article, the reference should include the
name of the author(s), the article title, the journal title and volume number, the year in
which this issue was published and the page numbers on which the article begins (e.g., G.
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Bassel, N. Dural, and A. L. Hines, Liquid-liquid equilibria of sulfolane-benzene pentane,
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, Volume 28, 1989, 1369- 1374).
14. Appendices
Extra calculations, derivations, calibrations and methods of analysis should appear in

these sections.
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F1: Energy Losses in Bends
1. Objectives
The purpose of this experiment is to study the pressure (head) losses through some
common types fittings and valve common to piping systems. The losses, called minor
losses, will be evaluated in the form of the loss coefficient KL and compared with values
given in the textbook.
2. Background and Theory

Bends and different type of fitting are always required for transport of fluids in
addition to the normal pipe. Bends are provided in pipes to change the direction of flow
through it. An additional loss of head, apart from that due to fluid friction, takes place in
the course of flow through pipe bend. The fluid takes a curved path while flowing
through a pipe bend as shown in Fig.1
Fig 1. Flow through pipe bend

Whenever a fluid flows in a curved path, there must be a force acting radially inwards on
the fluid to provide the inward acceleration, known as centripetal acceleration.
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This results in an increase in pressure near the outer wall of the bend, starting at
some point A (Fig. 1) and rising to a maximum at some point B. There is also a reduction
of pressure near the inner wall giving a minimum pressure at C and a subsequent rise
from C to D. Therefore between A and B and between C and D the fluid experiences an
adverse pressure gradient (the pressure increases in the direction of flow).
Fluid particles in this region, because of their close proximity to the wall, have
low velocities and cannot overcome the adverse pressure gradient and this leads to a
separation of flow from the boundary and consequent losses of energy in generating local
eddies. Losses also take place due to a secondary flow in the radial plane of the pipe
because of a change in pressure in the radial depth of the pipe.
This flow, in conjunction with the main flow, produces a typical spiral motion of
the fluid which persists even for a downstream distance of fifty times the pipe diameter
from the central plane of the bend. This spiral motion of the fluid increases the local flow
velocity and the velocity gradient at the pipe wall, and therefore results in a greater
frictional loss of head than that which occurs for the same rate of flow in a straight pipe
of the same length and diameter.
The additional loss of head mainly due to flow separation and secondary flow
(apart from that due to usual friction) in flow through pipe bends is known as bend loss
V2
and is usually expressed as a fraction of the velocity head as K , where V is the
2g
average velocity of flow through the pipe. The value of K depends on the total length of
the bend and the ratio of radius of curvature of the bend and pipe diameter R/D. The
radius of curvature R is usually taken as the radius of curvature of the centre line of the
bend. The factor K varies slightly with Reynolds number Re in the typical range of Re
encountered in practice, but increases with surface roughness.
Because of the complexity of flow in many fittings, (k) is usually determined by

experiment. For the pipe fitting experiment, the head loss is calculated from two
manometer readings, taken before and after each fitting, and (k) is then determined as
h
k 2 (1)
V / 2g
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Where h : Measured head loss across the bend
V: Average velocity of fluid flowing through bend.
Correction for Enlargement and Contraction:
Sudden Enlargement
Fig. 2. Flow through sudden enlargement
In the case of enlargement, due to area increase fluid velocity will decrease and hence
that will increase static pressure. Hence to eliminate the affects of this area change on the
measured head losses, this value (increase in head due are expansion) should be added to
the head loss reading
2 2
V V
h corrected hmeasured ( 1 2 ) (2)
2g 2g
Loss coefficient is calculated based on inlet velocity for sudden expansion as
hcorrected
k 2 (3)
V1 / 2 g
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Sudden Contraction
Fig 3. Flow through sudden contraction
In the case of sudden contraction, velocity increases due to decrease in area at the
expense of static pressure and hence head loss measured also accounts this pressure drop.
In order to eliminate this effect this extra pressure drop has to be subtracted from
measured value
2 2
V2 V
h corrected hmeasured ( 1 ) (4)
2g 2g
Loss coefficient for sudden contraction is calculated based on exit velocity as
hcorrected
k 2 (5)
V2 / 2 g
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3. Experimental
3.1 Description of experimental setup
In order to complete the demonstration we need a number of pieces of equipment.
Figure 1. Front View of the Test Unit
Figure 2. Energy losses in bends Apparatus diagram
The Hydraulics Bench which allows us to measure flow by timed volume collection.
The Energy Losses in Bends and Fittings Apparatus.
A stopwatch to allow us to determine the flow rate of water.
Clamps for pressure tapping connection tubes.
Spirit level.
Thermometer.
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Useful data
Internal diameter of the pipe work d = 0.0196 m
Internal diameter of pipe work at enlargement outlet and contraction inlet d = 0.0260 m
3.2 Experimental Procedure

Refer to figure (2)
Step 1:
Set up the losses apparatus on the hydraulic bench so that its base in horizontal (this is
necessary for accurate height measurements from the manometers).Connect the test rig
inlet to the bench flow supply and run the outlet extension tube to the volumetric tank and
secure it in place .
Step 2:
Open the bench valve, the gate valve and the flow control valve and start the pump to fill
the test rig with water. In order to bleed air from pressure tapping points and the
manometer close both the bench valve and the test rig flow control valve and open the air
bleed screw and remove the cap from the adjacent air valve. Connect a length of small
ball tubing from the air valve to the volumetric tank. Now, open the bench valve and
allow flow through the manometers to purge all air from them; then, tighten the air bleed
screw and partly open both the bench valve and the test rig flow control valve. Next, open
the air bleed screw slightly to allow air to enter the top of the manometers, re-tighten the
screw when the manometer levels reach a convenient height.
Step 3:
Check that all manometer levels are on scale at the maximum volume flow rate required
(approximately 17 liters/minute). These levels can be adjusted further by using the air
bleed screw and the hand pump supplied. The air bleeds screw controls the air flow
through the air valve, so when using the hand pump, the bleed screw must be open. To
retain the hand pump pressure in the system, the screw must be closed pumping.
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Taking a Set of Results:
It is not possible to make measurements on all fittings simultaneously and,

