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Caryā Nŗtya of Nepal: When "Becoming the Character" in Asian Performance Is Nonduality in

"Quintessence of Void"
Author(s): Syed Jamil Ahmed
Source: TDR (1988-), Vol. 47, No. 3 (Autumn, 2003), pp. 159-182
Published by: The MIT Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1147056
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Carya Nttya of Nepal

When "Becoming the Character"in


Asian Performance Is Nonduality in
"Quintessence of Void"

SyedJamilAhmed

Enquiring into what it means for Asian performers to "become the charac-
ter," Phillip Zarrilli examines kalarippayautu (a South Indian martial art), ka-
thakali, and noh, and concludes with the following note: "Asian performance
is founded on the assumption that the world constituted in the performance is
not separate from the world outside the performance"(I99o:146). He then
cites James Brandon who says, "The [Asian] performing arts are not viewed as
being different from some real world; they are one manifestation of the one
world which encompasses all" (in Zarilli 1982:2-3).
Unfortunately, Zarrilli does not clarify or dwell at greater length on the na-
ture of "the world"-constituted in the performance or outside of it. How-
ever, Brandon's references to "some real world," and "one world which
encompasses all" do seem to indicate that both Brandon's and Zarrilli's as-
sumptions are based on the atma-doctrine of the Upanisadic-Brahmanical tra-
dition of South Asian philosophy, which "conceive[s] reality on the pattern of
an inner core or soul (atman),immutable, and identical amidst an outer region
ofimpermanence, and change, to which it is unrelated or but loosely related"
(Murti [1955] I998:IO). Indeed, Zarrilli does touch upon the "Indian under-
standing of the self" in the penultimate stage of his paper by quoting a concept
from the Chandogya Upani?ad (chapter 6, sections 8- 16), which is tat tvamasi,
translated as "that art thou" (Radhakrishnan 1953:456-67):

Tattvamasi is a giant philosophical/cosmological backdrop on which


Indian life both ordinary and esoteric is projected. "You are that" asserts
a fundamental identity between microcosm and macrocosm, the indi-
vidual self and the universe: a person can become one-with and join-
with; there is no object set over against a subject. (Zarrilli 1990:145)

Then Zarrilli refers to Diana Eck's exposition of the concept ofdarsan in order
to show-or attempt to show-that "[t]his joining-with suffuses daily life. A

The Drama Review 47, 3 (T179), Fall 2003. Copyright ? 2003


New York University and the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology

159
I60 SyedJamil Ahmed
Hindu from childhood takes the deity into herself/himself in the act of dar-
san-seeing the deity" (I45). A kathakali performer, in his view, does the
same "seeing." For him, the "correspondence" and "resonance" between the
microcosm and the macrocosm, the self and the universe-which an Indian
(traditional?)performer joins with ease-provides a vital "cultural context for
the performer's psychophysical process." Such a context, Zarrilli seems to im-
ply, is profoundly important for the "fundamental psychophysical unity in the
act of doing," and a "sense of ineffable presence which the accomplished Asian
actor embodies when he 'becomes the character.'" In such moments, he
claims, "through the interior psychophysical process, he is that character"
(I990:I46).

When South Asian Is Not Indian = Hindu


To be fair to Zarrilli, he offers new insights into the three performance gen-
res. However, certain assumptions about the "Asian performer" and the pro-
cess of "becoming the character" need to be closely examined. To begin,
Zarrilli assumes that Indian = Hindu. What about the Buddhists, the Mus-
lims, and the Christians? Consider what happens if you replace Hinduism with
Buddhism in Zarrilli's vision of India. Buddhism denies atman, and shows that
"there is no inner and immutable core of things; everything is in flux" (Murti
I998:IO). Contrasting the positions of the Brahmanical and Buddhist tradi-
tions, Murti points out:

The Brahmanical systems took the real as Being, Buddhism as Becom-


ing; the former espoused the universal, existential and static view of Re-
ality, the latter the particular, sequential and dynamic; for one space, for
the other time, is the archetype. (Murti I998:I2)

