Yale University, School of Architecture

The Archaeology of Section

Author(s): Jacques Guillerme, Hlne Vrin and Stephen Sartarelli
Source: Perspecta, Vol. 25 (1989), pp. 226-257
Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of Perspecta.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1567147 .
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1. The term"lack"or manque
refersto
in Lacanian mythology
"a presencemade ofabsence."
JacquesLacan, Ecrits:A Selection,
translatedbyA. Sheridan
(New York:Norton,1977),p. 65.
2. CodexAtlanticus
(Milan:
BibliotecaAmbrosiana),folio850,
previously310 recto,b.
226
ofSection
The Archaeology
andHildneVirin
JacquesGuillerme
Originally, theLacanian mythologists tellus, archaeologicalremains(traces)intothe
therewas lack,whencearoserepresentation, observanceofarchitectural diagrams(tradcs)
whichis thegerminalformand precondition
of all activityofknowledgeand planning.' Of thecountlessbutoftenunrecognizable
vestigesofancientRome,threestandout
In thebeginning,as concernsthearchitec- forthecharismatic effecttheyhaveon the
turalsection,was theruin,morespecifically, mindsofarchaeologists; theseare three
theRomanruin:theensembleoftheruins monumentswhichhaveparticularly fostered
ofthe Urbswhichdisplaysto themagnetized theobjectification ofsections.On theone
gaze of humanist nostalgiaall the stages of hand, we have the amphitheater ofFlavius,
thevestiges'declineand all thebreaches betterknownas theColiseum,and thebaths
thattimehas wroughton theoutershellsof of Caracalla;on theother,therotundaof
edificesextolledbyscholars.Ruinsare,in thePantheon.All wereabundantly contem-
short, thetraces of decay'sravages and lack plated,admired, observed and drawn. The
on theresistant mass, and hence the contours firsttwo greeted one's eyeswiththegaping
and aspectofstructures whichconstitute the breaksin theirstructures and withthe
very bodies of monuments. It is to the hands semi-preserved arrangement of theirvaulting
of timethatwe owe thebringingto light systems. The Pantheon, on the otherhand,
of theframeworks thatarchitectural techne had come downthroughthecenturiesnearly
conceived,worked,erectedand finally intact,withitsinteriordispositionvisible
dissimulated in thetemporarily completed and easilyrepresented butitsinternal
of
appearance perfect construction. structure remaininghidden.Its constructional
apparatusremainedhypothetical and pro-
The problemwe wouldliketo addresshereis vokeda vastrangeof divergent conjectures.
thatofretracingthestepsbywhichinventive The joiningoftheorthogonalstructure of
citizens,fromthereasoningartisanto the theperistyle withtheincurvation ofthemain
curiousphilologist, wereable to translatethe bodywas especiallytitillating to theimagina-
"natural"imagesofbreaksin ancientruins tionsofarchaeologists. Alreadyin Leonardo's
intostableschemataofsectionalcontoursin worka hastilyexecutedsketchposes this
thedocumentsmade bythetraveleras well questionwithoutinsistingon one particular
as theprojectsmade bytheartist.To putit solution;hesitationis a meaningful symptom
anotherway,we wouldliketo glimpsethe of this"visionary"who nevertheless worked
manystageswheretheacuteand questioning rigorously and carefullyat outliningthe
gaze oftechnicianspausedto contemplate detailsof arches(as in thetiburiooftheMilan
in orderto transform theobservationof cathedral).2
Ae
.. ,7 ?
17

~S

I 'siv
"" " "
.".,. "..
.,. ? ..... .

AM,.

2 ? L3-!--:4-
A-1

-
. ," ..

'
Y.. .

AL, : ..
:
? .v,
.
Kim&
.....,
X' '- - -
'"" --

"1 Ml
:i . 1: ," ' ... ? .a
" . --'.
..-" 7. ' ' /
?i '' , ..
;"";: .." i
..: ., ,
;Oh-:".ll?

toBramante,
1. Attributed sheetof
drawingsofancientruins.

partialviewofthe
2. Anonymous,
RomanColiseum,late15thcentury.

struc-
3. Sangalloil Gobbo,external
tureoftheamphitheater ofVerona.

ofthe
4. Leonardoda Vinci,sketch
tiburioat theMilan Cathedral.

227

; hand,
3. CodexChlumczansky (Prague:
Libraryof Czech NationalMuseum),
folio71; W Juufen,
in the manuscript
M6moires etmonumentsPiot,vol. 68
(Paris: 1987),p. 161,pointsout
that"thetwoviews... are copies,
probablytheonlyones,of a lost
modelthatprobablydatesfromthe
same periodas Giuliano'sdrawings
and comes fromhis entourage";he
refersto folios37 rectoand 38 recto
of theCodexBarberini,
Lat. 4424.
4. Amnong themanyexamples,
see folioF3 rectoof theGrant
Kalendrier
etcompostdesbergiers
publishedat Troyesin 1529 by
Nicolas Le Rouge. It is, ofcourse,
butone example;theartificeof
representingthebreakin a wall
can be foundas earlyas in thedeco-
rationsadorningGreekvaseswhen
theyillustrate
an episode taking
place insidea dwellingor cave.
5. Oftencitedin thisconnectionis
theconventionwherebytheNativity
in Renaissanceart
is represented
withina decorof ruins.
The factis thattherotundais theemblem- means,whethernaiveor mannered,tend
aticmonumenton whichspeculatorsin to expressan encounterbetweenRevelation
mattersof architectonics havelong and and History.
insistently expended their energies.They go
so faras to imposeon itsformtheimaginary But hereone mustrecallone of themost
and vividbreakingup of theoutsideonto audaciousstrokesof geniusof the Renais-
theinside,and therebycontributeto the sance,thatof representing the cosmos
teaching and justification of the art of spaccato, through the double correlation of the con-
or verticalsection.One of themostnote- cave and theconvexbytheuse ofglobes.
worthyofsuchexamplesis foundin the Comparedto this,thetwofoldfiguration of
Chlum'zansk) Codex,whichpresentsside by thePantheonseemslittlemorethana timid
side two drawingsbythesame anonymous applicationofthesame principle.Imagining
dated circa 1500.' The firstis a simple the antipodeswas an act ofconceptual
the
and crudeelevation; second one looks like inventionthatmade it possibleto represent
a primitive spaccato.The positioningand theearthas a distinctobjectof our sensible,
strokeof thespaccato are ratherawkwardcom- immediately intuitiverootedness.6It was also
pared to current standards. Yet its merit, the condition forbeingable to configure, in
its
indeed purpose, lies in presenting a draw- plasticallyidenticaland similarly manipulable
ing ofthementaloperationwhichembraces, ball-shapes,theminiaturization ofthetwo
all at once,theinteriorand exteriorofthe spheresofthenaturalmacrocosm,the globe
edificeas well as thethicknessthatseparates of theearthand thatoftheconcavecelestial
them.Here we haveindeeda "tectonic" sphere.Thus one becameaccustomedto con-
cut-outwhosepatternseeksto showthe sideringside byside,as itwere,simultane-
structure or "innerworkings."It is thusa ously,theinsideand outsideofthings,within
diagram(trace) more thought-out and more hand's reach;withinthereachof that"instru-
elaboratethanthetraditional images of ment of instruments,"7 thesignand meansof
breacheswhichgivea glimpseofscenes a rationality thatanalyzesand synthesizes,
belonging to such unusual compartments breaks down and reassemblesmodifications of
of theuniverseas Hell or theEmpyrean.4 scale. The cosmologicalartificeofthespheres
The elaboratedtypeexemplified in this oftheworldwas de jure theexpressionof a
drawingfromtheChlum6zansky Codex also conceptualbravadothathenceforth autho-
standsapartfromsuchimagerywhich rizedtheenterprising advancementof the
revivesmysticalfablesand whosefigurative artifices ofarchitectural graphicfiguration.
dii
Jv -

6. "... today,undertheround
machine/ New landsand diverse
peoples/ havebeen foundbydintof
one readsin the
greateffort,"
maw
"Foreword"oftheDescription
of
Geographyattributedto Marco Polo
and publishedin Parisin 1556.

6,
7. Aristotlereferred
to thehand
in
of instruments"
as the"instrument
PartsofAnimals,687 a-sq.

228 ofSection
TheArchaeology
 "2
@LwIf- 6N
..
?
. '3
. ...-....

:......... 71s k."

? . ......
.: .:. .:

.-.

..............
?
,,
........
.... .
..

n. &ELA
,,

7b6

7a
5. FromLe GrantKalendrier
etcompost
desbergiers,
viewofa
1529.
ofhell,
part

6. PRBaltens, ofthe"ruin,"
allegory
ca.1550.

7a,b. J.J.Lequeu,
elevation
and
section
ofTempleoftheEarth,
ca. 1792.

8. Anonymous, section
exploded of
thePantheonin Rome,Chlumczansky

G Codex,ca. 1500.
o
. .. ... . ... - i. :-"

.....

... ..........
?....
. .
.?... ..........