therefore, it is necessary to run tow separate tests.
Exercise A
Measure loss across all the pipe fittings except the gate valve, which should be
kept fully open. Adjust the flow from the bench control valve and, at a given flow rate,
take height reading from all of the manometers after the levels have steadied. In order to
determine the volume flow rate, you should carry out a timed volume collection using the
volumetric tank .This is achieved by closing the ball valve and measuring with a( stop
watch) time taken to accumulate a known volume of fluid in the tank, which is read from
the sight glass. You should collect fluid for at least one minute to minimize time errors.
Repeat this procedure to give a total of at least five sets of measurements over a flow rage
of approximately 8 - 10 litters per minute. Measure the out flow water temperature at the
lowest flow rate ; this together with the table detailing the kinematic viscosity of water at
atmospheric pressure to determine the Reynolds number .
Exercise B
Measure loss across gate valve only. Clamp off the connecting tubes to the miter bend
pressure taping (to prevent air being drown into the system). Start with the gate valve
closed and open fully both the bench valve and the test rig flow control valve. Now open
the gate valve by approximately 25% (After taking up any back lash). For each of at least
5 flow rates, measure pressure drop across the valve from the pressure gauge; adjust the
flow rate by the use of the test rig flow control valve. Once measurements have started,
do not adjust the gate valve. Determine the volume flow rate by timed collections.
Repeat this procedure for the gate valve opened by approximately 50% and then
approximately 75%.
( Note: In order to open desire % of GATE valve, count no. of turns required to open the
valve completely and then open number of required turn for given % opening).
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4. Safety precautions
Although set-up is designed for safe operation, any laboratory equipment may involve
processes or procedures which are potentially hazardous. The major potential hazards
associated with this particular equipment are listed below.
Injury due to misuse
Injury from electric shock
Damage to clothing
Risk of infection due lacking of cleanliness. The equipment described in this
experiment involves the use of water, which under certain condition can create a
health hazard due to infection by harmful micro-organisms. Under COSHH
regulations, the following precaution must be observed.
o Any water contained within the product must not be allowed to stagnate,
i.e. the water must be cleaned regularly.
o Any dust, sludge, scale on which micro-organism can feed must be
removed regularly; i.e. the equipment must be cleaned regularly.
5. Report Requirement
Plot head loss Vs dynamic head for each type of fitting and comment on the trend.
Calculate loss coefficient for all type of fittings and gate valve. Show detailed
calculation for one case in sample calculation.
Do extensive literature search on values of loss coefficient and mention the
reference in report. Compare your experimental values with the one you found in
the literature.
Determine the region of flow (Laminar/ Turbulent) you studied. Search for the
dependence of loss coefficient of fitting with Reynolds number in laminar and
turbulent flow.
Plot loss coefficient K Vs Reynolds number Re and justify the trend with physical
principle. Did you get the expected trend line?
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6. References
http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/FLUID-
MECHANICS/lecture-37/37-2_losses_pipe_bends.htm
Armfield Instruction Manual, Losses in the bends F1-22, March 2004.
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Experimental Data Log Sheet for Experiment (F1)
Date:
Group Number:
Team Members Name: Student I.D. #:
.
.
.
FITTINGS:
OBSERVATION TABLES
Manometer Manometer Vol

Time
Fitting h1 h1 V
s
mm mm Liter
METER
ELBOW
SHORT BEND
ENLARGEMENT
CONTRACTION
Table1. Raw data run#1

Time
Fitting h1 h1 V
s
mm mm Liter
METER
ELBOW
SHORT BEND
ENLARGEMENT
CONTRACTION
Table2. Raw data run #2

Time
Fitting h1 h1 V
s
mm mm Liter
METER
ELBOW
SHORT BEND
ENLARGEMENT
CONTRACTION
21
Time
Fitting h1 h1 V
s
mm mm Liter
METER
ELBOW
SHORT BEND
ENLARGEMENT
CONTRACTION
GATE VALVE
25% open
Gauge Reading Flow Rate Measurement
P1 (Bar) P2 (Bar) volume(L) Time (sec)
22
50% open
75% open
Notes/Observations
23
Instructor signature Date:
F2: Fluid Friction in Pipes
1. Objective
To determine of pressure loss P or the head loss hL due to friction for fluid flow along
pipes of different diameters and compare it with the head loss observed from direct
measurement.
2. Introduction
Experiments in pipe flow where the presence of frictional forces must be taken
into account are useful aids in studying the behavior of traveling fluids. Fluids are usually
transported through pipes from location to location by pumps. The frictional losses within
the pipes cause pressure drops. These pressure drops must be known to determine pump
requirements. Thus a study of pressure losses due to friction has a useful application.
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A fluid dynamics problem commonly encountered by engineers is how to
accurately predict the various quantities associated with flow through piping systems.
Applications also include flow through various hydraulic and pneumatic systems, water,
oil, and natural gas pipeline flows, the flow of fluids through tubing networks, etc. The
quantities that may be desired in a specific problem include the pressure drop, flow rate,
required pipe diameter or length, head losses, required elevation change, or pump size. In
this experiment we will investigate head loss due to friction in constant-area sections of
pipe. This will be accomplished by flowing water through tubes of various diameter over
a range of water flow rates and recording the change in pressure.
3. Theory
The frictional resistance to which a fluid is subjected as it flows along a pipe
creates a continuous loss of energy or total head as the fluid moves downstream. Figure 1
below illustrates this by the difference in manometer levels between stations 1 and 2. The
height hL represents the static pressure drop P gh L occurring along this length.
Fig. 1: Schematic illustrating static pressure loss due to friction along a pipe
If V is the mean velocity in the pipe (which remains constant for a pipe of fixed
cross section), and D is the pipe inner diameter, the friction factor f is defined by
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P 2 ghL D
f
1 L LV 2 (1)
V 2
2 D
The Reynolds number is given by

VD 4 Q
Re (2)
D
Where Q denotes the volume flow rate, and the fluid viscosity. This quantity
varies with temperature; see Table 1 listing values for water.
The Reynolds number determines whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. For
typical flows in smooth pipes, laminar flow conditions correspond to Re<2100, while
turbulent flow corresponds to Re>4000. The laminar/turbulent transition regime
corresponds to 2100<Re<4000. It is noted, however that that the transition values of Re
from one regime to the other depend on the smoothness of the pipe. Therefore, these
values may be different from those listed above. Equation (2) can be used to determine
the range of flow rates Q corresponding to specific flow characteristics in a tube of fixed
diameter. For example, laminar flow is attained when
4 Q 525D
Re 2100 Q (3)
D
On the other hand, turbulent flow is expected when
Re 4000 Q 1000D / (4)

For laminar flow in a pipe, theory shows that f=64/Re. For turbulent flow, f
depends both on Re and the ratio / D where denotes the surface roughness of the pipe
wall. The dependence of the friction factor f on both Re and /D is defined by the
Moody chart, which is given below (Fig. 2) and is valid for steady, fully developed,
incompressible pipe flows.
On this diagram the laminar friction factor, f (laminar) = 64/Re, is seen to be

independent of roughness and is a decreasing straight line when plotted against Reynolds
number in log-log coordinates. Although roughness was not accounted for in solving the
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partial differential equations leading to the expression, experiments confirm that f is a
function of only Re in laminar pipe flow.
As the Reynolds number is increased from laminar values, transition to turbulent

flow eventually occurs in the approximate range 2000 <~ Re <~ 4000 (critical region on
Moody diagram). Compared to the laminar value at the same Reynolds number, the
turbulent friction factor is dramatically increased due to the enhanced mixing and
momentum exchange that occurs in turbulent flow. In the turbulent flow regime for the
smaller relative roughness values, the friction factor initially tends to follow the smooth
pipe curve, along which the friction factor is a function only of Reynolds number.
However, as Re increases, the velocity profile becomes fuller and the thickness of the
thin viscous sub-layer near the pipe wall decreases. As the pipe wall roughness elements
begin to protrude through this layer, roughness becomes important, and the friction factor
becomes a function of both Re and e/D. This regime is termed the transition region.
For very large Reynolds numbers, the friction factor becomes independent of Re
and is therefore a function only of relative roughness e/D; denoted the fully rough
regime on the Moody diagram. In this regime the viscous sub-layer at the wall is so thin
that most of the roughness elements directly interact with the flow, so the head loss
depends only on the size of the roughness elements.
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Fig. 2: Friction factor f as a function of Reynolds number and relative roughness ( /D)
for round pipes - the Moody Chart.
28
4. Description of experimental set up
Figure 3: Front View of the Test Unit: (HM150.11 Fluid Friction Apparatus)
The HM 150.11 arrangement is supplied with water via the HM 150 Basic
Hydraulics Bench, operation is performed in a closed water circuit. Alternatively, the
arrangement can also be operated from a normal mains supply. The HM150.11 Fluid
Friction apparatus comprises a pipe section with part sections that can be individually
isolated; the pipe section is mounted on a metal sheet. The sheet is fitted to a strong steel
support. In addition, there are 2 liquid-level manometers for pressure measurements, as
well as a measuring section in which the different measuring objects can be inserted.
Useful Data of set up