Immediately,Zarrilli and Brandon's "worlds" begin to crumble, "correspon-


dences" and "resonance" melt away. For, if there is no atman, i.e., no inner
and immutable core or soul, then who is "you" and who is "that" in the Upa-
nisadic statement of tat tvam asi? Zarrilli's problem is that he reduces a com-
plex interplay of innumerable systems of South Asian philosophy into one
statement from the Upani,ad, which, if I may add, I am personally quite fond
of. But when the most vocal elements of the Euro-American academecia are
going full-steam at deconstructing and challenging monolithic constructs
when dealing with their own cultures, why this fondness for constructing
monoliths when dealing with Asian performances?
Also, of course, India is not the whole of South Asia, historically or cultur-
ally. Never in the entire history of South Asia, including the empires of the
Mauryas, the Guptas, and the Mughals, has South Asia been united-until the
British conquest. The "India" Zarrilli is referring to unconsciously encom-
passes all of South Asia. That India is a colonial construct. The 20th century
has seen the deconstruction of Orientalism and the reconstruction of "Indi-
anness," which equates the culture of all the peoples of South Asia with the
nation that has New Delhi as its capital and Hinduism as its undeclared state
religion (clearly reflected in the way the ultra-right BharatiyaJanataParty gov-
ernment ruling the country has dealt with the Babri Mosque issue).' One
could spend a lifetime writing newer versions of Orientalismto show how Gor-
don Craig's melodious flute of Kysna and Artaud's Balinese dance still haunt
centers of Euro-American academecia devoted to the ineffable mysteries of
Indian/Asian performances.
Those who are ardent devotees of the mysteries should heedJoan Erdman's
Carya Nrtya 16i
conclusions regarding the rise and fall of the myth of "Indian dance." This
dance was invented in early 20th century in the works of Mata Hari, Ruth St.
Denis, and Pavlova as a category of European Orientalism which viewed India
as Hindu. By the I930s, "the idea of oriental dance had become a segue to
ancient treasures of the East, which were rediscovered and, in India, rein-
vented" (Erdman I996). The reinvented corpus included bharatanatyam,ka-
thakali,kathak,manipuri,odissi, and more. The movement culminated in "the
post-World War II positioning of dance by independent India as a represen-
tative of ancient heritage, and high cultural rank in the world of new nations."
However, the myth began to crumble from the I98os onward when Indian art-
ists began to recognize "that their dances, and others which had qualified for
'classical' status, were contemporary interpretations and interpolations" (293-
97). Any analysis of"traditional Indian theatre," including the kathakali that
Zarrilli so fondly discusses, must take into account the historical construct of
"Indianness" that Erdman presents. After all, much of tradition all over the
world is invented.
Keeping these deconstructions in view, I would like to engage in this paper
in (re)evaluating the matter of"becoming a character"by examining a Nep-
alese ritualistic dance, the CaryaNrtya (lit., Dance As a Spiritual Discipline). I
will show that Zarrilli's "world" is a problematic construct when viewed from
a Buddhist perspective.

The Ritual Context of Carya Nrtya

Carya NVtya pertains to Vajrayana(Tantric) Buddhism. The practitioners


claim (not without some legitimacy) that the Vajrayanapriests of Kathmandu
Valley in Nepal have practiced this highly esoteric form of dance as a part of
their ritual known as sadhandfor over a thousand years. The tradition possibly
goes back to the seventh or the eighth century, when some of the mahdsiddhas
(the Great Realized Ones) introduced it in the valley (Pradhan I996:76). To-
ward the end of the first millennium C.E., the dance was well-known among
the VajrayanaBuddhists of Bengal-possibly even in other parts of South Asia.
Today, it can be seen only in Kathmandu Valley.Since 1957 some of the dances

..........

1. Fromleft:Manik Bajra-
charya,UppaShakya,Ritu
Bajracharya,Bunu Sher-
stha, and KiranBajra-
charyaof the Dance
Mandalin the danceof the
PancaBuddhas,at Achhe-
woreMahaviharain Patan,
1995. (Courtesy of Prajwal
Vajracharya)
I62 SyedJamil Ahmed