8
. . . . . "" "."
,:i~

JacquesGuillerme
andHilne Virin 229
8. See WolfgangLotz, Studiesin
ItalianRenaissance
Architecture
(Cambridge,Mass.: 1977),pp. 18-
pointhereis the
21. The important
to a viewofHagia Sofia,
reference
copied froma model byCiriaco
d'Anconafromthefirstquarterof
thefifteenth
century.
9. See Hermolao Barbaroet al.,
C. PliniNaturalisHistoriaelibros
(Basel: 1534),p. 507:
Castigationes,
"... ex libroprimoquan-
Vitruvii
quam scenographiafortasserectius
apud eum scribitur,
quoniam
picturasitnon solumareae,ut
ichnographia,nec frontistantum,
nec tectiuniversi
ut orthographia:
quod scenam,hoc est,tabernaculum
vocaremos Graecumest."
10. One reads:"The adumbration
and recedingof thebackground,
withtheshorteningofthe frontand
sidesoftheedificeseffected
bylines
all correspondto a centerand so is
commonlycalled perspective ...
11. B. Baldo, De Verborum
vitruvianorum (Augusta:
significatione
1612),p. 153.
12. Micraelius,Lexicon
(lena: 1653),
Philosophicum
VO "Sciographia."
13. Ozanam, Dictionnairede
mathematique(Paris: 1691). This is
of
moreor less thedefinition
"profile"givenbytheEncyclopaedia
Britannicain the 1771 Edinburgh
edition.
14. C. Rieger,Universae
civilisElementa. . .
Architecturae
(Vinderborn:1756).
15. C. Wolff,ElementaMatheseos
ed. nova,vol. 4 (Halle:
universae,
1738),p. 487.
16. The "Letterea Papa Leone X"
in thecollectionTutti
is reprinted
gli Scrittidi Raphael,editedby
E. Camesasca(Milan: 1956),p. 63.
230
Let us returnmomentarily, however,to the
figurein the Chlumczansk?Codex. It is
emblematic, we said,ofthequestioninggaze
caston thestructures of edificeswhose
in two
...
appearance is reconstructed artificially ......
dimensions.This gaze is instructive forthe
it
questions poses and for the answers it
a
providesbeyond merelyplayful attitude
to a trulypioneeringone. This attitudeis 9
expressedin a famousdrawingin theRoyal
Collectionat Windsoroftheso-called
templeofPortumnus,whichis apparently
an imitationof a drawingbyGiuliano da
Sangallo.8This drawingand othersembel-
lishupon thethemeoftheruinand mark
a decisivestepin theimportanceofsections.
1
Indeed,thecomparisonand seriationof
thosedrawingswhichpresentaspectsofthe
architectural section,whethertheycorre- 10
to
spond documentary or creativeintentions,
bearwitnessto a surprising diversity of
mannersand pointsofview.These varied
approachesquicklyrisefroma merelyexper-
imentalstageto takeflight.Once archaeo-
logicalcuriosityarmsitselfwiththedemands
ofproportion, thediagrammatic illustration
tendsto becomeuniformand theprotocol
ofthesectionbeginsto submitto academic
conventions.
The terminology would followfarbehind
and was not alwaysrigorous,as we can see
forexamplein French,wheretheterms
coupe,section,andprofilhavelong been inter-
changeable.This vacillationcan probablybe
ascribedto theoriginaltransgression of
Daniele Barbaro,who in his 1556 Venetian
editionofVitruvius, readsciographia for
scenographia in thedefinitionofthethree
types drawingappropriateforarchi-
of
tecture.This contradicted theauthoritative
opinion of Hermolao Barbaro,a relation
of Daniele, who in 1492 in his Castigationes
of Pliny'sNaturalHistory had pointedout
thatscenographia correspondedcorrectly to
theacceptableidea of tectiuniversi scena.9 9, 10. Anonymous, fromthe
drawing
Nevertheless,the 1547 editionofVitruvius RoyalLibraryat Windsor.
byJeanMartindid not failto identify
scenographia withperspective.'0 In 1612, 11. S. Peruzzi,elevation of
/section
however, Baldo's explanationofVitruvius' thefacadeoftheS. ElogioChurch,
vocabularywas contentto bringtogethera Rome.
greatrangeof diverseopinionsand did
not choose,forsciographia, betweenthe 12. A. San Gallo,study
sheetofthe
shadedimageof an edificeputintoperspec- Tempietto,sectionofthebuilding
and
tiveand thedrawingofa profile. " Forty variousdetailstudies.
ofSection
TheArchaeology
yearslatertheLexiconPhilosophicum of
Micraeliusdefinesthetermsciographia as an
orderedrepresentation ofthefacadeand
sidesofan edifice.As synonyms he posits
thetermsmodellum, profilum, protypum,
proplasma.'2 And it is probablynotuntilthe
end of thatcenturythatone findsa clear
identifi-cation betweensciographie andprofil,
in Ozanam, who definesthelatteras the
"geometricand orthographic elevationthat
letsone see theinsideof a building."3
Henceforth,theetymology invokingshadow
refersto theobjectdescribed(theinsidesof
whichare in shadowbydefinition) and no
longer to the manner of representation and
imagealone. Such an interpretation is
affirmed in thevarioususagesof theFrench
wordcoupe.Essentially, in civilarchitecture
thetermcoupedesignatesthearea of a
portionofan edifice,alreadybuiltor yet
to be built,bymeansofa verticalplane
betweentheoutlinesofwhichtheinterior
elevationis represented.Such a figureis still
called intersectioby C. Rieger,who in 1756
definedit thus:Delineatioaedificii, quale
apparitum si
esset, murus primarius externus
removeretur, or "thedelineationof an
edifice,as it wouldappeariftheprimary
outerwall wereremoved.""4This delin-
eationmaybe eithera flator perspective
view.The formercase was termed
Orthographia internabyChristianWolff
in hisElementaof 1738;'" yetthismethod
was designatedas earlyas 1519 by Raphael,
in his famousletterto thePope, bythe
denomination paretedi dentro(innerwall).6
There are a greatnumberofimagesthat
correspondto thisprescription and Daniele
Barbarogivesan exampleofone in his
Practicadellaprospettiva of 1568,wherethe
model of a centralplan tempietto is repre-
sentedwithan acutesenseof theeconomic
codification ofgraphicinformation. The
same representation connects,byrabattment
of thehalf-plane, theorthographic ensemble
ofsectionplus elevation.This is achieved
byrevolvingthehalf-planearounditsline
ofintersection withtheotherplane until
thetwoplanescoincide.
Thistype of
delineation
wouldbecome thefashion
and
we shouldnot be surprisedto see it adopted
withdiverse
andingenious
variations
by
Palladio in his celebratedQuattrolibri,as
well as in manyofhis originaldesigns.'
The paretedi dentrois termed
muchlater,byGuarinoGuarini,
as interna
facies,whichis a section
on a flatbackgroundor section
elevation.
17. Palladio practicedtherabatt-
mentof theprofilesof members
onto thefiguresoftheirelevations;
therabattment
implieda logical
disjunctionin thereadingof
diagramsand theirconceptual
recombination,justas in Barbaro,
who had introducedsuperimposi-
tionsof transparent
plans.For a
long timethedrawingof the
dimensionedperspectival
section
of the"Tempiettoalle Fontidi
Clitumno,"no. 22 in thecollection
of theCivic Museum ofVicenza
has been attributed
to Palladio; now
scholarstendto thinkthatit is
one ofthosedrawingsofantiquities
thathumanistarchitectsused to
exchangein theirkeenhungerto
appropriateancientmodels.

11 12

JacquesGuillermne
and Hene Virin 231
13
18. Althoughwe knowthattwo
programshad been givenfora
GrandPrix in 1701. See the
excellentstudyofJ.-M. Perouse
de Monclos on the Concours
de
l"Acadmnie royaled'architectuire
au XVIIIe siecle(Paris: Berger-
Leuorault,1984).
19. See thetwoimposing
volumesof Disegnidi architettura
dell'Archivio
storico
dell'Accademia
di San Luca,editedbyP. Marconi,
A. Cipriani,and E. Valeriani
(Rome: De Luca, 1974).
232
14
However,aroundthesame timeone
witnessesthedevelopmentof theequally
ingeniouspracticeofjuxtaposingflator
diminishedsemi-elevations withperspective
viewsof thecorresponding interiors,or
evenwithactualsectionsfromwhichissues
the entireperspectivedisposedin theback-
ground.Such is thecase withthe famous
"Desseing du dedansde la chappelledansle
logis" ofAnet,engravedforthePremier
volumedesplusexcellents bastiments
de France
byJacques-Androuet du Cerceau of 1579. To
himwe are indebtedforhis greatcleverness
in thegraphicrepresentation ofcomplex
edifices,and it is no accidentthatto him
have been attributed theastonishingarchi-
tecturalfantasiesof theFitzwilliamMuseum.
TheArchaeology
ofSection
In thesedrawingsthe designerplays,in
moreor less acceleratedperspectives, witha
capriciousvarietyof architectonic milieus.
This formaleffervescence, however,so
typicalof theRenaissance,would graduallybe
soberedundertheweightofscholastic
conventionsin theso-called"classical"and
"baroque"eras.The collectionsofthe
Academied'architecture de Paris,foundedin
1671 butnot regularlyholdingcompetitions
until1720,8 as well as thoseoftherenderings
of thecompetitions oftheAccademiadi
"
S. Luca in Rome beginningin 1677, show
thecanonicalusage of section/elevation
drawingsin theexercisesgivento students.
The programsmostoftenprescribeda cross
sectionor longitudinalsection,but
 Totaattitud.pes

:7
Latitud. -
ped.L. ,
xxx. "
Profund.peC
. ...
..
.... ...

..... .....
:.-.
.....

2
'V
15...
16.17
d . ....
.:
?EE
................,-.-...
,... _ _ _
.i _.

...
....."O.....
16- 1""7"' ": : ...

.
~
. , , .?
... .
. .......
,.....?..
.

.. . log
..
........ . . :ii
13. G. A. Dosio,project
forcircular
:Irk ._
section/elevation.
temple,

'V, . ..
14. J.Rossi,InsigniumRomae -"
......0
Templorumprospectus..., 1684,
elevation/section withplan.
perspective

15, 16. J.-A.du Cerceau,

fromThe
Book ofArchitectural Inventions. ::!-!-i~lids
..wi .;..

18
17. C. Schriver,
"Triumphalis .. " ":" '
. -...-% '..:7
FlorentinorumPorticus ,"from
....
La tresadmirable,tresmagnifique
et triomphanteentree 1550,
....,
section
perspective/elevation.

18. J. Cousin,"Paysage,
"from
Livre de Perspective,1560.

JacquesGuillerme
and Hilene Virin 233
 TELPIANOMOBILEFL 5R I
PERI
. .. L(AMowICI,"
.ABITA
10? :, ,.ANC]I"E.P1,..
.ED. ,.I"Un0,.
....-..-
L7] LIIL
ALJI
L ~ 04.Ir oit)eiosv

p
, Za./

19. .
::' . ::i?.,
in ... /:/';;
./-,:,,, _
./i:,,.,. -:,,:,;......