Internal diameter of the pipe work at the first measuring section= d = 0.032
Measurement length= 500 mm
Internal diameter of pipe work at the second measuring section= d = 0.02 m
Measuring length = 800 mm
Roughness of pipe= 0.001 mm
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5. Experimental procedure
Refer to figure (3)
Step 1: Position test set-up on the aperture, with drain above the volumetric
tank.
Loosen star-type nuts for pressuregauge attachments on back of unite and move
gauges down a hole. Then retighten nuts. Make hose connection between HM150
and the unite.
Open HM150 drain.
Step 2: Switch on the pump and slowly open the main valve on the HM150.
Step 3: Connect pressure gauge to desired measuring points.
Step 4 : Slowly open ball cock before the desired measuring section and vent
the pressure gauge Dual pressure gauge.
Step 5 : By simultaneously adjusting the vent and drain valves on the pressure
gauge, regulate the water level such that both water columns are in the measuring
rang .
Step 6: Determine the volumetric flow. To do this, stop for the time t required
to top up the volumetric tank on the HM 150 from 10 to 20 or 30 litters.
The drain valve below the tank must be closed.
Damage to clothing
30
7. Report Requirements
Calculate velocity of flow in a pipe using Volume time data .Calculate Reynolds
number and hence flow regime (Laminar, transition or turbulent).
Use moodys diagram or suitable correlation to find friction factor using Re and
roughness data of pipe.
Calculate pressure drop (theoretical) by using definition of friction factor and
convert it into head of water. Compare this value with the one you measured in
your experiment.
Plot pressure drop (Experimental and theoretical) Vs flow rate and comment on
the trend. Identify the laminar, transition and turbulent zone on the graphs ( If
any).
Calculate friction factor (Experimental) and plot f Vs Re on log-log scale. Did
you get the expected curve? Compare the trend with the one you found in the
literature. Fit the model f k1 Re K 2 .find values of k1 and K2. Do you find
similar relation in the literature? If yes, how close your values are with the one
you found in the literature. What could be the reason for difference?
Discuss the engineering application of calculations you did in this experiment.
8. References
J.O Wilkes, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, Prentice Hall, Boston,
2005.
GUNT Instruction Manual, HM150.11 Fluid Friction Apparatus.
31
Date:
Group Number:
=============================================================
Pipe# 1 (L= 500 mm):
S.No Volume Time h1 h2

liter sec mm of H2O mm of H2O
32
Pipe# 2 (L= 800 mm):
S.No Volume Time h1 h2

liter sec mm of H2O mm of H2O
Outlet water temperature ... C

0
Notes/Observations:
Instructor signature: Date:
33
F3: Centrifugal Pump Characteristic Curve
1. Objective:
To obtain the characteristic curves such as the Input Power (P), efficiency (), and
the head generated (H) by the pump with respect to the flow rate (Q) obtained for a single
stage centrifugal pump operating at inherent speed and to use these pump curves to
explain and demonstrate the concepts of power management, energy conservation, and
cost savings (having to do with required pump power and pressures).
2. Background and Theory
Pumping systems can be examined through pump performance curves which are plotted
during regular operation. These pump curves allow us to understand how flow rate
changes with respect to horse power, inlet or outlet pressure, and pump geometry.
2.1 Working Principle Of Centrifugal Pump:
This type of pump has two main components: an impeller and a stationary housing.
The impeller consists of a number of blades, usually curved, arranged in a regular pattern
around the shaft. Figure 1 is a picture of the different type of impellers used in the
centrifugal pump.
Figure 1. Impellers (Left to right: Rearward Swept Impeller, Straight

Bladed Impeller, and Forward Inclined Impeller).
34
As the impeller rotates, it reduces the pressure at pump inlet causing fluid to suck in
through the eye of the casing and flows radially outward. Both pressure and absolute
velocity increase as the fluid flows from the eye to the periphery of the blades. The fluid
discharges directly into a volute-shaped casing. The casing shape is designed to reduce
the velocity as the fluid leaves the impeller, and this decrease in kinetic energy is
converted into an increase in pressure. The volute-shaped casing increases in area with
the direction of flow, and it is used to produce a uniform velocity distribution as the fluid
moves around the casing into the discharge opening. The following sketch shows a
simple pump.
Figure 2. Simple schematics of a centrifugal pump.
2.2 Pump performance

The operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump may be described or illustrated by
using graphs of pump performance. The three most commonly used graphical
representations of pump performance are:
Change in total head produced by the pump, Ht
Power input to the pump, Pe
Pump efficiency, Egr
35
Total Head
The change in total head produced as a result of the work done by pump can be
calculated
as:
Ht = Change in static head + change in velocity head + change in elevation
Ht =Hs + Hv +He
( P out Pin )
Where H s
g
Hs = Change in static head
(Note: The relationship between pressure and head depends upon the density of the fluid,
usually water. If a liquid other that water is used, the appropriate density must be used.)
2 2
(V Vin )
H v out
2g
Hv = Change in velocity head
He = Change in elevation: Vertical distance between inlet and outlet

He = 0.048 m for FM50 (for the experimental setup in lab)
Power Input
The mechanical power input to the pump is:
P 2N
P (Measured)
Where
N = rotational speed of pump in revolutions per second

= shaft torque in Nm
Pump efficiency
The efficiency of the pump may be calculated as
Ph
E gr * 100
Pe
36
Where
Ph = hydraulic power imparted to fluid,
Ph H t Qg
Q= volume flow rate in m3/s
Each of these parameters is measured at constant pump speed, and is plotted

against the volume flow rate, Q, through the pump. An example of this type of graphical
representation of pump performance is given in (Figer3).
It is important to note that the efficiency reaches a maximum and then falls, whilst
the head at first falls slowly with Q but eventually falls off rapidly. It shows the increase
in head as the flow rate decreases; this is called a rising head curve. The head that is
observed at the time when the flow is zero is called the shutoff head and it simply means
that the discharged valve is closed. The optimum conditions for operation occur when the
required 'duty point' of head and flow coincides with a point of maximum efficiency
Figure 3. Typical operating characteristics
37
2.3 Selection of pump using system curve and pump performance curve:
System Curve: The system curve is a plot of the Total Head required vs. the flow for a
given system. The higher the flow, the greater the head required (see Figure 5). The shape
of the system curve depends on the type of system being considered. The system curve
equation for a typical single outlet system
H P (q ) H F (q ) H EQ ( q ) H V (q ) H TS (q )
Where H P (q ) : Total system head