have been performed in public. However a large number are stilljealously pro-
tected from the noninitiated by the Vajrayanapriests.
Sadhana can be practiced only by the initiated. A person who wishes to en-
gage in sadhana (i.e., the sadhak)has to be guided by a Vajrayanapriest who is
to act as his or her spiritual preceptor. To the priest the person has to prove her
sincerity and purity of purpose, as well as unconditional devotion. Before ini-
tiation, the person also has to carry out a number of devotional and purifica-
tory practices. At the initiation ceremony, the preceptor selects a mantra
(sacred words of power), a chosen deity appropriate to the character type of
the person seeking initiation, and introduces him or her to the maydala(a sa-
cred circle of symbolic forms enclosed within a square with four entrances) of
the chosen deity. It is only then that the initiated is permitted entry into a wide
body of written teachings supplemented by explanatory oral instructions.
Once initiated, it is expected that the spiritual obstructions in the initiated
person have been removed and the person has been empowered by the precep-
tor to engage in sadhana (Harvey 1990:260).
The chosen deity is a holy being who acts as the tutelary deity of the initi-
ated. Each deity belongs to a group of five "families" of the Pafica Buddhas
(the Five Buddhas or five abstract aspects ofBuddhahood), and each "family"
is associated with a particular fault in the personality of human beings. The
Five Buddhas, recognized as the five Conquerors, are Vairocana, Aksobhya,
Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddhi. Vairocanais the conqueror of
ignorance and bewilderment, which he transmutes into his wisdom-quality
of primordial awareness. Aksobhya conquers anger and aggression by trans-
muting them into his wisdom-quality of mirrorlike clarity. Ratnasambhava
conquers greed and envy, transmuting them into equanimity. Amitabha trans-
mutes desire, lust, and passion into discriminating awareness. Amoghasiddhi
transmutesjealousy and envy into all-accomplishing wisdom. The deities of
the five families are further classified into four different types-male or fe-
male, peaceful or wrathful-to correspond to variations in human character.
The Five Buddhas mentioned above are also the male peaceful type of deities.
Each of them has a corresponding female deity, conceived as his consort. Arya
Tara (the Green Tara), the consort of Amoghasiddhi, is one of the most pop-
ular female peaceful deities. Male wrathful deities are known as Herukas while
the female wrathful deities are known as Dakiiis. Representing hate-free an-
ger, these deities are coupled so that each Heruka has a Dakiri. Vajrapaqi,a
fierce emanation of Aksobhya, is an oft-propitiated deity. By choosing one of
these wrathful deities "for strong, unconventional people who are disgusted
with the impermanent world and its dreary rounds of rebirths," it is expected
that the heart of the initiate will open up "by devastating his hesitations,
doubts, confusion, and ignorance" (Harvey 1990:261-62).
A sadhana is always based on a particular deity and usually includes acts of
purification, meditation, recitation of mantras corresponding to the chosen
deity, visualization of the deity, and concluding rites (which includes the
"dedication of merit"2). Particularly important is the involvement of the three
faculties: body, voice, and mind. The body is held erect and ritual hand ges-
tures (mudras)are executed; the voice chants mantras;and the mind is focused
on visualizing the deity. In some sadhanas, the Vajrayanapriests and their ini-
tiated disciples, instead of or in addition to chanting mantras, sing esoteric
songs, known as Carya Gita, which describe the deities. In addition, the body,
instead of being held still, executes movement that interprets the song. More
often, the movement is rendered by the dancer(s) and the song by the singer(s).
With the mind focused on the visualization of the deity, the dancer seeks to
become one with the deity. The singer's visualization is enhanced by the dan-
cer's movements. This part of the sadhanais known as Carya N:tya.
Carya Nrtya 163

Components of Carya Nrtya

Having set the ritual context, it is necessary to give a brief account of sepa-
rately identifiable components of Carya N'tya before attempting to discern a
performance. The following description covers the visual setting, the aural
elements, the olfactory-savory stimuli, the movements, and the dancers.

The Visual Setting

Carya NVtyais performed in almost all the bahas(monasteries; Sanskrit: vi-


hara)of Kathmandu Valley. It may be performed in the daytime or at night in-
side the agam,a two-roomed "shrine of tantric deities where the secret tantric
rites of VajrayanaBuddhism are performed" (Locke I980:I5). The dance is
performed in the inner sanctum, on a maridaladrawn in front of the deity. The
basic function of the mandala is:

to portray the luminous world [...] of a specific holy being, with other
holy beings particularly associated with it arrayed about it. [...] It can, in
fact, be seen as a two-dimensional Stupa-temple which contains the ac-
tual manifestations of the deities represented within it. (Harvey
1990:264)

Carya NVtyamay also be held in any other sanctified place where the mardala
of the deity is drawn on a platform.
During a ritual performance, the Vajrayanapriests are dressed in the jama (a
long white garment that covers the entire body), the traditional garment of
Newar Buddhist priests. Specific ornaments and garments of the deity are
worn over the jama. The ornaments worn are the mukuta(crown), the kunda-
lam (earring), the kanthika(necklace), the rucakam(bracelets for arms and legs),
and the mekhalam(belt). The crown can be of various forms, such as the so-
called jafd mukuta (lit., "the crown of hair"), the cakramukuta (the crown
showing the Wheel of Law), and the mani mukuta (the crown showing the
three Jewels, signifying Enlightenment). Often, the Vajrayanapriests wear a
type of crown with five separate parts, which are colored according to the col-
ors of the Five Buddhas: red, green, blue, yellow, and white. A sixth ornament,
the sutra(sacred thread), may also be added. Traditional masks are mostly made
of metal. However, those made of papier-mache and baked clay are also used
at present (Kala-mandapa 1986:6-7; Pradhan 1996:91, 95).