.. ....
i:!~~~
....... ............_
? ........... .. . . .. ..

.....,..,...-.......

--
1
----------- ic,
-----------NAu. .-. .0
? .?- :

19
' : :'i
"....
,.
... ! "

.. ...
rarelytwosections. Almostalways, however,
in theimportant tests,thesesectionswere
sumptuously washed the
by competitors, who
rivaledoneanother in
withtheirbrilliance
pleasurablybringing outimagesofimaginary
theconstructibility
structures, ofwhich
wasoftenproblematic. Against thissamelure
ofgraphic virtuositywould riseup,with
goodreason, suchdoctrinarians oftheso-
called"neo-classical"
periodas Quatremere
de Quincyand,toan evengreater degree,
J.N. L. Durand,professor ofarchitecture at
theEcolePolytechnique, whomilitantly
fought fora severeeconomy ofgraphic prac-
ticesanda rationalization
oftheprocessof
conception. Thismethodfavored thesection
forthededuction oftheelevations offacades
andtheircorrelation withtheplan.In so
doing he was onlyproviding themeansfor
an enlightened functionalismwhichmatched,
combined andarranged therequired func-
tionsofan edifice,outlinedtheirvolumetric
dispositionsandsubordinated therefore
all
decorativeintentions.

234 TheArchaeology
ofSection
 .....'MOM
.

207

... ... PT-.{.

. . . .
.
.A l.

.}.".".'.....,t
21
....";
... ..-,N,., ., ............'.....
W
7
'.Ls.
.. .: -.'.. ..:' : . .

.-j g.-.-.
-A . fa- A
.w.e.."-.,.
" <"
"'
"... : ;:"<::: Z

-. .. : ;-20'.. . % ...'- '?

....
% ??

...
':. :.":.i .........
....... ...;!V
''
... .... ...
.....i!:...,..:.........N:....
.... ..... "
."."'.

2
...i. .. . iiiii :"!!: "i"
...
....?.
....W-..
!;;.--!!;:
.:.:.-;i"...-..,,:-.:;.
"" " : ' ,. ? " ..
? .. .Ow. .,7 " .?:..',..-
' ,v .. :.', ::