H F (q ) : Head due to friction
H EQ (q ) : Equipment head
H V (q ) : Velocity head
H TS (q ) : Total static head
The Total Static head is constant and the friction head, equipment head and
velocity head are flow dependent. The calculation of Total Head at different flow rates
produces a plot of Total Head vs. flow that is called the system curve. It is necessary to
utilize both the system curve, as determined by the system parameters, and the pump
performance curve to make a good pump selection for a given application. If both curves
are plotted on the same graph, as illustrated in the Figure below, the intersection point (A)
represents the operating point for the system. That is, this point gives the head and flow
rate that satisfies both the system equation parameters and the pump equation. It is
desired to show the efficiency curve on the same plot. Ideally, we want the operating
point to be near the best efficiency point for the desired flow rate. The intersection at
point (B) shows how the system equation would shift if the parameters changed. In this
example when the system parameters changes, the efficiency drops and the hence pump
is perhaps not the best selection.
38
Figure 5. Example of pump curve and system curve intersection to
estimate the operating flow rate and operating head.
3. Experimental
3.1 Description of experimental set up
The apparatus consists of a tank and pipe work which delivers water to and from a
small centrifugal pump. The unit is fitted with electronic sensors which measure the
process variables. Signals from these sensors are sent to a computer via an interface
device.
39
Figure 4: Front View of Test Unit and Transformer
All numerical references in brackets relate to the diagram below:
Figure 5: (FM) Centrifugal pump demonstration Unite Diagram
40
The equipment comprises of a centrifugal water pump (6) driven by an electric
motor (19) which is mounted on a support plinth (2) together with a clear acrylic
reservoir (11) and associated pipe work for continuous circulation. Clean water is used as
the operating fluid and a drain valve (10) at the base of the reservoir allows the water to
be drained after use.
Appropriate sensors are incorporated on the unit to facilitate analysis of the pump
performance when connected to a suitable computer via an interface device (IFD). In
addition to the tappings required by the pressure sensors, additional tappings (5, 15 and
18) are included in the pipe work to allow appropriate calibration instruments to be
connected.
The flow of water through the centrifugal pump is regulated by a flow control
valve (16) installed in the discharge pipe work of the pump. Adjustment of this valve
allows the head/flow produced by the pump to be varied. A valve (9) in the inlet pipe
work of the pump allows the effect of suction losses to be investigated.
A spare impeller (8) is installed on the plinth to allow visual inspection of the
impeller which is installed inside the volute of the water pump.
Useful Data
Orifice diameter d = 0.018m, Orifice discharge coefficient Cd = 0.61
Cross-sectional area of the pump inlet A1= 0.00029865 m2
Change in Elevation Head (Vertical distance between inlet and outlet
He = 0.048 m

((Refer to Figure 5)
Select the maximum pump speed N by adjusting the power controller to 100%.
Open inlet valve V1 fully .Close discharge valve V2 then start the pump (pump
motor started under minimum load). Open discharge valve V2 fully and allow the
water circulate until all air bubbles have dispersed .View the diagram and note the
41
valve of the volume flow indicated at the bottom of the screen. Decide on suitable
increments in flow to give adequate sample points (typically 15 points between
zero and maximum flow.)
Close valve V2 to correspond to the condition of no flow i.e. Qv = 0. When the
measured readings as indicated in the boxes on the schematic diagram are
sufficiently steady, click 'GO' to take a sample. This represents the first point on
the characteristic curve. DO NOT leave the pump in this condition of a closed
outlet valve V2 as the water will heat up and so change in viscosity as to
invalidate the results. Go on to the next point as soon as possible.
Open valve V2 slightly, to give the first incensement in volume flow at the bottom
of the screen. When readings are steady enough, click 'GO'.
Repeat step iv) above for a gradually increasing set of valve V2 opening , i.e.
increasing values of flow Qv .The final sample point will correspond to valve V2
being fully opened.
The recorded set of head-flow data may now be examined and assessed in the
various software screens or downloaded into a spreadsheet.
Damage to clothing
42
5. Report requirements
Calculate flow rate using orifice data.
Calculate total head of pump, power input and efficiency using the flow rate you
calculated (not from excel program).
Generate pump characteristic curve by plotting Head, power input and efficiency
Vs flow rate. Discuss the trend in detail and compare with the expected one.
Discuss how pump performance curve is used with the help of system curve in the
selection of pump.
6. References
J.O Wilkes, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, Prentice Hall, Boston,
2005.
Armfield Instruction Manual, Centrifugal pump demonstration unit FM 20,
January 2005.
43
F4: Flow meter Demonstration Apparatus
1. Objective
To demonstrate the application of flow meters in the measurement of flow rate and
velocity in a pipe.
2. Theory:
2.1 Orifice Plate: An orifice meter is a conduit and a restriction to create a pressure
drop. A nozzle, venturi or thin sharp edged orifice can be used as the flow restriction. Due
to the ease of duplicating and the simple construction, the thin sharp edged orifice has
been adopted as a standard and extensive calibration work has been done so that it is
widely accepted as a standard means of measuring fluids. An orifice in a pipeline is
shown in figure 1 with a manometer for measuring the drop in pressure (differential) as
the fluid passes thru the orifice. The minimum cross sectional area of the jet is known as
the vena contracta.
As the fluid approaches the orifice pressure drops suddenly. It continues to drop
until the vena contracta is reached and then gradually increases until at approximately 5
to 8 diameters downstream a maximum pressure point is reached that will be lower than
the pressure upstream of the orifice. The decrease in pressure as the fluid passes thru the
orifice is a result of the increased velocity of the fluid passing through the reduced area of
the orifice. So by measuring the pressure drop using Bernoulli equation the discharge
may be calculated.
When the velocity decreases as the fluid leaves the orifice the pressure increases
and tends to return to its original level. All of the pressure loss is not recovered because
of friction and turbulence losses in the stream. The pressure drop across the orifice
(Differential Pressure in Fig. 1) increases when the rate of flow increases. When there is
no flow there is no differential. The differential pressure is proportional to the square of
the velocity, it therefore follows that if all other factors remain constant, then the
differential is proportional to the square of the rate of flow.
44
Figure1: Orifice meter
2.2 Venturi meter:
The Venturi meter is a device which has been used over many years for measuring
the discharge or flow along a pipe. The fluid flowing in the pipe is led through a
contraction section to a throat, which has a smaller cross-sectional area than the pipe, so
that the velocity of the fluid through the throat is higher than that in the pipe. This
increase of velocity is accompanied by a fall in pressure, the magnitude of which depends
on the rate of flow, so that by measuring the pressure drop, the discharge may be
calculated. Beyond the throat the fluid is decelerated in a pipe of slowly diverging section
(sometimes referred to as a diffuser) in order to recover as much of the kinetic energy as
possible.
Figure 2. Venturimeter
45
2.3 Derivation of Equation to be used for calculation of flow rate:
By assuming steady-state, incompressible (constant fluid density), inviscid,

laminar flow in a horizontal pipe (no change in elevation) with negligible frictional
losses, Bernoulli's equation reduces to an equation relating the conservation of energy at
two points in the fluid flow as
1 1
P1 V1 2 P2 V2 2 (1)
2 2
And from mass balance
Q A1V1 A2V2 (2)
Combining (1) and (2), we get
2 2
1 Q 1 Q
P1 P2 (3)
2 A2 2 A1
Solving for Q:
2( P1 P2 ) /
Q A2 (4)
1 ( A2 / A1 ) 2
2( P1 P2 ) /
Q A2 (5)
1 (d 2 / d1 ) 4
And introducing the beta factor = d2 / d1 as well as the coefficient of discharge Cd: The
above equation true is for an ideal flow (Frictionless flow). In actual there will be more
pressure drop because of presence of permanent pressure loss due to friction. For venturi
tube and the orifice, the equation must be multiplied with the coefficient of discharge, Cd:
Qactual C d Qideal
46
2( P1 P2 ) /
Q C d A2 (6)
1 ( ) 4
Pressure drop can be calculated using the readings of manometer by

P1 P2 ( m ) g (h1 h2 ) (7)
Where,
m : Density of manometric fluid
1 : Density of fluid flowing in the flow meter
3. Equipment and Materials:

The equipment is fully self-contained having its own water storage slump and requires
only connection to a single electrical supply. Water from the slump is delivered to the
service pipe-work and test flow meter by self primary, centrifugal pump. Flow meters are
fitted into pipe system.
The pressure loss across each of the flow meters in turn can only be measured using the
differential manometers provided. The discharge from these flow meters is collected in a
volumetric tank fitted with a remote sight tube and measuring scale. A dump valve in the
base of the tank returns the water to the slump tank for re-cycling.
Figure 3: Front view of the Test Unite
47
Figure 4: The Flow meter Demonstration Apparatus diagram
Useful Data for set-up

