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Chapter 9 :
Manufactured substances in
industry
Soluble in
water
Non-volatile Diprotic
acid
acid
Properties of
Highly sulphuric acid Dense
corrosive
Oily Viscous
colourless
liquid
liquid
9.1.2 The uses of sulphuric acid
1) To manufacture fertilizers
There are many fertilizers that can be made of sulphuric acid. Some of them are:
b) Ammonium sulphate
c) Potassium sulphate
6) To manufacture pesticides.
7) The uses of sulphuric acid in school laboratories are as a strong acid, drying or
dehydrating agent, as an oxidizing agent, as a sulphonating agent and catalyst.
9.1.3 Manufacture of sulphuric acid in industry
i. Combustion of sulphur or sulphide ores in the air produce sulphur dioxide SO2.
S + O2 → SO2
ii. sulphur dioxide is dried and purified.
i. The purified sulphur dioxide SO2 and excess air are passed over vanadium(V) oxide
V2O5 at controlled optimum condition optimum condition to produce sulphur trioxide
SO3.
H2SO4+ SO3 → H2S2O7
i. Sulphur trioxide SO2 is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid H 2SO4 to form oleum H2S2O7
which is then diluted with water to form sulphuric acid H2SO4.
1. Sulphur dioxide is one of the by-product of contact process. It is a colourless and poisonous
gas with a vary pungent smell.
2. Sulphur dioxide which escape into the air causes air pollution.
3. Sulphur dioxide is an acidic which dissolves in water to form sulphurous acidic, H2SO3. In
the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide dissolve in water droplets to form sulphurous acidic.
4. Oxidation of sulphur acid by oxygen produce sulphuric acid, H2SO4, which falls to the earth
as acid rain. Sulphur trioxide is also easily oxidised in the air to form sulphur trioxide.
Sulphur trioxide dissolve in rainwater to produce sulphuric acid.
The principal source of SO2 is from the combustion of fossil fuels in domestic premises
and , more importantly, non-nuclear power stations.
Fossil fuel burning power stations account for around two thirds of total SO 2 emissions in
the UK.
Other industrial processes contribute a further 20%, with vehicles, primarily diesel,
accounting for a mere 2%.
Health effects
SO2 is an irritant when it is inhaled and at high concentrations (over 1000ppb) may cause
severe problems in asthmatics such as narrowing of the airways, known as
bronchoconstriction.
Asthmatics are considerably more sensitive to the effects of SO 2 than other individuals
and an effect on lung function may be experienced at levels as low as 200ppb.
iv. Acid rain flows into the rivers and increases the acidity of water and kill aquatic living
things.
Hence, we must reduce the sulphur dioxide from the atmosphere by:
i. Use low sulphur fuels to reduce the emission of sulphur dioxide in exhaust gases
ii. Remove sulphur dioxide from waste air by treating it with calcium carbonated before it
is released.
9.2 Manufacture of ammonia and its salt.
1. Ammonia is manufacture on a large scale in industry through the haber process. In this
process, ammonia is formed form direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen gas in the
volume ratio 1:3.
2. The gas nitrogen obtain form the fractional distillation of liquefied air. The hydrogen gas is
obtained form the cracking of petroleum or from the catalysed reaction of natural gas, CH4,
with steam.
3. The mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases is passed over an iron catalyst under controlled
optimum condition as below to form ammonia gas.
4. Temperature: 450-500°C
5. Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres
6. Catalyst used: Iron fillings
7. Under these control optimum condition, only 15% of the gas mixture turn into ammonia gas.
The nitrogen and hydrogen that have not reacted are then flow back over the catalyst again
in the reactor chamber.
8. The ammonia product is then cooled at a low temperature so that it condenses into a liquid
in the cooling chamber.
Figure 9.3 The Haber process
Nitrogen Hydrogen
Liquid ammonia
1 Nitrogen is required in large amount by plant to make proteins which are necessary for
growth and cell repair.
2 Most plant are not able to get a nitrogen supply directly from the air although it is
abundant in the air (78%). Plants can only absorb soluble nitrogen compounds from soil
through their roots.
3 The nitrogen compounds are usually soluble nitric salt, ammonia and ammonia salt which
are manufacture as chemical fertilizer.
4 Reactions of ammonia with acids produce ammonium fertilizers.
NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq) ammonium nitrate
9.3 Alloys
9.3.1 Arrangement of atoms in pure metal
Force
Force
The shape of the
metal change
Metals are malleable.
9.3.2 Alloy
1. An alloy is a compound formed from a mixture of metal and other elements.
2. An impurity atom (foreign atom) may be atoms of other metals or non-metals such as
carbon.