, , . ,? ...
,.,:.. . .. ... ... .. .!.. . -
.. . 7.
,.,..
., ...- .,:...-- ', , ,...- , : :- . . .. .
X...-

. ,. -. -. -. ,. . : : . -. ,
-.,-z.,i--

- .....
~~~~~~!5-
. : '..- .. ..
.- ..... 46.;- ., .-!.

andHilMe Virin
JacquesGuillerme 235
22
It is clear,furthermore, thatmanya complex
structure is definedfirstand foremostin rela-
me A .
tionto itssection.This is truefortheaters
whose exteriorsgivelittleindicationof the
machineryinside.It is evenmoretruefor
buildingsestablishedon inclinedsites,where
eventhoughadvantagescould be gained
in suchlocations,one had to deal withthe
problemof thestructure's foundations
and avoid interference to theline ofview.
24
Concernwiththeline ofviewwas one of
f
theprimordialparametersoffortification. In
thisregard,theprojectforthe cenotaphof
Laperouse byLabrousteis exemplary, as
i)Ai it shows,all at once, how a sectiondesigncan
be a meansofcontrollingcompositionsand
an occasionforaestheticizing therendering
of theproject.This use of thesectionmerits
closerexamination.In thiscase precisely,
thesectionbringsto lightpropertiesof the
................... compositionthatwould otherwiseremain
unnoticedupon firstconsiderationof the
constructed monument.One imaginesthat
heretheeyeswouldbe takenup withthe
ingeniousscenography of thesensiblequali-
tiesof theelevation'ssurfaces.The epi-
dermalcontrastbetweenformlessroughness
and formalrigorexpressestheopposition
betweentwotemperaments of theuniverse,
thatofnaturalchaos and thatof cultural
memory.At theheartoftheboulders
- therawmaterialin frontof thecenotaph-
thealignmentoftheinscriptions on the
polishedcylindrical cut-outwhichwindsper-
fectlyaroundthemodel oftheterraqueous
globe centeredon thepedestal,completes
the allegorybysuggestingthathistory
preparesthetimeof thefiniteworldeven as
it separatesman fromnature.Erectedfacing
thesea, theelevation,withitsdisplayof
inscriptions, dissemblesall signsof thedepth

236 ofSection
TheArchaeology
 22. C. Barabino,Clementino
1789,Accademia
Competition, di
S. Luca,Rome,longitudinal
section
ofa theater
project.

23. C. de Wailly,
perspective

DE section fora performance

ofproject
hall,1771.

24. J.J.Lequeu,from Diffdrents

, O'
projetspourterminer lesdeux
escaliers
de l'eglisede la Madeleine
de Roiien,1779,section/elevations.

H. Labrouste, forthe
project
Lapirousemausoleum, 1829.
25. Frontalsection
26. Sagittalsection

25

26,Il

..........

26

JacquesGuillerme
andHilkne 237
V'rin
 ofitscryptand concealsthedispositionof
thismakessentient thedoctrine
that
itssecretorganization.Only thesagittal as an artconscious
architecture, ofitsmeans,
sectioncan annulthemaskingscreenthat consists
ingivingmeaning to artifices
by
whenanalyzed
provestobe nothing
lessthan relativizing
theirdimensions.
a palliative.
Labrouste
hasherebrought
to-
getherthesignifying detailsof an apparatus The casedescribed abovefurther instructs
whoseprimary functionis to preservethe us thatthesectionis,byitsveryessence,
relicsof a scientific expeditionand to honor associated inarchitecture withverticality;
thepoliticalorderthatmade it possible. although onecanconceiveofchoosing a sec-
The section,indeedthetwosections,sagittal tionalplanevariously inclinedon thehori-
and frontal, enableone to see a complex zon,as onedesires. Yetfroman essentially
cryptal volume whosevisibleapertures, later- tectonic pointofview,thevertical is impera-
allyarranged,afforda bird's-eye viewonto tiveinthatitdefines anddividestheforces
theopen reliquaryand thesimulacrum ofweight, weight beinganinvariant parame-
ofLaperousewhichseems,in thisinstance, terofallconstructive parexcel-
practice,
deliberately reducedin size. Shapedbyan lence.Ifsections inarchitecturehavediverse
experiencedmasterofheroicstatuary, the functions forthechoicesofbuilding ele-
figure of the navigator, standing at the back ments'disposition, they arealsothe necessary
of thecrypt,givesordersbyvirtueofthe referent ofallanticipation ofconstruction;
volumen, or rolleddocuments,he holdsin his theydetermine inthemostimmediately
right hand. This hand,theringoftheanchor visiblewaytherelationship between forms
and thecenteroftheglobe are all rigorously andforces. It wasno coincidence that,
aligned,whilethehero'screativegaze,if forexample, thevenomous conflicts between
it werenot interrupted bythebronzedoor, theengineers ofthePontsetChaussees
wouldextendwithoutend intotheocean (theDepartment ofCivilEngineering) and
lappingat thefootofthestructure. In other thearchitects, as wellas thecontractors, at
words,thearchitectural composition,so con- thetimeofthe1796-1800debateson the
trolledas it is, is evidentlysubordinated to reinforcement ofthepillarsofthePantheon
an intangibleaxiswhichlinks,on bothsides ofSoufflot inParis,wereexpressed interms
of a closed door,twominiaturized figures: ofshoring andbuttressing andessentially
thoseofthesailorand thesea represented in givenconcrete expression bydiagrams of
theglobe.These figuresrestmeanwhileon verticalsections. In thisverysingular case
two"real"objects:thestockoftheanchor study, theideasforrestructuring theedifice
savedfromthewatersand thewatersthem- bearresemblance tomathematical treat-
selves.It is easyto see thattheformsofthe mentsofproblems oftheresistance ofmate-
projectare not limitedto unitingindiscrimi- rials.Theyprefigure themodernanalysis of
natelythenecessarypartsof a commemo- structures fortheyhaveas theirgoalthe
rativeprogram,butconsciouslyshape games conformation ofsupplementary members to
ofscale distortion fromwhichemanatesthe be bondedwitha masonry indangerof
semanticclusterofthecomposition.The collapsing ontoitself. Moreover, ina caseas
markofthisrelationship ofscale is even complicatedas theParisPantheon,sections
moreevidentin therelationship unitingthe are inevitabledocumentsoftheanalysisof
rolled-upwritings of the King'sorders, themasonryblocks,and theyaffectthestudy
placedin thefigure's hand,withthehistorical ofstructuresas well as themakingoftrans-
textunrolledin thelightof day,overthe actions.More generallyspeaking,from
hollowed-outcylinderofpolishedgranite; thisperspectivewe mustconsiderthesection

238 TheArchaeology
ofSection
 ;A

iwe
p A

1
2r
:2: : * 3U
%
:..Awi ,U
").i~i ".; I

.KK

27,. .*

as a sortof contractualdocumentwhich 27. J. G. Soufflot,

Ste. Geneviive,
thearchitectaddressesto thecommissioner studies
forthecupolastructure.
and to thecontractor, ifnot implicitlyto
himselfas well.We would do well to recog-
nize at thispointin our historicalsurveythat
thearchitectural sectionsteadilygainedin
theoreticaland practicalimportanceas the
complexity oftheprojectsincreasedand
thetermsofthesocial divisionof laborwere
established.These two componentsof
thepracticeof civilarchitecture are well
illustratedin thehistoryof thedevelopment
ofnavalarchitecture duringtheverysame
periodthatwe havejustexamined,from
theItalianRenaissanceto theend of the
FrenchRevolution.

and HilnMeVrin
JacquesGuillerme 239

20. Hobier,Counsellorto the
King and TreasurerGeneralofthe
EasternNavy,De la construction
d'unegallaireetdesonequipage
(Paris: 1622),p. 4.
21. This inclinecorrespondsto
whatthecarpenters
called "pitching
bystern,"thatis, theship's
tendencyto sinktowardstheback.
22. FatherPaul Hoste was a Jesuit
and originallyfromBresse- two
reasonsforColbertto doubtthe
validityofhis teaching.He was
thussentto sea, and accompanied
D' Estreeand Tourvilleon expe-
ditions.His Hydrographie,
reprinted
numeroustimes,showsa concern,
rareamongeducatedmenat the
time,forpracticalusefulness.
23. FatherPaul Hoste, Thdorie
de la construction
desvaisseaux
(Lyon: 1697).
24. PierreBouguer,Traitidu
navire(Paris: 1746). Pierre
Bouguer,mathematician,
physicist,
astronomerand geographer,
taught
in thewesternports.
hydrography
25. These are theframesarranged
accordingto themodelsand
templates;theotherframes,filling
frames,havebeen tracedfrom
thebeginningwiththeaid of
ribbands(horizontally
placed
planks)whichservedas references
forestablishing
dimensions.
26. Bouguer,Traitidunavire,p. 56.
27. Bouguer,Traitidunavire,p. 27.
240
To givetheship'shulla regularsurface architecture. One mightevensaythatthe
whichwillassumelinesthatcurvedifferently riftbetweenarchitecture and construction
in all directions, and to achievethiswiththe was expressedin themannerin which
help of wood that is not curved except in a one used theterms"plans"and "sections."
singleplane: such is thenature of thework of The royalordinanceof 1683 obligated
marinecarpentry. Fromtheveryfactthat carpenters to representon paperthevessels
thepieceshaveat leastone of theirmanysur- forwhichtheyare aboutto presentan
facesthatis rectilinear, forming a rightangle estimate;it required"a planin vertical
withtheadjacentsurfaces, it followsthat sectionwitha horizontalsection,"thatis, a
theship'sbodyis entirelycomposedof"right sectionand a plan. Severalyearslater,Father
anglesand straight lines."20It also follows Paul Hoste, professorofhydrography at
thatelaboratingthesectionsis a traditional theL'ecole d'hydrographie at Toulon,22
procedureof construction. One might added a thirdsectionto thelistwhichwould
evensaythattheconceptionof theformsof be takenalongthewaterline,and specified
theshiptakesitsbearingfromthesesections; thereasonforthisrequirement: "As the
in
theformsare engendered succession, plans [ordrawings]ofvesselsmustprovide
startingfromthetwofirstand principal an exactrepresentation ofall thevessel's
verticalsections,and traversetheship'sbody parts,threedifferent projectionswillbe
at itspointsof maximumlengthand made thereof."23The wordwas spread:the
maximumwidth. sectionis buta projectionaccordingto a
plan; at thecourt,it is called"planin sec-
These twosectionsare thefirstones tion,"or as we knowit,a sectionaldrawing.
chronologically and theprincipalones in as
muchas all theothersare deducedfrom In 1746,PierreBouguer,in his Traitidu
themwiththeaid ofarithmetic ratiosthat naviredescribesvariousmethodsfor"pro-
guide the ruler and compass. A sectionis the jectingthewholevesselonto a planeper-
shapethatmustbe assumedbythecombina- pendicularto itslength,"thatis, in section/
tionofpartsthatmakeup the"spine"and the elevation.24This designpractice,which
"ribs"oftheship,its"skeleton":thatis to appearedin the 1670s,becamewidespread
say,theensembleofkeel,stemand stern, at thestartoftheeighteenth century.It
in thelongitudinalsection,and floortimbers, consistsofrepresenting in a singlefigure
stanchionsand futtocks in thetransverse the exteriorcurvesof all thechief