Cd for venture meter=0.98
Cd for orifice meter=0.61
Pipe diameter= 39mm
Orifice diameter= 22 mm
Diameter of venturi throat = 18 mm
4. Experiment Procedure:
1. Insert Orifice Plate test section into position and connect to mercury manometer.
2. Prime the pipe network with water.
3. Make sure when there is no flow levels of U tube are equal.
4. Open the control valve to obtain flow of water through the flow meter.
5. Measure the flow using the volumetric tank and a stop watch.
6. Measure differential head between tappings on the flow meter using the mercury
manometer.
7. Repeat steps 3 through 5 to cover zones of low, middle and high flow rates.
48
8. Disconnect the orifice meter and connect venturi meter and repeat the same steps
2-7.
9. Disconnect the venturi meter and connect direct flow meter and repeat the same
steps 2-5.
5. Safety Precaution
Damage to clothing
1. In theory mention the difference between venturi and orifice meter in terms of
performance and applications.
2. Derive the equation of pressure drop calculation for U tube manometer used in the
experiment.
3. Calculate the flow rate using the measured pressure drop for venturi and orifice
meter. Compare this value with the measured flow rate and find % error. Also
generate calibration curve (Actual Vs experimental) for both venturi and orifice
meter.
49
4. Plot Q Vs (P1-P2)1/2 to calculate discharge coefficient Cd. Use regression analysis
to find the constant Cd. for both venturimeter and orifice meter. Why you find the
difference between the discharge coefficient for venturi and orifice. Discuss in
brief.
5. Plot Cd Vs Reynolds number (based on pipe diameter) and compare the variation
with the one you found in literature.
7. References
1. J.O Wilkes, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, Prentice Hall, Boston, 2005.
2. http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-
%20Guwahati/fluid_mechanics/index.htm
50
Date:
Group Number:
.
==============================================================
OBSERVATION TABLE
Part A. Orifice meter

S.No Reading of Manometer Volume Collected Time
h1 (mm) h2 (mm) Liter Sec
51
Part B. Venturi meter
S.No Reading of Manometer Volume Collected Time

h1 (mm) h2 (mm) Liter Sec
Part C. Direct Flow meters
Reading of Volume
S.No Time
Flow meters Collected
LPM Liter Sec
Notes/Observations
Instructors Signature: Date:
52
H1: Natural and Forced Convection Heat Transfer
1. Objective
To determine the forced convection heat transfer coefficient for a vertical heated plate
in air and to compare with standard correlation from textbooks on heat transfer.
2. Back Ground and Theory
Newtons law of cooling: For convective heat transfer, the rate equation is known as
Newtons law of cooling and is expressed as:
q hA(Ts T ) (1)
Where Ts is the surface temperature, T the fluid temperature, A is the area of cross
section, h the convection heat transfer coefficient and q the convective heat transfer rate
(watt). The heat transfer coefficient h is a function of the fluid flow, so, it is influenced by
the surface geometry, the fluid motion in the boundary layer and the fluid properties as
well.
2.1 Natural (free) Convection:

A heated surface dissipates heat primarily through a process called convection.
Heat is also dissipated by conduction and radiation, however these effects are not
considered in this experiment. Air in contact with the hot surface is heated by the surface
and rises due to reduction in density i.e. buoyancy force. The heated air is replaced by
cooler air which is in turn heated by the surface and rises. This process is called free
convection. The hotter the temperature of the surface, the greater the convective currents
and more heat (power) will be dissipated. If more power is supplied to a surface, the
temperature of the surface must rise to dissipate this power.
Over the years it has been found that average free convective heat transfer
coefficient can be represented in the following form for a variety of circumstances [1].
Nu f C (Gr f , Pr f ) n (2)
53
where the subscript f indicate that the properties in the dimensionless groups are
evaluated at the film temperature.
(Tw T )
Tf
2
L3 g 2 (Tw T )
(Gr), Grashof number, = , this is defined physically as ratio of
2
buoyancy force to the viscous force. (For ideal gas)=1/ ( Tw T )/2. L is

characteristic length which is height of plate for the vertical plate.
Pr: Prandtl number, C p / K .
The product of Grashof number and prandtl is called the Rayleigh number.
Ra= Gr Pr (3)
Many correlations for nusselt number relating Gr and Pr are available in the
literature for natural convection heat transfer. One of among them has been provided by
Churchil and Chu [2] and it is applicable for the wide range of Rayleigh number.
0.670 Ra 1 / 4
Nu f 0.68 For Ra 10 9 (4)
1 (0.492 / p )
r
9 / 16 9 / 16
Heat transfer coefficient h appearing in equation (1) can be calculated using equation (3)
as
hL
Nu (5)
K
2.2 Force convection.
Forced convection is a mechanism, or type of heat transport in which fluid motion

is generated by an external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.). Forced
convection is often encountered by engineers designing or analyzing heat exchangers,
pipe flow, and flow over a plate at a different temperature than the stream. However, in
any forced convection situation, some amount of natural convection is always present
54
whenever there are gravitational forces present .When the natural convection is not
negligible, such flows are typically referred to as mixed convection.
In free convection the heat transfer rate from the hot surface is limited by the
small movements of air generated by this heat. More heat is transferred if the air velocity
is increased over the heated surface. This process of assisting the movement of air over
the heated surface is called Forced Convection. Therefore a heated surface experiencing
forced convection will have a lower surface temperature than that of the same surface in
free convection, for the same power input.
For the case of force convection it has been found that heat transfer coefficient
depend on prandlt number and Reynolds number. By solving energy and momentum
balance for the case of flow over heated plate over its entire length, local Nusselt number
has been expressed as
1/ 3 1/ 2
Nu x 0.332 P r Re x (6)
Using equation (6) average Nusselt number ( Nu ) can be expressed as
1/ 3 1/ 2
Nu 0.664 P r Re L (7)
Average heat transfer coefficient h can be calculated using equations (7) and (5)
2.3 Heat transfer enhancement by using Extended Surface (Fins)
Heat transfer from an object can be improved by increasing the surface area in
contact with air. The amount of conduction, convection, or radiation of an object
determines the amount of heat it transfers. Increasing the temperature difference between
the object and the environment, increasing the convection heat transfer coefficient, or
increasing the surface area of the object increases the heat transfer. Sometimes it is not
economical or it is not feasible to change the first two options. Also, in practice it may be
difficult to increase the size of the body to suit. In these circumstances the surface area in
contact with air may be increased by adding fins of pins normal to the surface. These
features are called extended surface. A typical example is the use of fins on the cylinder
and head of an air cooled petrol engine. The effect of extended surfaces can be
55
demonstrated by comparing finned and pinned surfaces with a fat plate under the same
conditions of power input and air flow.
3. Experimental
3.1 Description of Experimental Set Up [2]
The free & forced convection heat exchanger model consists of a vertical
rectangular duct supported by stand and a control panel (Figure1). Each exchanger
incorporates an electric heating element with thermostatic protection against overheating.
The temperature at the base of each exchanger is monitored by thermistor sensor with
connecting lead.
An upward flow of air may be generated in the duct with a variable speed fan
mounted at the top of rectangular duct.
Air velocity in the duct, whether natural or forced, is measured with an
anemometer and indicated on the air flow indicator. The anemometer sensor is inserted
through the wall of the duct.
Temperature sensors are provided for the measurement of the in-going together
with the surface temperatures of exchanger pins and fins. These temperatures are
determined by inserting the probe through access holes in the duct wall.
A control panel incorporates a variable power regulator with a digital readout to
control and indicate power supplied to the exchanger on test. The exchanger is connected
to the panel via the supply lead. A variable low voltage D.C supply is provided for the fan
via the supply lead.
Power is supplied to the equipment via a supply lead connected to control panel.
As shown in figure 5-3-5, the apparatus consists of a vertical rectangular duct supported
by a bench-mounted stand (1). A flat plate (3), pinned (4) or finned (5) exchanger may be
installed in the duct and secured by a quick-release catch (18) on each side. Each
exchanger incorporates an electric heating element with thermostatic protection against
overheating.
The temperature at the base of each exchanger is monitored by a thermistor sensor (19)
with connecting lead (7). While in use, the exchanger may be viewed through an acrylic
window (14) in the wall of the duct. An upward flow of air may be generated in the duct
56
with a variable speed fan (21) mounted at the top. Air velocity in the duct, whether
natural or forced, is indicated on a portable anemometer (2) held in a bracket (15) on the
duct wall. The anemometer sensor (16) is inserted through the wall of the duct. A
thermistor probe (6) permits measurement of the in-going and out-going air temperatures
together with surface temperatures of exchanger pins and fins. These temperatures are
determined by inserting the probe through access holes (20) in the duct wall. An electric
console (8) incorporates a variable auto-transformer with a digital readout to control and
indicate power supplied to the exchanger on test. The exchanger is connected to the
console via the supply lead (10). A variable low voltage DC supply is provided for the fan
via the supply lead (17). A digital readout indicates the temperature using a thermistor
probe connected to a flexible lead (6).
Power is supplied to the equipment via a supply lead (9) connected to the rear of
the console.
Useful Data:
Length of the plate L = 0.10 m