The Aural Element

During a performance, a group of musicians sing Caryasongs to music ren-


dered on small cymbals (ta), large cymbals (vabhu),hourglass drums (damaru),
small double-ended drums (kota), and a kind of trumpet (pn'aita).(The five
types of musical instruments, as a group, are known as pancatala.)In addition
to these traditional instruments, the Nepalese sitar (surabTia)and the harmo-
nium are added nowadays.
The Carya songs are composed in hybrid Sanskrit (Sanskritmixed with Ne-
wari). Essentially, they are all in praise of various deities (as will be seen in the
following section). So far, Ratna Kaji Vajracharya,a renowned Carya dance
master, has collected and published 240 Carya songs by 75 Vajracaryas.These
are rendered in 32 forms of rdga(melodies), and ten forms of tala (metres) (Baj-
racharya 2002). However, not all of them are danced to; some are simply re-
cited or sung.
I64 Syedjamil Ahmed
The Olfactory-SavoryStimuli
Olfactory and savory stimuli contribute to the de-
sired objective of the ritual. Hence it is important to
burn incense in the shrine. PancaSali, or five kinds of
rice wine, are also essential. However, in many ritu-
als, their presence is symbolic, functioning as an of-
fering to the deities. In some rituals, though,
drinking the wine is considered essential.

Movement
The range of movement in Carya NVtya can be
broadly categorized as (I) vigorous for the "wrath-
ful" deities, and (2) gentle for the "compassionate"
deities.3 In the dances of the compassionate deities,
the performers often pause momentarily to make
graceful use of held positions. When in motion, the
body often is gently curved but held upright. The
dynamic quality of these dances is a sustained calm-
ness. Another characteristicfeatureis the smallbut met-
ricallyrhythmicstep patterns.However, some dances of
the "wrathful"deities also use running steps and leaps.
In these, the dancers move rapidly and energetically.
They employ varied levels of movement, ranging from
near crouching to upright. In all the dances, the focus
is mostly on the hands and the face, and design in
space rather than rhythm is emphasized.
Using a small dancing space, the dancers create in-
2. Uppa Shakyaof the tricate gesture designs, close to as well as away from the body. Most of the
DanceMandalin the dance dances are characterized by elegant hand movements using mudras,and codi-
of Arya Tdraat the Hotel fied standing postures, or sthanakas.However, the articulation of hands and
Vajra.(Photoby Ashoke feet is not as detailed as in bharatanatyam.Underlying the movements may be:
Panta)
the observation that states of mind generally express themselves in a per-
son's stance, and gesture. [...] Ritual mudrasare seen as working on the
reverse of this principle: by making various gestures, certain states of
mind may be stimulated or enhanced. (Harvey 1990:266)

A specific set of mudras and sthanakasare considered to be of prime impor-


tance. Most of the Tantric texts on Carya NVtyahave specified a variety of mu-
dras, which, except for a few, are not codified as in the Ndatyadastra.
According
to some practitioners of the dance, no codified system of gestures, body
stances, or choreography existed in earlier times. The practitioners used their
bodies freely to communicate the meaning of the song in a manner which
would be understandable to the other (non-dancing) participantsof the ritual.
Carya Nrtya does not seek to generate rasa or aesthetic experience (the
pleasure and satisfaction derived by the spectators while witnessing a perfor-
mance).4 However, some dances focus more on the aspect of compassion, and
others on wrath. What is emphasized depends on the nature of the deity in
whose honor the dance is performed.

The Dancers and the Participants


Each dance may be performed solo, by a pair, or by a group. Usually the
dances are given only by male Vajracaryas.When a male deity and his s'akti
Carya Nrtya 165

(female component) are shown, a male Vajracaryaimpersonates the female de-


ity. In some special rituals, both male Vajracaryasand their female consorts
participate. Initiated participants sit on three sides of the maidala.5

Discerning a Performance of Caryd Nrtya


To "discern" is to behold and to apprehend. To discern is also to penetrate,
to know, and to make out. Carya NVtyaas a cultural expression embedded in
the network of meanings produced by the act of discerning can itself be a site
for a postmodern discourse on performance. Even though that is not the di-
rection I wish to head at present, I would nevertheless like to make it clear that
I have not beheld the dance in a ritual context. To do so would mean the work
of a lifetime because it is a part of an extremely complicated ritual in which
one can only participate after initiation. At the same time I should add that I
am familiar with Sahajayana6tradition which is still common among the Bauls
of Bengal.