frames,25
section.The lattersection,and theothers whichstartto narrowat themidshipbeam,
derivedfromit,are nothingbuttherepresen- and arrangingtheframesofthesternand
tationsof thechiefframesof thevessel, stemon eitherside of a median,or theline
designed full-sizein the template room and ofverticalsymmetry. "This sortofprojection
cutup intothinor cardboardplanks.These sufficesto let one knowtheformoftheship
framesare thenarrangedat preciseintervals and to enablethebuildersto startcon-
acrossthekeel;thewood piecesthatcon- struction," and "ifone wishesto project
stitutethemhavebeen patternedafterthese theshiponto anyotherplane,it willbe easy
models.At thesametime,themaster to deducethisnew projectionfromthefirst
carpenter makes projections on the ground one."26However,thesame Bouguerpoints
withthehelp of a plumbline and rulersgrad- out that"theword'section'in shipbuilding is
uatedaccordingto certainheightstakenfrom appliedparticularly to thosesectionsthat
theframes, whichallowhimto regularize are made perpendicular to theship'slength
theoutlinesofthehorizontalplanesand par- and thefirstone is thelargestof all,the
ticularly the"waterline"thatdescendsalong one thatindicatesthemastermodelor the
theship'shullat a pre-established angle.2' midshipframe."27 These observations
Thus thebuilder's"plan"is onlya means by Hoste and Bouguerare indicativein more
forcontrolling theregularity ofthevessel's thanone wayofthecomplexconnections
profiles.It is renderedpreciseduringthe existingbetweentheknowledgeand practice
courseof construction. ofshipbuilders and thatofthe"geometers
and physicists" who stroveto rationalize
It was not at all thesame forthosewho,start- buildingpracticesaccordingto theirown
ing aroundthe 1640s,had a handin naval modelsand principles.
TheArchaeology
ofSection
 Pl. XVI.

7
ll

-----------

' "ME"EM

-.-".103"
? ,.. ...
.

28. E E. Chapmann, Architectura

navalismercatoria,1775.

and Hilne Virin

JacquesGuillerme 241
28. FranqoisCoulomb,"Livre
des vaisseauxcon-
de construction
tenansle nom des pieces,leurs
liaisonset les proportionsgendrales
de la masture,comm'aussypour les
flutteset chaloupespar Coulomb
des
fils,Maistre-constructeur
vaisseauxdu Roy dansl'Escolle de
de Toulon,"Biblio-
construction
thequeNationale,Manuscrits,
nouvellesacquisitionsfranqaises,
ms 4070.
29. The land-lineis theline
tracedon thegroundat theoutset
upon whichpart
ofconstruction
ofthekeelis placedwhenforming
theshapeoftheship.
30. In themid-seventeenth
centuryand in mostcases intothe
startoftheeighteenthcentury,
thelengthofthevesselwas
definedbythelengthofthe"keel
touchingtheearth";thekeelbeing
"thebasisand foundationfrom
whichall theotherpartstake
theirdimensions."See Dassie,
L'architecture
navale(Paris: 1677),
de la
p. 15, and Aubin,Dictionnaire
marine(Amsterdam:1702).
242
For thebuilder,thesection is a materialwork
instrument: thetemplate, a woodenmoldor
millboardpattern,full-size;theplan is onlya
meansofpracticalcontrol.Conversely, for
thearchitect, thesectionis onlya "planin
section,"a projectiononto a planethatmight
easilybe thatofpaper:theprojectionof
one section,thenquicklyofseveralsections,
and soon of all thetransverse sections.
As Hoste says:it is a questionofprovidinga
formwithall thepartsofa whole,theship.
The architect's planin sectionis an analytic
processthatstartsfromthewholeto getto
theparts.For themastercarpenter, pro-
ducing the section(thetemplate) then
and
theplan (thecheckingmethod)is a synthetic
process.His pointof departureis thetimbers
he has at his disposalwithwhichhe must
compose.If he cannotshapetheproper
piecesofwood, can he prepareto buildwith
onlytheaid ofdrawingsofthecurvesthat
limittheframes?It is certain,however,
thatthemastercarpenters onlybecame
"builders" a titlegrantedin 1689 - for
- twokindsoftransverse
havingadoptedthepointofviewthatdefines
navalarchitecture: takingtheintendedpur-
pose oftheworkas thepointofdeparture
ratherthanusingthepartsas a pointof
departure.FranqoisCoulomb,masterbuilder
ofthevesselsoftheKing at theshipbuilding
schoolin Toulon,beginshisLivredecon-
structiondesvaisseauxbydeclaringthat"it is
necessaryto showthereasonswhichare the
basisforgivingproportions to thekeelofa
vesseltouchingtheearth";thatis, "one
mustproceedaccordingto thequantityof
cannonsthevesselis to carry," whichmakes
it possibleto calculatethetotallength,from
stemto stern.28This length,reducedby
TheArchaeology
ofSection
one eleventhand one fifteenth (which
correspond to therakes - the angle- ofthe
stern-postand stem-post)furnishes the
keel'slength.Once thekeelis fashionedand
placed on theland-line,29thestern-post
and stem-postcan be raisedwiththehelp of
apparatusesthatgeometrizethespace inside
whichthevesselis beingerected.The same
would be trueforthetransverse sections.
This requirement ofinterpreting thesizes
ofpartson thebasisof dimensionsrepre-
sentedon theplansin sectionforcesone to
go backto workingwiththeconfiguration of
thewholeto gettheformsand dimensions
oftheparts,so thatone can once againpro-
ceed accordingto thetraditional method
whichmovesfromthepartsto thewhole.30
It is to thisarithmeticgymnastics thatthe
buildersmustsubmitiftheywishto control,
accordingto theircustom,theformsthey
producewiththehelpofthetablesand
instruments theyuse. There are,therefore,
sections:thecarpen-
ter'sframedrawingand thearchitect's sec-
tionaldrawing.Althoughtheyrepresent,
based on thesame divisions,thesamebodies
ofthesamevessels,theydiffer fromeach
otherin thattheybelongto twodifferent
modesofintelligibility ofthetangible,
whetherwe are talkingaboutthematerial
and formor thetimeand space withwhich
one is working.
One mayinterpret thehistoryofshipbuild-
ing in thisera as a renewed
constantly
attempt to make the two kindsofsections
coincide.In thisrespecttheconstruction
ofwarshipsmade ofwood and propelledby
 functions ofa machine ofthissort.Such a
machinewas to be suppleand strong,solid
and light,swiftand stable.The vesselis
henceforth conceivedas a physicalobject,
subject to calculableforces.Its formsand
structures mustresultfromtheapplication
of physicsto thearrangement ofitsparts.
The "builders,"formerly "mastercarpenters
sailsisparticularly interesting. Such ofthenavy,"havebecome"engineer
construction began spread themid-
to in builders."The royalordinancesratifying
seventeenth century andinthelate thesedenominations in 1623, 1689 and 1765
eighteenth century reached a levelofper- also institute, certainrelation-
correlatively,
fection astheproduct ofplanscalculated shipsbetweenconception,representation
byengineers. Although limited interms and construction. The resultis thatthe
ofduration, theconstruction ofwarships approachesadoptedfortherepresentation
gaverisetoinnovations andwassubjected ofsectionsshowhow,duringthisperiod,the
tonormative constraints. Anobjectof modesofapplication wereopposed,com-
concern togovernments, itinspired a broad binedand transformed in shipbuilding:
the
literature:memoirs, inquiries andstatutes applicationofa tangiblebodyonto another,
thatmakeitpossible tofollow thehistory. of a tool to a materialform,ofa theory
Onecandistinguish three phases: thefirst to matter.These modesofapplicationcor-
wasaround the1640s, and the work by respondrespectively to thepractice,theart
Robert Dudley, Dell'arcano delmare, gives and thescienceofconstruction, which,
onea goodoutline ofit.Thiswork repre- farfrombeingmutuallyexclusive,never
sents a greateffort tocontrol thedesign of cease to assistand supportone another,and
frame models according tothetradition notwithoutcertainconfusions.
ofthemaster carpenters. Thesecond
to
stagecorrespondsgeneralized concern Most assuredlytheworkbyDudley marks 31. RobertoDudleo, Dell'arcano
among governments toregulate thevessels an important momentin thetransition from delmare(Florence:1646). Dudley
according torank and to geometrize their thefirstofthesesortsofapplicationto the was knownas Dudleo whenhe
forms. Thisperiod ischaracterized bycross- second.His ambitionwas not onlyto enable wrotehis book.
sectional drawings present the
which all carpenters insimmetria
tofabricare i vascelli,
sections ina single representation andindi- or "buildvesselssymmetrically,"buteven
cateonlytheexterior profiles frames.
of the moreto be able to do so in theabsence
Thisholdstrueuntil themid-eighteenth oftheinventorwho claimsto wishto find
century, atwhich timethebuilders, who il remedio
perredurgliin maggioreperfezione,
werebecoming engineer builders, beganto or "themethodforreducingthem[the
grapple with the internal structure ofthe To these
vessels]to greaterperfection.""3
vessels andwiththedisposition oftheparts ends,Dudley putsforwardhis "invention":
designed tostrengthen it.Onewitnesses in
thisthird stage, especially in France, anorgy
ofminutiae. Theengineer builders form
assemblages ofparts andnolonger merely
assembled parts. Theadvantages ofsystems
ofreinforcement madevisible insections
weretheresult of"calculations" thataimed
tooptimize thediverse andcontradictory

JacquesGuillerme
and HMlkne
Virin 243
 ddl CaCdp:4.Fi 4.
\ \
trromentoquadrato

........:
.............
................ Isg
.W l inozo&it :U-C~~-

-
w

aO
" yr. a4 ..I.
:e:as.
wasorwio.

.....-.. .. ............;i : : s . i. ia i i
:

A'W?~&
tooo ~ N\s
"-e~!#wl~if#R.~ "\~.&
'\

20mamnt1
"'4t\.
p oedl
,: 2
IL "t.o:'
''' ?
,,.'2aw : .

DGo2 b. \
P ? .

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:
-~.
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pcd. ..ol.rgo .i
29

244 ofSection
TheArchaeology
 Jo. .2 20 0
23 231

....0.20

an ensembleofinstruments conceivedto .

designthetemplatesof different kindsof
ships. Once one knows the main dimensions
customarily used,it is a matter here of
adjustingtheproportionsand formsof all
thechiefframes.Four instruments makethis
possible:two tables,one of principalmea-
sures,theotherofproportions;a compass
to relatetheformerto thelatterat fullscale
on thetemplates, whichis done withthe
aid ofthefourthinstrument, a quadrangular
wooden modelwhosepartsare arrangedand
calibratedso thatthemeasurements can
be easilyconvertedintoregularcurves.
The references are lettersand numericalpro-
gressionscorresponding to thetables,
compass and model. The sectionsare defined
on thebasisofthelargestdimensions.The
vesselwhosetimbersare herebeingcon-
structedmustbe twentyfeetwide in B along
thesectioncorresponding to thepointof
greatestwidth(GarbodellaMezania),which