Width of the plate W = 0.11 m
Physical Properties of Air at Atmospheric Pressure
T k Pr
2
K m /s W/mK -
300 1.568E-5 0.02624 0.708
350 2.076E-5 0.03003 0.697
400 2.590E-5 0.03365 0.689
450 2.886E-5 0.03707 0.683
500 3.790E-5 0.04038 0.68
550 4.434E-5 0.04360 0.68
600 5.134E-5 0.04659 0.68
Where:
T is the absolute temperature, is the Dynamic viscosity of air, k is the thermal

conductivity and Pr is the Prandtl number.
57
Figure 1: Calibration Unit Control Panel Figure 2: Rear view of the Flat plate
Figure 3: Rear view of the finned plat Figure 4: Rear view of the pinned plate
58
59
Figure 5: Convection heat transfer apparatus
Place the fan assembly on the top of the duct.
Place the flat heat exchanger into the duct.
Note the ambient air temperature (tA).
Set the heater power control to 75 Watts (Clockwise). Allow sufficient time to rise
to 800 C, and then adjust the heater power to 15 Watts until a steady reading is
obtained. Record the heated plate temperature (TH).
4. Safety Precautions
Dont connect power if any of the appliances are damaged or even partially wet.
Always make sure that all appliances are turned off when changing the test
specimen or when not in use.
Do not touch the hot component (finned, pinned and flat heater) of the unit
During the setting of the heater, do not adjust above maximum operating
temperature of 100oC to avoid heater/component damage.
Calculate experimental heat transfer coefficient for natural and force convection.
Calculate theoretical heat transfer coefficients using the correlation provided in
the manual.
Plot heat transfer coefficient against air velocity and discuss the trend.
60
6. References
1. J.P Holman, Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill, 2002.
2. SOLTEQ Experimental Manual, Free and Force Convection Heat Exchanger Model
HE 106. SOLUTION ENGINEERING SDN BHD, Malaysia.
Experimental Data Log Sheet for Experiment (H5): Convection
Date:
Group Number:
UA tA Q tH
Test
No.
m/sec C Watt C
A 0
B 1
C 2
D 2.5
Notes/Observations
61
Instructor signature: Date:
62
H2: Conduction along a Simple Bar
1. Objectives
To solve the heat equation for a general long solid rod and to compare theoretical
predictions with the actual temperature measurements made in the lab.
To find thermal conductivity of brass and compare it with the value in the
literature.
2. Introduction and Theory
Conduction is defined as the transfer of energy from more energetic particles to

adjacent less energetic particles as a result of interactions between the particles. In solids,
conduction is the combined result of molecular vibrations and free electron mobility.
Metals typically have high free electron mobility, which explains why they are good heat
conductors.
Conduction is defined as the transfer of energy from more energetic particles to
adjacent less energetic particles as a result of interactions between the particles. In solids,
conduction is the combined result of molecular vibrations and free electron mobility.
Metals typically have high free electron mobility, which explains why they are good heat
conductors.
Perhaps the simplest phenomenon that can be modeled by the heat equation is
heat conduction in a long uniform rod. In most instances heat conduction occurs in three
dimensions: a situation that is complicated to analyze. In the laboratory, we use an
apparatus that exhibits one-dimensional heat flow to demonstrate the basic concepts
associated with the heat equation. The heat conduction apparatus consists of a cylindrical
metal bar that is insulated. The metal bar is electrically heated with constant wattage on
one end while the other end is exposed to cooling water. The cooling water is supplied
when the tubes from the back of the apparatus and the electric cooler are attached. The
cylinder is fitted with temperature sensors at evenly spaced locations along the rod. We
will also assume that all the heat flows in the axial direction due to an imposed
temperature as the bar is insulated in the peripheral direction
63
Figure 1. Schematic of a long Cylindrical Insulated Bar
If a plan wall of a thickness (x) and area (Ax) supports a temperature difference (T),
then according to Fourier law the heat transfer rate per unit time (q) by conduction
through the wall is found to be:
dT
q x Ax (1)
dx
dT
q x kAx (2)
dx
Where (q) is the conduction heat flow in the x direction, (Ax) is the cross sectional
area normal to the (x) direction and (k) is the thermal conductivity. The negative sign
implies that heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. In more general
cases, Fourier's Law becomes a vector relationship, which includes all directions of heat
flow.
T T T
q (iq x jq y kq z ) k (i j k ) (3)
x y z
The thermal conductivity (k) varies between different materials and can be a
function of temperature. Because of the enhancement of heat transfer by free electrons,
thermal conductivity is analogous to electrical conductivity and hence, metals that are
good conductors of electricity are also good conductors of heat. Figure 2 shows the
thermal conductivity of various materials at low pressures.
64
Figure 2. Thermal conductivity vs. temperature of various materials
3. Experimental
3.1 Description of Experimental Setup
The apparatus we will be using in this experiment is the H940 Heat Conduction
Unit. There are four items to this unit. The first item is the transformer with a circuit
breaker attached. The transformer consists of two cords, one of which plugs into an AC
outlet and the other into the calibration unit.
The second item is the calibration unit. The calibration unit has two basic
functions. One, it delivers heater power to the heater element within the test unit, and
two, it calibrates the temperatures at each of the nine positions so they can be read by the
digital meter. The far right knob adjusts the amount of power delivered to the heater. The
knob to the left is the temperature selector switch, which will give the temperature at any
of the eight positions (Figure 3).
65
Figure 3. Front View of the Test Unit
The third item is the test unit. The test unit consist two test geometries, an
insulated brass bar for which samples can be placed between the two ends and an
insulated disk. Both of these test geometries have a hose running through the cold end for
which cold water from the sink can be passed through (Figure 6-3-2). The purpose of
having cold water running through the end of the bar or disk is to remove heat that is
produced form the other end. Once the rate at which heat is generated is equal to the rate
at which heat is removed, steady state equilibrium conditions will exist. At this point the
temperatures will be constant throughout the bar or disk and readings can be taken. There
are two heater cords, one from the test bar and the other from the test disk. The cord for
the desired test connects into the heater plug located in the lower right hand corner of the
calibration unit.
The last item of the conduction unit is a box that contains the samples,
thermocouples, and conducting paste. The samples can be placed in the bar test unit by
releasing the clamps and sliding the cold bar end out. The samples fit in only one way.
66
The thermocouples must be placed in order from 1 to 8. There is a label on both the
calibration unit and the test unit letting you know was the number 1 thermocouple starts.
The conducting paste is a highly conductive compound which is designed to decrease
contact resistance when applied to the ends of the connecting bars.
3.2 Experimental Procedures
Take a brass sample (25 mm Diameter) and coat each end including the apparatus
with conducting compound.
**Please note that the distances between the thermocouple sensors are as follows
x1-2 = x2-3 = x3-4 = x4-5 = x5-6 = x6-7 = x7-8 = 0.015mm
Insert the brass sample to the test unit.