Carya Nrtya As "Authentic"Ritual


Carya NVtyais meant for daily practice and is essentially a meditation dis-
cipline, a vehicle for bodily and spiritual transformation. It is performed as a
part ofVajrayana rituals, specially during Tantric initiations, celebrations (such
as gaza cakra),and important ceremonies of worship (such as the tdhdsinhah
pujd, ahoratrapijd, cakrapija). If the dance is not included, it is believed that
the rituals will be ineffective.
Carya NVtyabegins with salutation of the four cardinal directions, and ends
with reverence offered to the deity. A performance is composed of a number
of dances in honor of the deity and his consort in whose shrine the Carya
NVtyatakes place.
A brief description of the taha sinhah puja, as provided by Michael Allen,
may help to comprehend Carya NVtyaperformance in its ritual context. The
ceremony Allen observed took place sometime in the early I970s,7 at the
home of a Vajracaryafamily who began its preparation two weeks in advance.
The room where the puja was to be held was divided into two parts: an inner
part for those with higher initiation, and an outer part for the remaining par-
ticipants. Both the parts were decorated with maidalas of Cakrasambharaand
Yogambara.8A painted clay vessel (kalasa)filled with water and infused with
the spirit of Ganesa was placed in the inner room. Beside it was placed a Vaj-
radevi9 maidala (with a pair of intersecting triangles), another kalasa infused
with the spirit of Vajradevi, and then a tray with pafica sali. Beside the tray
stood a lamp (sukunda)and a container with curd. A large Vajradevimaidala
was painted on a platform in the outer room. Musicians and helpers sat on its
two sides. Another tray of paiica sali was placed in front of the maQdala.The
sponsors of the ritual sat on the two sides ofpafica sali, facing the maidala. Five
Vajracaryapriests sat in front of the pafica sali, also facing the maidala. After a
number of rituals, the VajracaryaKumari ofMu Baha was brought in and was
seated cross-legged at the center of the maidala in the outer room, while a
metal crown was placed on the maidala of the inner room. For the remaining
period of the puja (about five hours), she and the wife of the principal priest
were Vajradevi, and were worshipped as such. Allen has not provided detail of
Carya NVtya,however, he cites a ritual handbook used by the priests, accord-
ing to which the wife of the principal priest should become possessed at two
points of the pfija, and her husband is to dance at these and other points
(1996:91 -96).
166 SyedJamil Ahmed

Carya Nrtya As Cultural Tourism


For less fortunate "cultural tourists" like me, who are not prepared to un-
dertake a lifetime's arduous journey in sadhana, Carya NVtyais available reg-
ularly in Kathmandu, at least in one hotel, less regularly at the National
Theatre where the state-sponsored dance troupe of the Rastriya Nach Ghar
may give a performance or, for those seeking longer lessons, at the University
of Kathmandu. And if you have a bit of money, you may even hold a private
show of your own. In all probability, almost all of the troupes will promise you
the authentic dance, and prove to you that all others perform merely spurious
versions.
A performance of Carya Nrtya given by Prajwal Vajracharyaand his com-
pany the Dance Mandal, witnessed at the Himalayan Buddhist Meditation
Center in Kathmandu on 2 May 1999, was comprised of eight dances, of
which I will briefly discuss three. Prajwal Vajracharyastressed that Carya
NTtyaas performed in Vajrayanatemples is different from that witnessed at the
Center. However, the manner in which the songs, music, and body movement
were rendered and the overall impression are similar. I should also add that
PrajwalVajracharyaoffered a workshop on the day following the performance.

PANCA BUDDHA

The dance of the Pafica Buddhas (see plate I) is the dance of the five tran-
scendental Buddhas discussed earlier. It was given by five dancers who rep-
resented the five Buddhas: Vairocana (in white dress), Aksobhya (in blue),
Ratnasambhava (in yellow), Amitabha (in red), and Amoghasiddhi (in green).
Each Buddha was distinguished by a particularposture and mudra. The mudra
for Aksobhya was Earth Touching (bhumisparsa),that of Ratnasambhava was
Giving (varada),of Amitabha was Meditating (dhydna),of Amoghasiddhi was
Protecting (abhaya), and Vairocana was Teaching (dharmacakra).The move-
ment for these compassionate deities was characteristically gentle, graceful,
and calm. The choreography was actually conceived in terms of a "living map-
dala," with one of the Buddhas in the center and four others in four cardinal
directions, all inside the inner circle of a maipdala.Group movement alternated
with individual movement; the Buddha in the center danced during the verse
sung in his honor while the four other Buddhas stood holding specific ges-
tures. When the refrain was sung, the four Buddhas danced while the central
dancer held still. The following Carya song was performed with the dance
(given here in translation from the original in hybrid Sanskrit):

I hail the divine Ak?obhya whose body is the color of the flax flower. He
faces east, his vehicle is the elephant and he brings victory over the
obstacles, which come from afar.
I remember the Buddha who grants boons to the people of this world
round the clock; the lord, the jewel who bestows deliverance on man-
kind. (Repeatedaftereachverse.)
I hail the divine Ratnasambhava, whose body is the color of the midday
sun. He faces south, his vehicle is the horse and he grants wealth and
prosperity.
I hail the divine Amitabha, whose body is the color of the newly risen
sun. He shows the posture of meditation and rides a peacock.
I hail Amoghasiddhi who is of green color and who is protected by the
seven-hooded snake. His vehicle is the garudi.
I hail Vairocanawhose body is like the white water lily. He rides a lion
and guards the living beings of the 13 worlds.
CarydNrtya 167
I hail this hymn, strung like a garland of flowers, in the year 600 of the
Nepal era [1480 A.D.]. I take refuge in Sri Dharmadhatu.
(Refrain)
Oh, the great victors, the glorious and famous Vairocana, Ratnasam-
bhava, Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi, Aksobhya.
Oh the Five Buddhas remembered as victors who are of the nature of
the elements of consciousness [skandha];esteemed as the very bone of
the Buddha, they spread their fragrance over the world, illuminate
men and are feared by men. (Kala-mandapa I986:I5-17)

The dance visually translated the song with the help of mudras and sthanakas.