is indicatedbythedottedline.
When Dudley,in his Dell'arcanodelmare,
presentshis "invention,"we shouldunder-
standthiswordin thesenseof discovering,
bringingto lightand divulginga practice
keptsilentas a tradesecret.Nevertheless,he
is not contentmerelyto describethesteps
ofconstruction, butfurnishesas well the
meansto realizethemin accordancewithhis
intentions.His intentionsrequireworking
according sucha methodas thatbywhich
to
themastercarpenterproducesan object,
in keepingwiththeprescribeddimensions
and theplansand sectionsthathe has
designedand wishesto apply.However,in
Dudley'sworktheseplansare presented
a
.D55~
6Si
7Sh
aftertheinstruments thatare supposedto Iy
maketheirrealizationpossible.This is
no accident.On thecontrary,
4 40
certainly 80....
everything leads one to concludethatthis
order(instruments, thenplansand sections)
the
expresses relationship thatis established
betweenthegeneraland theparticular. 4 9 ' . . . 45
......90.
It is theinstrument thatis mathematical. As
such, it mustbe universal.Thus we must Bio
startwithit,and followan ordersimilarto 30
thatofstrictdeduction:fromprinciples
to theirapplicationto thetangiblydiverse.
Still,theseinstruments, bytheirverycon- 29. R. Dudleo,Dell'arcano
ception, manifest a concern forgeneralizing del mare,1646, thirdinstrument.
and mastering traditional procedures,as
well as forsynthesizing know-how.This 30. R. Dudleo,Dell'arcano
is evident,firstof all,in thecomparisons del mare,1646,fourth instrument.
made betweenthedimensionsofdifferent
shipsand thevesselsof different nations
(firstinstrument), thenin theprogression
ofproportionscharacterizing them(second
instrument), together with thecompass
whichcan be used fornumerouskindsof
ships(thirdinstrument). The thirdinstru-
mentbearson theouterfacesofits"legs"
thecalibrationscorresponding to thepro-
portionsofone kindofvessel;on theinside
faces,are thosecorresponding to galleys
andpassavolantes. Lastly, the fourth instru-
mentappliesto all thesectionsof one same
ship.Althoughthelatterinstrument
indicatesa concernforsynthesis, one that
submitsto constructional considerations,
thesameis notthecase forthethird
instrument. What could be theusefulness,
in designingtheformsofa galley,of
employingat thesametimecalibrations
used in thedesignofa vessel?Mightthis

JacquesGuillerme
andHelkneVirin 245
32. In 1681,in a memoirsentto
thecourt,de Viniers,a captain,cites
Dell'arcanodelmareas one ofthe
rarestof books"in thehandsof the
curious"and requeststhata new
one be made "whichHis Majesty
wouldhaveprintedand would sell
cheaplyin seaports"(Archives
Nationales,MarineG 86). This
a veritablesum-
book represented
maryof all relatedknowledgeat the
timein Europe.L'Hydrographieby
P. G. Fournier,printedin 1643
and morescholarlythanscientific,
proposedon theotherhanda geo-
metricmethodfordrawingsections.
33. This was duringthe 1660s,a
periodmarkedbymuchespionage,
thepurchaseof foreignvessels
and thearrivaland acceptanceof
Dutch carpenters.
34. See theJanuary28, 1660 letter
byColbertto Hubac theyounger,
a carpentersentto Holland who
was laterto pass throughEngland:
"Beyondthegeneralobservations
you make,you must,ifpossible,
informyourselfas to thedetailof
theproportions,as it is essentialto
knowhow manyfeetofkeel a
vesselwith100 cannonshas." In
P. Clement,Lettres.. . de Colbert,
vol. 3 (Paris: 1864),p. 234.
A "sweep"in shipbuilding terms
refersto a methodof tracingthe
curvesof theship'smainmembers.
35. See theletterfromColbert
to Colbertde Terron,March 5,
1671: "I beg you to considervery
whatI wroteyou on
carefully
themodesofconstruction in
Englandand Holland." In Clement,
Lettres.. . de Colbert,
p. 346.
36. LetterfromColbertto
Duquesne, September18, 1678,
BibliothequeNationale,
Manuscrits,nouvellesacquisitions
ms 9481.
francaises,
37. ArchivesNationales,
MarineG 86.
246
be themanifestation
doublecalibration not
ofanyconsiderationsofusefulness butofthe
contemporarywavering between generalizing
and
synthesis universalizingabstraction?
We knowthatinthisperioda greatnumber
ofnewinstruments wereinvented andeach
timedeclaredas theuniversal
instrument
formeasuringeverysortofvessel.Sucha
contains
claimbyitself thecontradictionsof
thisambition.
The factremains thattheensemble of
instrumentspresented byDudleyrevealsan
orderofconception inwhichtheforming of
thematerialis no longerdictatedby the
chronology oftheactsofconstruction, which
usedtostartfromtheavailablematerials. thisconnectionthatone findsexpressedin
It nowbecomespossibletofollowthearchi- thecorrespondence theneed to obtain
tostartfromthedimensions the "trueproportions."
tect'sintentions: They come to realize
andthesectional drawings, orbetter yet, thatknowingthedimensionsis notenough
to moveindiscriminately fromonedetermi- to constructtheproperforms,entrusting
nationtoanother. Atleastsuchis the thistaskto thegood willofthecarpenters.
claimmadebyDudley.Thatittooka century One mustalso directtheir"manners,"
tocomeclosetothisidealshouldcomeas (maierein Dudley),thatis, the"sweeps,"the
no surprise.32 methodsand theforms. 34At thispointwe
entera secondphase,starting in 1670,where
Colbert,andafterhimSeignelay,Minister it is a questionofapplyingoneselfto the
oftheNavyandStateSecretary, hadto "manner"offorms,and in particularto that
rebuildtheFrenchfleetandtogether of " In
thecross-sections.
they 1671,Colbert
madedecisionstoobtainthebestvessels envisagesthecreationofbuildingcouncils
In
possible. following theircorrespondence, that willbringtogether,in theports,the
onenoticesthattheygivetheirattention representatives ofthe administration,officers
tothedimensions
first thento and mastercarpenters.It is a questionof
ofthevessels,
"
theirproportions. therelation conducting"theconstructions in sucha way
Regulating
between theprincipaldimensionsand thatone is assuredthatin buildingaccording
thoseofthepartsis essential
whenitis a to theestablishedproportions and dimen-
matterofreproducing thesamevessels.In sionsthevesselswillbe successful."36
handicraft identical
production, reproduction
the of
presents greatest It is in
difficulties. In 1681,theschoolsofconstruction
were
founded37and,in 1683,theordinanceforthe
Navy is promulgated wherebythecarpenters
are requiredto makesectionaldrawingsof
vesselsbeforeconstruction.Fromthisperiod
on, carpentersare subjectedto new obli-
gationsconcerningthedisclosureoftheir
knowledge.They mustteachwhatthey
knowin theschools,whichdoes not come
aboutwithoutdifficulties,and theymust
writememoirsand bookson building.38The
same,however,was also askedofofficers
suchas Duquesne and Tourville,and ofthe
engineerRenau.Inspectorsofconstruction
weresentintotheportsto getthecarpenters
to talkand to compare,and evento correct,
theirpractices.39
ofSection
TheArchaeology
In 1679,theengineerand mathematician
Renau inventsa machinethatis supposedto
makeit possibleto copyframes.In 1680,
Tourvillehas thetemplatesused at Toulon
reproduced,"in orderto sendthemto every
port."' Blaise,a carpenter,constructsa
demountablemodelofa vesselthatis dis-
patchedto thecourtwhereit willserve,at a
colloquiumincludingTourville,Duquesne,
Renau,Blaise and Hoste, "to regulateonce
and forall theproportionsof all theribs
of everyvessel."41Renau therepresentedhis
machineand a manuscript, "Memoiresurla
construction des vaisseauxdanslequel il y a
une methodepouren conduireles faqons"
("Memoiron theBuildingofVessels:In
Which is Containeda Method forManaging
the Sweeps").42The "machine"triedout
during1680 is sentto theportsinJanuary
of 1681. In themeantimeSeignelaytempers
Renau'sgeometricalardorbecausehis
instrument cannotdeterminesections:
"You mustnot deludeyourselfthatyou have
alreadyreachedsucha levelofperfection,"
butonlyrectify profilesand,he writes,
"above all,you shouldrememberthatit is
not up to you to determinetheproportions,
butto followwithyourmachinethose
determinedbythemastercarpenters."43
Renau'smethodeliminatesthetraditional
combinationof circlearcs,arithmetic
progressions and reductions.It creates
an ellipse,withtheaid ofa singlemechanism It is nothingofthesort,Vial du Clairbois
made up onlyofa square,overwhichone
movesa ruler.It is theextremity ofthisruler initial
which,byitsmovement,describesthe
ellipticalline.In his memoir,Renau proceeds and ellipsesand parabolascontinuedto be
at firstto a "demonstration"ofhis machine, createdfromtrianglesand circlearcs.
whichis "entirelygeometricand presup- 38. See Coulomb,"Livrede
poses manyprinciplesthereof," and he then construction."
arrivesat "themannerofforming all the
A
templates."' singleexample of such a dia- 39. See ArchivesNationales,
gramsuffices fortheinstruction ofall,since Marine C7 164,"Instructions surle
the"manner"is alwaysthesame.This single r61edes inspecteursde construction."
"manner"ensurestheregularity oftheforms
engenderedand confirms thegeometric 40. LetterfromSeignelayto Tour-
- henceuniversal- characterofhismethod, ville,September1, 1680,Clement,
whichreplacesthe"depressionoftheline de p. 198. In 1681,
Lettres... Colbert,
ofvaults"ofwhichHobier spoke,and which Renau wentaboutstudying,gathering
he claimedwas tracedbyroughestimation. and comparinginstruments used to
To readDudley,or theLivredeconstruction by designvessels,in order to make copies
Coulomb,whomRenau had seenworkingin of them."Do notforget,"writes
Toulon,one realizesthatthese"depressions" Seignelay,"to havethemastercarpen-
werein factrigorously regulatedwiththe tersof Le Havre makethesame
help of a number of instruments of various models thatyou made fromtheone
sorts,manufactured with the help of dimen- fromBrest."Letterof September22,
sionsobtainedin thecourseofconstruction 1681,BibliothequeNationale,
and above all regulatedaccordingto different Manuscrits,nouvellesacquisitions
dimensions.The regularity oftheforms ms 9481.
franqaises,
depended on a number of maneuvers and
calculationsthatallowedfora marginof 41. Clement,Lettres.. . de Colbert,
error.This multitudeofdifferent operations p. 198.
and thisfragmentation ofcalculationsare,
likethe "reductions"of one seriesof shapes 42. BibliothequeNationale,
to another,properlytheworkofthecrafts- Manuscrits,nouvellesacquisitions
man.WithRenau'smachineeveryvertical ms 9481.
franqaises,
sectionoutlinesan ellipseand everyhori-
zontalsection(thatis,plan),outlinesa 43. LetterfromSeignelayto Renau,
parabola. The mechanical generation of June26, 1681,Bibliotheque
linesobeystheprinciplesof geometry. The Nationale,Manuscrits,nouvelles