Allow a fair amount of cold water to flow through the test unit.
Select an intermediate position for the heater power control and allow sufficient
time (20-30 min.) for a steady state condition to be achieved. If temperature does
not stabilize after 30 minutes, assume steady state.
Record the temperature (T) at all eight sensor points and the input power reading
on the wattmeter (q) in Table 6-6-1.
Repeat the procedure for two other input powers keeping the equilibrium
temperature below 100o C. After each change, allow sufficient time (30 min.) to
achieve steady state conditions.
4. Safety Guidelines:
To avoid burns, do not touch any metal or plastic surfaces on the hot end of the
sample or test unit.
Avoid using a high cooling water flow to prevent disconnection of the hose from
the test unit.
Do not exceed 20 W power delivery under any circumstances, and do not allow
the temperature to go above 100 C at any of the thermocouple locations.
Avoid using too much conducting paste as this may fry the unit.
67
Derive governing energy equation (unsteady state included) for the heat
conduction case you studied in the lab. (Hint: Start with generation energy
equation and cancel the term not applicable to your case).
Write boundary and initial conditions.
Plot temperature profile along the length of cylinder at t=5min, 10 min, 15
minute, 20 min and 30 min. Comment on the plot. Did to get the steady state
profile.
Solve for steady state temperature profile (theoretical) using boundary condition.
Plot steady state temperature profile (Experimental) and compare with the
theoretical equation to find thermal conductivity of brass. Compare the value of
thermal conductivity with the values given in text.
6. References
J.P Holman, Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill, 2002.
Experimental. Operating and Maintenance Manual, PA HILTON, December 2005
68
Experimental Data Log Sheet for Experiment (H2)
Date:
Group Number:
OBSERVATION TABLE
X (m) 0 0.015 0.03 0.045 0.06 0.075 0.09 0.105
Temperature reading at t=5 min
Test V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
q (W)
number (volts) (Amps)
(oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)
q (W)
69
q (W)
q (W)
q (W)
Notes/Observations
Instructor signature Date:
70
H3: Tubular Heat Exchanger
1. Objectives:
To demonstrate the differences between co current flow (flows in same direction)

and countercurrent flow (flows in the opposite direction) and the effect on the heat
transferred, over all efficiency, temperature efficiencies and temperature profiles
through a Tubular Heat Exchanger.
To determine the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for a Tubular Heat Exchanger
using the Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference to perform the calculations
(for co current and countercurrent flow).
To determine the theoretical over all heat transfer coefficient for co and counter
current heat exchanger and compare with the experimental one.
To find the effect of varying the flow rate of hot fluid on heat transfer coefficient.
2. Background
The process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at different temperatures
and separated by a solid wall occurs in many engineering applications. The device used to
implement this exchange is called a heat exchanger, and specific applications may be
found in space heating and air-conditioning, power production, waste heat recovery and
chemical processing. Heat exchangers are typically classified according to flow
arrangement and type of construction. In the first classification, flow can be
countercurrent or co-current (also called parallel). On the other hand, according to their
configuration, heat exchangers can be labeled as tubular, plate and shell & tube heat
exchangers.
The tubular heat exchanger is the simplest form of heat exchanger and consists of
two concentric (coaxial) tubes carrying the hot and cold fluids. Heat is transferred to/from
one fluid in the inner tube from/to the other fluid in the outer annulus via the metal wall
which separates the two fluids.
71
3. Theory
3.1 Experimental approach
3.1.1 Overall Efficiency
To design or predict the performance of a heat exchanger, it is essential to
determine the heat lost to the surrounding for the analyzed configuration. We can define a
parameter to quantify the percentage of losses or gains. Such parameter may readily be
obtained by applying overall energy balances for hot and cold fluids. If Qe is the heat
power emitted from hot fluid, meanwhile Qa the heat power absorbed by cold fluid
(neglecting potential and kinetic energy changes);

Qe mh ( hh ,i hh ,o ) mh Cp h (Th ,i Th ,o ) (1)

Qa mc ( hc ,i hc ,o ) mc Cpc (Tc ,i Tc ,o ) (2)

m h , m c : Mass flow rate of hot and cold fluid, respectively.
h h ,i , h h ,o : Inlet and outlet enthalpies of hot fluid, respectively.

h c ,i , h c ,o : Inlet and outlet enthalpies of cold fluid, respectively.
Th ,i , Th ,o : Inlet and outlet temperatures of hot fluid, respectively.

Tc ,i , Tc , o : Inlet and outlet temperatures of cold fluid, respectively.
Cp h , Cp c : Specific heats of hot and cold fluid, respectively.
Heat power lost (or gained): Qe Qa
Qa
Percentage of losses or gains P 100
Qe
If the heat exchanger is well insulated, Qe and Qa should be equal. In practice

these differ due to heat losses or gains to/from the environment.
The above formulas were deducted taking into account that hot fluid is rounded
by cold fluid. If the average cold fluid temperature is above the ambient air temperature
then heat will be lost to the surroundings resulting in P < 100%. If the average cold fluid
temperature is below the ambient temperature, heat will be gained resulting P> 100%.
3.1.2 Temperature efficiencies
72
A useful measure of the heat exchanger performance is the temperature efficiency
of each fluid stream. The temperature change in each fluid stream is compared with the
maximum temperature difference between the two fluid streams giving a comparison
with an exchanger of infinite size.
Fig 1: Countercurrent and Co-current operation for a shell and tube heat exchanger
Th ,inlet Th ,outlet
Temperature efficiency for hot fluid h 100
Th ,inlet Tc ,inlet
Tc ,outlet Tc ,inlet
Temperature efficiency for cold fluid c 100
Th ,inlet Tc ,inlet
h c
Mean temperature efficiency m ,
2
Subscripts h and c stand for hot and cold, respectively.
73
3.1.3 Overall heat transfer coefficient U
Because the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluid streams varies
along the length of the heat exchanger it is necessary to derive an average temperature
difference (driving force) from which heat transfer calculations can be performed. This
average temperature difference is called the Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
(LMTD) tlmtd.
t1 t 2
LMTD tlmtd (3)
ln(t1 / t2 )
Where t1 and t2 are the difference of hot and cold streams at the ends of heat
exchangers.
t1 = T1-T6
t2 = T3-T4
Note: See Fig 1 to identify temperatures in co-current and counter-flow operation.