ARYA TARA

Arya Tara (or the Green Tara; see plate 2), the consort of Amoghasiddhi, is
the protector of suffering beings who are in the process of crossing the ocean
of Sansara.A female dancer in green costume gave the dance, which empha-
sized the aspect of compassion. The following Carya song was performed with
the dance:

She sits in the posture of ease, is of green color, one face and two eyes
with a glittering crown ofjewels.
All hail to the goddess Arya Tara who pervades the three worlds and
protects all against an untimely death.
With her right hand she grants the boon of fearlessnessand with her left
she holds the blue lotus.
She wears a vesture of five colors and bestows on her devotees the
knowledge of the Buddha and liberation.
Ratna Vajracaryasings this verse as an offering to Arya Tara his refuge in
birth after birth.
(Refrain)
I hail (Arya Tara) who destroys fear and leads people across the ocean of
sorrow; all hail to her who is of the nature of the syllable Svaha.
(Kala-mandapa 1986:27)

The dancer entered the performance space with gentle and graceful move-
ment. Upon reaching center stage, she visually translatedthe song cited above.
For this, she manipulated her hands delicately and used a small range of leg
movements over a relatively small dancing area. At certain points, she held still
positions, displaying mudras in curvilinear sthanakas. All through the dance,
she evoked a compassionate deity in sustained calmness and gentle grace. An-
other dance performed at the Himalayan Buddhist Meditation Center, which
exhibited similar characteristics, was that of Arya Tara and Amoghasiddhi (see
plates 3-6).

VAJRAPANTI

Vajrapani(see plates 7-9), a fierce emanation of Aksobhya, is also the pro-


tector of the nagas (serpents). Since the latter control the rain, Vajrapari'said
is sought for rain to come or stop. At the Himalayan Buddhist Meditation
Center, the dance of VajrapaViemphasized the wrathful aspect of the deity. A
male dancer performed the dance with his face painted (the lips, the chin, and
the eyes in red, and the rest in blue). He wore a tiger skin, a garland of skulls,
and a snake around his neck (all theatre props). The following Carya song was
performed with the dance:
I68 SyedJamil Ahmed
His flesh is black, he has two arms; he makes a dreadful face and shows
his teeth as he comes to the aid of the afflicted.
His hair flies in the air around his trembling head as he terrifies his ene-
mies.
We hail the secret Vajrapaii, the defender of the reign of the Buddha in
this age.
In his right hand he holds the vajraand in his left the noose; on his head
is a flaming crown.
The protector of the snake deities, he is adorned with jewels and round
his loins he wears the tiger skin.
He is a great god, endowed with extraordinary strength-the one who
holds the trident in his right hand and destroys the enemies.
(Refrain)
He stands firm and permeates the firmament, yet he has no discernable
qualities; as such he is a personification of the very essence of the in-
vincible diamond wisdom.
He speaks with force of ignorance and enunciates the principle of the
indestructible diamond void. (Kala-mandapa 986:3 1)

The dancer entered the performance space with vigorous movement. In


contrast to the dance of Arya Tara, the dance of Vajrapagiused a larger danc-
ing area. The movements exhibited a great degree of forcefulness. There was
also an element of rapidity and suddenness in the movements and gestures,
which sought to enhance the wrathfulness and ferocity of the deity. In this re-
gard, particularly striking were facial expressions, including eye movements.
Although the dancer held a few curvilinear standing postures, the face was al-
ways given greater emphasis and the legs, very little. In fact, overall gestural
design in all still postures seemed to have been composed around the face
(with gaping mouth and projecting tongue). Another effective device in evok-
ing the wrathful deity was the use of abrupt motion, which suddenly broke
free from stillness. Another dance performed at the Himalayan Buddhist
Meditation Center, which exhibited similar characteristics, was that of Vajra-
vira Mahakala (see plates Io and I ).