vesselshouldtherefore be a geometricfigure. acquisitionsfranqaises, ms9481.
would declareone centurylater.45Once the 44. LetterfromSeignelayto Renau,
for had
enthusiasm geometry subsided, June26, 1681.
Renau'smachinewas hardlyused again,
45. The practiceofshipbuilding is
"based on geometricoperations,
eventhoughthebodyofthevesselis
not a geometricfigure,"in "L'artde
la construction.
Discoursprdlimi-
naire,"in Encyclopidie
mithodique,
Marine,vol. 1, (Paris: 1784),p. iv.
H. Pitot,La thioriedela manoeuvre des
vaisseaux(Paris: 1731),preface,
n.p.
andHilkneVirin
JacquesGuillerme 247
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exampleof thepretensionsof thesortof
, .. ..... ?0,.l...,.,..l....'.,.l.'
mechanicalgeometryto whichone aspired
..-....
.-...
-..-...,.
...
.....-
. --......
... -Ll::
.....I?......-..........j
':1. in theseventeenth century- and ofitslimits
as well.The geometrizationof existing
formswas certainlydesirableand feasible.
Geometrybyitself,however,cannotalone
necessity:whychoose one form
justify
insteadof another?If amongpossibleforms
thereexistsan optimummodel,it is not
geometrybutphysicsthatcan determine
whatthismightbe.

Certainlymanygreatminds- such as
Newton,the Bernoullis,Leibniz,Huygens,
Euler,Clairaut- had been enthusiastic
aboutapplyinganalysisto thephysicsof
fluidsin orderto determinetheformsof
a ship.However,whenthe Theoriedes
ivolutions navalesbyHoste was commented
upon byJeanBernoulliand Leibniz,the
latterdeclaredhis own incompetency
regardingthebook byHoste, Thioriede la
construction desvaisseaux.Newton broughtto
theattentionofshipbuilders thefigureof the
solid of leastresistance,whichhe examines
in hisPrinciple;yethis essentialinterest,like
thatof all theoreticians, remainsdevoting
himselfto exercisesofvirtuosity in compu-
tation.At best,thesetheoriesonlylead to an
examinationofthe "supposedforms"of the
46. H. Pitot,La theorie
de la hull.They all recoilbeforethecomplexity
manoeuvre desvaisseaux of "opposites"thatlinktogetherformsand
(Paris: 1731),preface,n.p. dispositionswhichthephysicsof fluidsalone
cannotjustify - evenifit werecarried,
47. Pitot,La thioriede la thanksto thenew methodsof calculation,
manoeuvre, preface,n.p.
so faras to determine"thecurvewhose revo-
lutionabouta straightline formsthecurved
surfacethatmustbe givento thatpartof
thevesselthatis in water."' Such calcula-
tions,in fact,onlyaim to "findon thepart
of thewatertheleastresistancepossible,"
and do not takeintoconsiderationtheother
"necessities"to whichvesselsvariously
loaded withartillery are subject.47So
sublimeand subtlea geometryappliesonly
to itself,usingtheshipmerelyas a pretext.

248 TheArchaeology
ofSection
 Fi.SxJ..L#.

FY IB ?79.
:
?.80.,, :G
8.

-
.
6'
.i-.
tE.N..:
.....
.....
.r:. ..A
-.. ..7..",

E MOO
.:,
32:z !. , .... :: :'!::i'":::
___?__4__w
. '' , ""/
~+
r..
t
l+l :l:l:m

C J ~l
...':lll... ll;:ll +ml+l+l:l:ll ll' l:l:l lll l jl+ ll ..
++
elljlll l:+++l:ll:llll::l+ l +lll ....+ll:l l ll.. l l+llIlIl
ll

;wy+
i+++:
4p+ll

.: ::?+i
... .
. . . .. . . ..
++ " .7 . " ? . . ? '. .

jr..r..a:.
......, +++ .: .. .: ... .. .:,,
.

... ....
.......< ............,, :. . .. .: ::
-

i....+ -F 7 I
+.++<"V+++'w _j
... .....
:+
..W,+ ....... 1.
;+i:++++
a ::i :+ :::
:++ +;+i:::;+ ::+: +:,++:++:
++++++:++++
++i<+;++:+ :+l':+:
+++
+. ++ + 1.,
+:++ .7, :4 ,
a.L . , ::;
+<.- C

. ,F,:,j2:;., i,+

31. PRP Hoste,Theorie de la

construction
des vaisseaux,1697,
plan inperpendicular
section.

32. P. P Hoste,Thorie de la
constructiondes vaisseaux,1697,
theimageofvessels
relativeto
theirrolling
andpitching.

JacquesGuillerme
and Hilne Vrin 249
48. Bouguer,Traitjdunazirc,p. 25. The sectiondrawings,reducedto theirpro- theinsightnecessaryfor"creatingbalance
files,showa stageofthe"scienceoftheship" amongso greata numberofforces"pre-
49. Dudleo, Dell'arcanodelmare,p. 9. to whichone aspired.Bouguerexplains: supposesthatone is makingthe long and
the dimensionsand dispositionsof theinter- difficulteffortof treatingvessels"like
50. It is nevertheless used to nal reinforcements "are not subjectto physical and heterogeneousbodies.""sThe
measurea vessel'stonnage,establish thestrictlaws ofmechanics."Hence he builders,meanwhile,findin the "invention"
itscenterofgravity, estimatethe undertakesto speakofshipbuilding"only and thedivulgingofnew couplingsthe
effects of itsdisplacements(see figure as a mathematician and physicist.""These chanceto advancetheirown careers.Thus
32), and determine the optimum "details" are leftto the discretionofthe thecase of Salinoc,assistantbuilderat
placementof themasts,and also to workers. It would appearthatno progress Le Havre in 1734,whosesectiondrawings
castdoubt,withoutarrivingat has been made sinceDudley,who was only have survivedto thisday.52 Here one sees
anysufficiently justifiedcounter concernedwiththediagramsoftheprofiles how theinternal"fortifications" of different
proposals, on the carpenter's rules ofsections,and who refusedto go intol'altre types of vessels aspireto be the application
ofproportions. circostanzedell'abbatimento dellecoste,e della of an entirelyempiricalnotionof "work"
grossezzaefortificazione di quelle,conle late,e guidedsolelybythetheoryof theleverand
51. Bouguer,Traitdi d nazire,p. ix. fasciame: "the other circumstances ofthe a greatdeal of emphasison theplayof
cutting of the ribs,and of the width and materials.It is necessaryto "buttress, bind,
52. BibliothequeNationale, fortification of [the] same with
[ribs] deck brace"in orderto uniteall theforcesbeing
EstampesI (C3 fol. platingbeamsand planking."These are cose exertedlikeso manylevers"in one same
comunie ben'intese da' Capimaestri, epero effort thatwillserveas node to themachine
53. "Essai sur l'architecturenavale si tralasciano;non volentol'Autore in questosuo and willimpedeitsdeterioration," demands
ou traiteabregede la construction, Arcano trattare dellecose e
ordinarie,volgari: PierreTrain,formercarpenterturnedassis-
proportiondes pieces de bois "commonthingswellunderstoodbythe tantengineerofLa Rochelle.3 By creating
et de ferqui composentle corps masterbuilders,and thuscan be omitted,as in 1741 in Parishis PetiteEcole, intendedto
du vaisseauainsique les n-itures" theauthorin thisArcanodoes notwishto completeinstruction forbuilders,Duhamel
(Brest:1782),ArchivesNationales, dwellon ordinary, commonthings.""4 du Monceau encouragedthisnew state
MarineD1 25. of mind.His Elemensd'architecture navale,
Actually,fromDudley'stimeto Bouguer's, intendedforinstruction, are in thetradition
54. La ITouche,"Response" theattitudechanged.It is no longerthe begunby Colbertand Seignelay.The
(Rochefort,November9, 1775). sufficiencyofthegeometrythatis affirmed, approachhe adoptsis at once rhapsodicand
Frigateswithtwenty-six
cannons buttheinsufficiencyofmechanicalphysics.o synthetic. He presentsthedifferent methods
wouldhaveto carrytwocannons The fieldhas been opened to investigations used bybuilders- thesectionhe proposes
of eighteenofcastironat the of interiorframeworksfoundedfirston is almostidenticalto thatof Salinoc- and
bow; "It willbe necessaryto adjust commonknowledge,thenon physical formulates severalgeneralprincipleswhich
theforecastleto this,and to concepts.Obtainingfrommathematics all could serveas thesubjectfora physical
increasethewidthof thebeams,
deck-beamsand planksin that
part."For less thantwentycannons,
itwillbe necessaryto "sacrifice
every-thingforspeed,"and hence
to lightentheshipby lessening
thereinforcements.
Archives
Nationales,.\IarineD1 26.

55. See Vial du Clairbois,

"Architecture navale,"in Encyclopidie 3 3..........
Marine,vol. 1, p. 67.
metthodique,
of buildingwarships
The difficulty
. .......
"is due to theconsiderableweight 3.
?.
.....
?
oftheartillery
placed on the
?a

topsidesand at thehighestpossible .. .. .
..

pointof thevessel,whichmakes
forwhatis called a finebattery:

250 ofSection
TheArchaeologv
and mathematical study.The essentialpartof forthe "forcesto be establishedfortheranks thebases,moreover, ortheupper
his pedagogicaleffort consistsin having of frigates,"in otherwordstheirartillery, workswillofcoursebe rather heavy
introduceddoubt,bymeansofsuchcompar- theresponsesare accompaniedbyconsidera- inthemselves, sincetheirstructure
isons,intothemindsofhis students.The tionson theimportanceofreinforcements mustbe proportionate tothe
joiningofpartscan henceforth serveas the foreach rank.The evaluationsconcernrela- weightofthe that
artillery they
object of evaluations.Indeed, greateffort
a is tionshipsbetweenforce(numberofcannons), mustsupport [oneachside],and
made to perfectreinforcements byadapting swiftness,solidity,expense." 5 Each of thebottom [which mustbe]
themmorestrictly to theparticularintended thesetermscan be coupledwiththe others as impenetrable as possibletothe
purposeoftheshipin question.Thus for accordingto a hierarchy ofpreference proper enemy'sfire.One couldpartially
commerceraiders,forexample,swiftness, to specificsituations. One can see that sacrifice
thesafety andsolidityof
hencelightness, is preferableto solidityand thestructural sectionis an integralpartofthe thestructure,togivegreater quality
safety.This sortofevaluationof advantagesis instruments of preliminary verification
and totheship:suchiscommonly done
improvedupon untiltheend ofthe century. thechoicesmade bytheengineerresponsible withcommerce-raiders."
When an inquirybytheministry in 1775 asks fortheconstruction oftheshipin question.

-.. .-
-... ,. ....ES..,A.....4,

T,
........_

AIl ii

34
33. Salinoc,Plan representant
l'avantdu vaisseaul'Orox ...
oftwomodesof
1734,comparison
connection.

34. Duhameldu Monceau,Elkmens

.....
..
de l'architecture -, .- -,,
-.o~'x,,... .t , . J~~x,,. .. ... .
navale..., 1758, .

section.
longitudinal ................. .
.
35. Duhameldu Monceau,Elemens ....." ...... .
..... .
. . ..

de l'architecture
navale. . . , .
?i
!
"':.'7 .

1758,crosssection.

36. Salinoc,Coupe verticallede la

fluttedu Roi, I'Orox, 1734,
ofa reinforcement
description device .....

?- " " ? ? " "

.... ?
and itsassembly. .".'
".
?.."."
....
35 .-. ..
.:...,....? 36

JacquesGuillerme
andHeleneVerin 251
 169

a m vsn
d -
14-.
56. "Notte surles bois de chene"
(1776), ArchivesNationales, Maulw~c Or

MarineG 141.
..~ ..... ...
...
7. Proceedingsofthe building - .
Lm.qs.ardaq.'&.f Il.D'..
councilofToulon (1678), in
theArchivesoftheportofToulon 3 ga,- ,L At -.
. ..

Al1.

n ewr
58. Deck-beamsare small me"37#i:tddig?