3. The process of mixing atoms of impurities with atoms of pure metal by melting is called
alloying.
4. The aims of alloying are to increase the strength and hardness of the metal, prevent
corrosion of the metal, improve the appearance of the metal to be more attractive.
High carbon steel 99% iron Strong,hard and high Making of cutting tools,
wear resistance hammers and chisels
1% carbon
Stainless steel 80.6% iron Do not rust and tarnish, Making of surgical instrument,
strong and durable knives forks and spoons
0.4% carbon,
18%chromium,
1% nickel
Bronze 90% copper Hard, do not corrode For casting bells, medals,
easily and durable swords and statues
10% tin
Duralumin 95% aluminium Light, strong and Making part of aircrafts and
durable racing cars
4% copper,
1%magnesium
1. Impurity atoms which are mixed may be larger or smaller than atoms of pure metal.
2. Impurity atoms fill the empty spaces between the atoms in pure metal.
3. Impurity atoms can prevent the layers of metals from sliding along one another easily.
4. Due to this, an alloy is harder and stronger than pure metal.
5. For example, steel is harder than iron.
9.4 Synthetic polymers and their uses
9.4.1 Polymer
1. Polymers are long chain of molecules made from combination of many small molecules.
2. Small molecules that combine to form polymers are called monomers.
3. Polymerization is a process of combining monomers to form a long chain of molecules.
4. Polymers can be divided into two types: natural polymer & synthetic polymer.
Rubber Isoprene
Cellulose Glucose
Starch Glucose
a) Additon polymerisation
b) Condensation polymerisation
Addition polymerisation
Unsaturated monomers that contain double bonds between two carbon atoms undergo
addition polymerisation.
Polymerisation by addition involves monomers with >C = C< bonding, where the
monomers join together to make a long chain without losing any simple molecules from
it. Examples of polymers produced through this process are polythene, PVC perspex and
other plastics.
Condesation polymerisation
Small molecules such as water, H2O, and ammonia, NH3, are released in condensation
polymerisation.
Polymerisation by condensation involves the elimination of small molecules like water,
methanol, ammonia or hydrogen chloride during the process. Examples of products of
this process are terylene and nylon-66
1. Glass is one of the most useful but inexpensive materials in the world. Many products are
made from glass because of its specials properties.
2. Glass is:
a. Transparent, hard but brittle.
b. A heat and electric insulator.
c. Resistant to corrosion.
d. Chemically inert.
e. Not permeable to gas and liquid.
f. Does not conduct electricity.
Al2O3:2%
Lead crystal glass SiO2: 70% High refractive index Lenses and prisms
(flint glass) High density Decorative glassware
Pbo/PbO2:20% Attractive glittering and art object
Na2O: 10% appearance Imation jewellery
9.5.2 Ceramics
1. Ceramics are made from clay that has been heated at a very high temperature.
2. The main component of ceramics is silicate.
3. Most ceramics contain silicon, oxygen and aluminium.
4. Ceramics cannot be recycled. Ceramics that have been solidified cannot be melted again as
they are extremely heat resistant.
5. Properties of ceramics:
a) very hard and strong but brittle
b) inert to chemical reaction
c) has a very high melting point
d) good electric and heat insulator
e) able to withstand compression
6. Ceramic play important role in our daily life. They are uses as
a) Construction materials
Ceramic are strong and hard, uses to make roof tiles, bricks cement, sinks, and toilet
bowls.
They are also used to make refractory bricks because high resistant to heat.
b) Decorative items
To make pottery, china plates, and porcelain vases since they do not tarnish easily and are
durable.
They are used to make bathroom fixture such as floor and wall tiles.
c) Electrical insulator
Ceramic are used to make electrical insulator in electrical items such as toasters, fridges
and electrical plug.
9.6 Composite materials
1. A composite material (or composite) is a structure of materials that is formed by two or
more different substances such as alloys, metal, glass, ceramic and polymer.
2. The composite material produced will have different properties far more superior to the
original materials.
3. The composite material produced is harder, stronger, lighter, more resistant to heat and
corrosion and also for specific purposes.
Glass of low Transparent, does not reflect Reflect light rays and allow light
refractive index light rays. rays to travel along the fibre
Fibre optics
Glass of high Heavy, strong but brittle and
refractive index non-flexible
Glass Heavy, strong but brittle and Light, strong, tough, resilient
non-flexible and flexible, with high tensile
Fibreglass
Polyester plastic Light, flexible, elastic but weak strength and not flammable
and inflammable
silver bromide
Content Page
9.3 Alloys
9.3.2 Alloy 11
9.5.1 Glass 17
9.5.2 Ceramics 18