3. & 4. AryataraAmo-
ghashidhiby Ritu and
ManikBajracharya of the
DanceMandalin the dance
of Arya TadrandAmo-
ghasiddhi,directedby Praj-
wal Vajracharya,at the
Himalayan Buddhist Medi-
tationCenterin Kath-
mandu, 1999. (Photos by
Shahnajjajan)
Carya N[tya I69

Interpreting Carya Nrtya


It is possible to dwell at length on sadhanaas a transformativeritual to show
that it aims at "multidimensional alteration of the ordinary state of mind, over-
coming barriers between thought, action, knowledge, and emotion," to show
how "[t]he invisible world referred to in the ritual is made manifest, and the
subject placed within it" (Myerhoff I990:246). One can also analyze sadhana
as a three-phase ritual: preliminal, liminal, and postliminal. The preliminal
phase involves the purificatory rites while the postliminal phase involves the
concluding rites of dedication of merit. The dance itself can be seen as the
liminal phase. It is here that the sadhaks as dancers seek to be "inscribed with
their new identities, and initiated into their new powers" (Schechner
2002:58). Another level of analysis could show how the dance is supposed to
generate a complex dialectic of flow (the merging of action and awarenesspro-
ducing a state in which people "stop being aware of themselves as separate
from the actions they are performing" [Csikszentmihalyi I99I:53]) and its op-
posite, reflexivity. The dialectic almost appearsto engage the sadhakin a "per-
ceptual play with mirrors and masks, with borders and transitions" (Myerhoff
1990:247). But perhaps all these layers, and meanings, of being "inscribed with
new identities and new powers," "dialectic of flow and reflexivity," and the
"perceptual play" can be apprehended with something more. This something
more concerns "becoming the character." In order to comprehend the com-
plexity of all these layers of meanings, it is necessary to go back to some of the
basic philosophic concepts of Mahayana (Madhyamika and Yogacara), and
Tantric (Vajrayana)Buddhism.

Quintessenceof Void and Pure Consciousness


Reformulating earlier teachings on ways and means of attaining nirvana,ex-
ponents of Mahayana Buddhism proposed the self-sacrificing ideal of the Bo-
dhisattva: one who has wisdom (prajna)as his essence; his goal is nirvaia not
for himself alone but for all; and he is motivated to this goal by compassion
(karuna).Karuna in Buddhism is indifferent and self-less; it is not motivated
by desire to gain merit. Rather, it is "unmotivated graciousness of attitude
170 SyedJamil Ahmed

the DanceMandalin the

Amoghasiddhi,directedby
at the
PrajwalVajracharya,
HimalayanBuddhistMedi-
tation Center in Kath-
mandu, 1999. (Photos by
Shahnajjahan)

shown [...] towards mortal beings" (Ling 198I:I 8- I9). It is a habit of regard-
ing others as oneself, of identifying I with not-I. A Bodhisattva may adopt any
updya (strategy, device, or means) to bring a sentient being closer to truth.
That truth may be relative or provisional; nevertheless, the relative truth is
necessary for moving a step closer to the "absolute truth." The means adopted
may be deception, disguise, or even falsehood. Regardless of the nature of the
means, what matters is its suitability to realize karupa. Upaya is deemed as a
"pedagogic duty, the necessary complement of prajina"(George I999:99),
which is direct apprehension of the Four Noble Truths regarding nature, life,
and the three characteristic marks of existence (transience, no-self, and suffer-
ing) verified experientially.
Two important schools of thought which developed from Mahayana Bud-
dhism were the Madhyamika and the Yogacara (Vijfianavada).Reducing ev-
erything in life to a continuing process of becoming, Madhyamikaphilosophy
postulates the doctrine of sunya, which shows that "there is no thing-unto-
itself, nothing with a self-essence, nothing that cannot be broken up until we
reach the great transcendent reality which is so absolute that it is wrong to say
that it is or that it is not" (McGovern I968:I4).10 The term "sunya" is often
translatedas "void," but it is not empty space; the term may be better under-
stood as "relative," i.e., "devoid of independent reality" or "devoid of specific
character." "Thus sunyata [voidness] is nonentity, and at the same time 'rela-
tivity,' i.e., the entity only as in causal relation. [...] It is simply the negation of
an independent reality or the negation of specific character" (Takakusu
1956:109-Io). Sunya is not to be interpreted ontologically. It is an unattached
intellectual position, rather like a raft for crossing a river. Once the river is
crossed, the raft is to be discarded. One who clings to isunyalike a religious or
philosophical doctrine is like "a customer to whom a merchant has said that
he has nothing to sell, and the customer now asks to buy this 'nothing,' and
carry it home" (Muller 2002). Sinya is complete nonadherence and nonac-
quisition: "dwelling in no special view, holding on to no abstractedVoid, ad-
hering to no special attainment, assuming no special characteristics, and
expecting no special interest of any special merit" (Takakusu 1956: 11). Be-
cause there is no desire, sunya is nirvaia. To apprehend isunyais to attain per-
fect wisdom (prajina).Sunya is Bodhisattva's prajna, and karuna is his upaya.
Carya Nrtya 171