We can define an overall heat transfer coefficient U as:
Qe W
U m 2 K (4)
Atlmtd
Where,
Qe = Heat power emitted from hot fluid
A = Heat transmission area
3.2 Analytical approach
Up to now, a methodology to evaluate the performance of a determined heat

exchanger has been developed. Here, an analytical study will be explained in order to
understand the initial steps of thermal and sizing design..
Analytical methods are only approximate in order to get an idea of the heat exchanger
size. The overall heat transfer coefficient is calculated assuming that is constant along all
the heat exchanger and can be predicted with convection correlations. Nevertheless, there
are many factors that affect this value, for instance, the influence of bubbles, corrosion,
74
etc. Manufacturers provide manuals that contain information more precise regarding the
heat exchangers they trade. Then, it is expected that the theoretical values differ from the
experimental ones, fundamentally due to the presence of bubbles. Of course,
experimental results are mandatory because they reflect real conditions of operation.
However, for heat exchanger selection it is convenience to have a methodology in order
to estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient or the size according to given temperature
range and flow specifications.
Before setting the equation that determines the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, lets
take some assumptions. The conduction resistance between hot and cold fluid could be
neglected, also resistance due to fouling.
1
U (5)
1 / hh 1 / hc
Where,
hh : Heat transfer coefficient of hot fluid [W/m2K]
hc : Heat transfer coefficient of cold fluid [W/m2K]
In order to calculate hh and hc, the appropriate correlation will be used.
For flow in circular tubes:
NuD : 4.36 (Laminar flow, ReD < 2300)
Colburn equation
NuD : 0.023 ReD4/5 Pr1/3 (Turbulent flow, ReD > 2300)
hD
Nu D
k
Where D: Diameter of tube
k: Conductivity of fluid
If the tube is non circular, hydraulic diameter is used, instead.
4 Ac
Dh
P
Where Ac and P are the cross-sectional area and the wetted perimeter, respectively.
4. Experimental
4.1 Description of Experimental setup
75
There are three optional small-scale heat exchangers that can be installed to
illustrate the principles and different techniques of heat transfer between fluid streams.
The heat exchangers are individually mounted on a common bench-top Heat Exchanger
Service Unit. The unit supplies hot and cold water streams to the different heat
exchangers installed on it.
The following parameters can be modified for each small-scale heat exchanger:
volumetric flow rates of hot and cold fluids, hot fluid temperature and flow arrangements
(countercurrent or cocurrent).
Fig. 2: Heat Exchanger Service Unit with the Tubular Heat

Exchanger installed.
Tubular Heat Exchanger
76
Fig. 3: Tubular Heat
Exchanger
Fig. 4: Diagram of tubular heat
exchanger
under countercurrent operation.
77
Description of the Tubular Heat Exchanger:
Exchanger:
Please refer to figures 3, 4, and 5
The tubular heat exchanger consists of two concentric (coaxial) tubes carrying the
hot and cold fluids. The tubes are separated into two sections.
Fig. 5: Diagram of tubular heat

exchanger
under co-current operation.
The accessory consists of two concentric tube heat exchangers arranged in series in
the form of a U. The hot water flows in the inner tube and cold fluid in the outer
annulus. The equipment allows the conversion from countercurrent to co-current
operation.
Six temperature sensors are installed in the hot and cold fluid inlets, outlets and mid
positions.
Technical Data:
Each inner tube is constructed from stainless steel tube, 8.3 mm ID,
9.5mm OD.
Each outer annulus is constructed from clear acrylic tube, 12.0mm ID.
Heat transfer section is 660mm long.
78
Load the HT31 Software and select countercurrent operation. For best results,
ensure that the data filter mode (Options IFD Sample Parameters) is set to
custom.
Select the PID temperature controller and set to 60C in automatic mode.
Sampling configuration should be set to manual.
Adjust the cold water control flow (not the pressure regulator) to give 1 liter/min.
and the hot water control to give 2 liters/min.
Allow the heat exchanger to stabilize. (Use the IFD Channel History screen to
monitor the temperatures).
When the temperatures are stable, take a sample.
Vary the hot fluid temperature from30 to 60 degree centigrade with 5 degree
interval and take a sample reading when the temperature becomes stable.
Repeat the experiment using co current flow.
5. Safety Information
Hot surface and liquids: The heat exchanger is capable of producing
temperature that could cause burns. Do not touch the heat exchanger while in
operation while it is in operation and allow sufficient time for it to cool after use
before handling the exchanger or pipe network.
Waterborne Hazard: The equipment described in this experiment involves the
use of water, which under certain condition can create a health hazard due to
infection by harmful micro-organisms. Under COSHH regulations, the following
precaution must be observed.
o Any dust, sludge, scale on which micoro-organism can feed must be
79
Calculate overall efficiency, temperature efficiency and overall heat transfer
coefficient. Compare the results for concurrent and counter current cases.
Calculate theoretical overall heat transfer coefficient for counter current HE and
compare with the experimental one.
Plot experimental overall heat transfer coefficient against inlet hot water flow rate
and comment on the trend.
7. References
J.P Holman, Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill, 2002.
Instruction manual Computer Compatible Tubular Heat Exchanger HT 31,
Armfield, November 2004.
80

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Department of Chemical Engineering

Manual: Chemical Engineering

Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer lab

Lab Rule Observations and Compliance.............................................................................6

Guidelines for Technical Report Writing.............................................................................7

F1: Energy losses in bends.................................................................................................12

F2: Fluid Friction in Pipes.................................................................................................24

F3: Centrifugal Pump Characteristic Curve......................................................................33

F4: Flow meter Demonstration Apparatus.........................................................................42

H1: Natural and Forced Convection Heat Transfer...........................................................50

H2: Conduction along a Simple Bar..................................................................................59

H3: Tubular Heat Exchanger.............................................................................................67

CHME 324 Chemical Engineering Laboratory I (1-0-3)

Pre-requisites: CHME 213 Fluid Mechanics

Co-requisite: CHME 311 Heat Transfer

Instructor Mohammad Hasan Arshad

Textbook: Chemical Engineering Laboratory I Manual

Fox, R.W., McDonald, A.T., and Pritchard, P.J. "Introduction to Fluid

* The letter in [ ] reference the corresponding chemical engineering program

ABET Category Content:

This course supports the following program outcomes:

Published Program Outcomes

Prepared by: Mohammad Hasan Arshad Date: September, 2010

Laboratory coat should always be worn

Full report includes: (One report from each group)

Title of the Experiment:

Submitted by: Group ( ) Section:

1. Coming to LAB on time, and leaving the LAB

* Basis 4 carries 2 points, other bases weighs 1 point each.

Guidelines for Technical Report Writing

A short description of the report elements as stated above is given below:

Use title page provided to you in syllabus.

6. Introduction and Theory

7. Experimental: Set up and Procedure

A description, together with a schematic diagram of the equipment (if any) is

In this section, a summary of the results obtained is given. It could be written

Provide your suggestions or ideas to modify the procedure or the equipment in

Extra calculations, derivations, calibrations and methods of analysis should appear in

2. Background and Theory

Fig 1. Flow through pipe bend

Because of the complexity of flow in many fittings, (k) is usually determined by

Correction for Enlargement and Contraction:

Fig. 2. Flow through sudden enlargement

Loss coefficient is calculated based on inlet velocity for sudden expansion as

Fig 3. Flow through sudden contraction

Loss coefficient for sudden contraction is calculated based on exit velocity as

Figure 1. Front View of the Test Unit

Figure 2. Energy losses in bends Apparatus diagram

3.2 Experimental Procedure

It is not possible to make measurements on all fittings simultaneously and,

Armfield Instruction Manual, Losses in the bends F1-22, March 2004.

Team Members Name: Student I.D. #:

Manometer Manometer Vol

Manometer Manometer Vol

Manometer Manometer Vol

P1 (Bar) P2 (Bar) volume(L) Time (sec)

P1 (Bar) P2 (Bar) volume(L) Time (sec)

P1 (Bar) P2 (Bar) volume(L) Time (sec)

F2: Fluid Friction in Pipes

The Reynolds number is given by

On the other hand, turbulent flow is expected when

Re 4000 Q 1000D / (4)

On this diagram the laminar friction factor, f (laminar) = 64/Re, is seen to be

As the Reynolds number is increased from laminar values, transition to turbulent