37, .
cross-beamsfixedto theribsand
theplanks
support ofthedeck. v-ie 0.1 de

59. Duhamel du Alonceau,

Du transport,
de la conseruation
et 37
de laforce des bois . . . foJms de

poursuppleer
pices d'assemblage anu
defautdespiecessimples
(Paris:
1767),p. 532.
60. The mechanismsof the experi-
mentsmade in 1811 byCharles
Dupin, thencaptainof the Corps
ofNaval Engineers,are indistin-
guishablein theirprinciplesfrom
thetestsconductedin theports
duringtheeighteenthcenturyto
studytheflexibility
of timbers:
variousweightswerehungfromthe
endsof beamsdifferent
in length
and width,and witha varietyof
typesofwood. Dupins apparatus,
however,made it possibleto mea-
suretheflexion- the"descension"
- ofthetimbers,whereasthe
othersonlyhad thepointof break-
age as a criterion.Dupins stated
objectivewas to "establishthe
dimensionsof theparts(of theship)
in a less arbitrary
manner."See
"Experiencessurla flexibilite,
la forceet l'elasticitedes bois,"
Journalde l'EcolePolytechnique,
17e
cahier,vol. 10 (Paris:January1815).
It was in connectionwiththemastsand nectedtothefunction imputed tothem,
sparsthattheseevaluationsweresoon whereby their
own mannersof behavior
are
conductedbypreciseand rigorously calcu- likenedtothisrudematerial
whichis multi-
lated applicationsofthephysicalqualities pleanddisorderlyinitsrebelliousness.
specificto thematerialsused. The sectional
modelsofmastswhichForfaitpresentedin The objectofconflicting opinions, the
1788 to his studentsat thenavalacademy timber, theessential material, is noteasily
bearwitnessto theextraordinary sophistica- accommodated to prescribed measurements
tionofthecouplingmethodsbeingpracticed andpre-established Its
plans. shapingcan
in Franceat thetime.Unknownto other be
only appreciated for"reasonsthatare
nations,thesemethodsmightwell be a result onlysensedandcannotbe written down
ofthesystemofemulationthatencouraged on paper,"assertthecarpenters ofToulon
the advancementof artisanswho were in 1678,in a document declaring their
primarily concernedwiththeinventionand ownprerogatives as wellas thoseofthe
disclosureof tradesecrets. material. " In the
eighteenth century they
consentto disclosing these"reasons." It is
In addition,to look at theindentations,one difficulttoknowexactly whatis attributable
cannotfailto recognizein thema kindof to themandwhataretheresults ofthe
imitativereconstruction of theentiretimber firsttestsoftheresistance ofmaterials inthe
whicha marinecarpenter, in 1776,defined following statement by Duhamel: "The
as "a wooden bodyformedbythecoupling assemblage ofmastsofseveralpiecesis
ofnumerouscones,some largerthanothers, comparable totheassemblage oftrussed
whichcoverone another."16Is it artifice deckbeams,"8 as thefinishes (ofthemast)
or naturethatdictatesthisdefinition? As the areskillfully joinedtothespindlebycoak-
buildersslowlydivulgedthesecretsof indentations....In onepiecebeingloaded,
forms,theyneverceased to be spokesmen one partofthefibers is indilation, another
- oftenhaughty- of material.The contempt in condensation....Withourdeckbeams
in whichthebuilderswereoftenheld is con- we havealwaystakengreatcarethatthe

252 TheArchaeology
ofSection
38
37. Salinoc,Coupe verticallede la flutte
du Roi, I'Orox, 1734,sections
describing
meansof reinforcement.

38. Vialde Clairbois,

Traite~l~mentaire
de la construction
des vaisseauxde
guerre,1805,section
oftheweb-frames.

39. Vialde Clairbois,

Traits lmentaire
de la construction
des vaisseauxde
guerre,1805.

40. Forfait, Traitsde la maturedes

39 vaisseaux. . . , 1788,sections
describing
structure
ofmast.
indentsofthereinforcements shouldbedis-
posed in sucha manneras toresist
compres-
sion;andthoseofthespindles andtiebeams,
insucha manner astobeabletoresist
tension.Itisuponthisprinciplealonethat
theentire theoryofreinforced rests.""
parts
In followingtheexperiments ontheresis-
tanceofwooduptothebeginning ofthe
nineteenth one to
century, begins appreciate
the"theoretical"quality ofthegeneral prin-
cipleformulated byDuhamel.'Thetran-
sitionfrom theterms "dilation" and
"condensation" to"tension" and"compres-
sion,"inthephysical scienceofwhatwooden
bodieswouldsustain, leadsonetothink that
Duhamel isproceeding according tothe
method mentioned above, attempting
tomakethesynthesis ofknow-how coincide
withtheapplication ofprinciples.This
"theory oftransition"istypicalofthetheo-
riesonefinds inhisworks ingeneral. It
illustrates
thedetermining roleplayed bythe
"inspectors"inthetechnical progress of
theeighteenth century.

40
R40

JacquesGuillerme
and HilkneV6rin 253
61. Such as in thefollowing
passage,whichis justone ofmany,
in theJ. Martineditionof
De reaedificatoria:
L'Architecture
etArtdebienbastirdu Sr.Leon-
Albert(Paris: 1553) p. 56.
Baptiste
"For thisreason,in whatevercase,
we shallimitatenature,which
fitsbones to bones,blendsflesh,
fibers,nervesand otherconnectives
lengthwise,widthwise, upward,
downward,inwardand backward,
even(in short)in all directions
and diameters
....
254
In Forfait'spropositionsmentionedabove,
one can well admirethecarefuldetailofthe
indentations imaginedfortheconstruction
of compoundmasts.But at thispointone
mayquestionthevalidityand theextentof
suchexercisesofvirtuosity. The handis free
to inventas long as it has roomforitsdia-
gramsand as long as it does nothaveto test,
in mediasres,thegood willof thematerialto
be assembled.It is thefeasibility of the
projectthat is in questionhere, well as the
as
estimationofeconomicadvantage.In con-
templating Forfait'scombinations, one begins
to sensethecomplacencythatthesectional
designso readilyaffords theconceiving
imagination. The arbitrary beginsto creepin
naturally,though one may, however, attempt
to limitit in itsaudacity.In otherwords,once
one has recognizedthesection'scapability
ofsustainingan indefinite varietyofproposi-
tionsone mustmakea specialeffort to know
thelimitswithinwhichthisspontaneity, this
serendipity is at leisureto function.One
wouldthinkthattheselimitshavesome
relationto thegnoseologicalpropertiesof
ofSection
TheArchaeology
sectionswhichbreakdownintothree
categories:scale,analogy, and abstraction.The
firsttwocategoriesare interconnected.
There is littleneed to pointout thelimits
withinwhichtheconservation of analogical
propertiesis restrictedin mattersofthe
resistanceofmaterials,forexample,when
thescalesof criticaldimensionsare not
corrected.As a result,in architecture often
thesectionrepresents nothing but estab-
lishedcustoms!Abstraction, foritspart,at
firstfindsitselfpresentin analogywhen,
followingAlberti,edificesare metaphorically
likenedto animalorganisms.6' A graphic
description, in thiscase, is an efficient
means
forthisconversion;one need onlyrecall
Leonardo'sstudiesrepresenting architec-
the
turally open structure of the brain-pan
and hisschematicreductionsoftheosteo-
muscularmachinery, whichabstracta func-
tionalorderfromtheconfusionofa dissected
corpse.One wouldhaveto waituntilthe
timeofLe Gendreand his homolographic
sectionsto see theimageofa supposedlypre-
cise topography oftheorganicmachine.
 aick
la~f
. .. .

....... .. ," ... . . . " "" ' . . ...

-"0 '.:. ...

- 2.1?

V: 9
.__
_-;__. 1.,I; AX:- :tj"A? :: "...-"1' ,-t.'U
"' 1-1

:
!!
?
?'..,..~
../ -"::2:i .:.- ..*
? .,
.

41 -- ?'
41r$ j~r A%f
/a r.:-:,
~
?:7::,.
-
;

: -,:i!*::L'~: : ::..
4.4
4wsog~i
.. ...
. ? :.,:

? ......,i~~ .:..
..L

?..

"..,

..?-7 ...

:: ..

:o'o : .
., . . :. ?
42~
i.
......

42
Fascicolo di
41. Anonymous,
Medicina,1494,anatomyclassat
readshis
Padua, theprofessor
textfromthechairwhilea prosecutor
performs bya
thecutdirected
demonstrator.

42. Leonardoda Vinci,drawingofa

schematic
dissection
oftheposterior
region,1513.
cervical

fromL'Anatomie
43. Le Gendre,
homalographique,1853, transverse
oftheupperthighofa man
section
at theheightofthefemur'sapophysis.
43

andHdleneVrin
JacquesGuillerme 255

62. L. Liard,Des difinitions
geo-
metriquesetdesdefinitions
empiriques
(Paris:1873),pp. 140-41.
Exceptforthosemanipulations thatharden
and in somewaypetrify theorganiccom-
posite,it is onlyat thecostof an incessant
oscillationbetweentheimpreciseobjectof
dissectionand itscarefulrepresentation that
can
anatomy hope to come close to the
necessarily abstracttypologyoftheliving
organism.Yetthevalidityofthisabstraction
has itslimitsdependingon therangeofthe
fieldit has in mindand thescale oftheinstru-
mentsinvolved.Ifwe addressa largerscale,
suchas thatwhichnatureoffersdirectlyin
theformof a cliff,an all-inclusive observation
on
willnot dwell details. The paintermight
intervene withhispsycho-sensorially syn-
theticequipment,butonlythegaze ofthe
geologist,indeedthequarrier,is capablein its
questioningofidentifying and understanding
thesignificant details,thoseit recognizesat
theend ofa long educationnourishedwith
schemataand abstractcategories.And in this
case thebroadeningofour fieldofvisionto
includeall detailsis comparableto thecosmic
emissionofbackgroundnoise.Andin factit
is onlytheanomaliesin thebackgroundnoise
whichbeckonto theinvestigator. It is a
different situationwhen,in theoppositecase,
thegaze focuseson smallerand smaller
objects.The phenomenaregistered in the
sectionschangein nature,perceptually and
structually,evenwhile the technical and
conceptualinstruments ofrepresentations
becomemore refined.
A sectionis alwaysthe
imageofa surface.Howeverstrongtheeffort
of abrasionon thefragment ofnaturein
the
question, dissecting instrument and the
graphicdevice,hypothetically linkedto it,
willstillalwaysencounterotherabstract
arrangements of surfaces.
Meditatingin 1873 on thedivisibility of
organizedmatter, Liard, whose mere name
evokesthederisoryostentations oftherepub-
lican Sorbonne,was astonishedthat"thought
pursuestheirreducibleelementwithout
everattainingit,"eventhough"observation
had stoppedlong before."Fromthishe
inferred that"we are in thepresenceofthe
infinite,"an infinite
thatleads oddlyto
"an infiniteraisedto an infinite power."62
In so sayinghe prefigured all at once the
moremodernnotionoflayersof "levelsof
organization."He recallsto mind,quite
opportunely, thattheidea ofthesection,
doubtlessa primordialone ontologically, has
a pragmaticconsistency thatjustifiesthe
appropriateness oftheoreticalreasoningat
a clearand distinctlevelofquestioning.

Translated
fromtheFrenchbyStephen
Sartarelli

256 ofSection
TheArchaeology
44 45

44. Excavationin a marblequarry,

Carrara,Italy.

45. Sectionofa liliaceousparenchyma.

and Hikne V6rin

JacquesGuillerme 257