Bodhisattvahood means the attainment of the Bodhi-


mind (bodhi-citta),which is the unified state of vacuity
(sunya), and universalcompassion (karuia).
Againstthe contention of the Madhyamika,for whom
both the knowing consciousness,and the object known
are sunya (because the object depends on the subject,
and the subject on the object), the Yogacara school
maintains that "to use consciousness to prove the un-
reality of consciousness is self-contradictory" (Stew-
art 2002).
Realizing the self-evident precondition that "some
mode of Consciousness (vijnana)is the conditiosine qua
nonfor all experience," the Yogacaraaccepted it as the
foundation of their doctrine of Consciousness-Only
(Stewart 2002). Indeed, the doctrine has striking par-
allels with phenomenology. Establishinga methodical _
presentation of the mind as consciousness, the school
developed a system that has the complete clarification
of consciousness into wisdom as its final goal. The
school considers nirvada as Pure Consciousness (vij-
napti-mdtrata)which is devoid of the notion of the
knower ("grasper")and the knowable ("graspable"),
subject and object, I and Thou. It is a state of total awareness, and complete
understanding-the only truly existent state. All other phenomena are tran-
sient-mere fabrication of consciousness. Hence, "I" is illusory.
The Yogacaraschool shows that consciousness is the awareness of a "self."
It is:

the distinction making activity of the mind, both in making and having
distinctions, including the states we consider the conscious as well as un-
conscious. Consciousness, in making distinctions between self and
other, becomes the subject which treats everything else as object. (Zim
I995)

The Yogacaraschool divides consciousness into eight sections. The Eighth


Consciousness is the Alaya Vijndna(Repository Consciousness). It is the "kar-
maic" storehouse "which contains seeds generated by our unenlightened ac-
tions," and from which "arise all our ideas of self, ego, and their respective
functions in the external world." It is "beyond dualism of subject and object,
or existence or non-existence" (Zim I995). Alaya Vijiana is often compared
to a vast ocean, in which the seven other consciousnesses are compared to
waves on its surface. At its profound depth, it "goes beyond the individual un-
conscious, and can be seen as a universal reality which lies 'within' all beings"
(Harvey 1990: o8). Like waves in an ocean, life is continuously changing. Like
ocean waves, no two humans are alike. Each living being is "a vortex in the sea
of life. The action and interaction of these units one with another, and with
the common stream brings about the phenomenal appearance of the Uni-
verse" (McGovern I968:I5). The Seventh Consciousness (manas)is the home
of illusory ego individuality which defiles the Eighth Consciousness "by at-
tributing to it characteristics of a real 'self' that exists in space and time," and
the first six "by obscuring them with its concept of the self." The Sixth Con-
sciousness (the Mano Vijnana) "collects and coordinates the reports of the
senses" (Stewart 2002). It is where cognition and perception take place. In a
172 Syedjamil Ahmed

defiled state, it mistakes the Eighth Consciousness to be the immortal soul.


The remaining five are the sense-consciousnesses (Vijnana) of sight, sound,
smell, taste, and touch.
Corresponding to the eight consciousnesses, the enlightened state of Pure
Consciousness may be seen to function in the following manner. The five
sense consciousnesses function as the wisdom without attachment or distor-
tion; the Sixth as the wisdom with clear awareness of the emptiness of self, and
all phenomena; the Seventh as the wisdom which "understands the nature of
equality of self and other and of all beings"; and the Eighth as Amala Vijnina,
the wisdom of Magnificent Mirror "which reflects the entire universe without
distortion" (Zim I995).
Although the Yogacara may appear to be tending toward "substantialism"
for accepting the existence of consciousness, especially in the working of
Alaya Vijn~na,it is important to remember that:

The "substantialism"of the Yogacarais in fact more apparent than real,


as their theories on mind are essentially tentative devices, "skilful
means" to be used in conjunction with a series of mediations in leading
the practitioner beyond all mental constructions, including all theories,
to a direct experience of ultimate reality. (Harvey 1990:106)

Vajrayana(as well as Sahajayana)," branches of Tantric Buddhism, seek to


actualize the goals of Mahayana Buddhism with the help of Tantric practice.
Tantra is simply an upaya-more than that, as the practitioners would claim,
it is the most effective upaya-of attaining liberation in the present life span
of a being. This is possible, claims Tantric Buddhism, very much like Maha-
yana Buddhism, because every being is a potential Buddha, and Buddhahood
is the human body's innate quality. It is also important to remember that adop-
tion of Brahmanical deities by Tantric Buddhism was an upaya to bring a par-
ticular section of people (those who have faith in deities) closer to truth, even
though it was provisional truth. The "deities" may serve as upaya to be visu-
alized in meditation but, beyond that, they are recognized as uiinya.
Deriving its doctrine from the Yogacara School, Vajrayana regards the
worldly phenomenon as transient, being only a product of consciousness (vij-
fiana). False perception of the worldly phenomena leads one to be oblivious of
transient nature, which in turn causes suffering. Cessation of suffering is nir-
vapa, the extremely blissful state of consciousness (mahasukha).For the Vaj-
rayana practitioners, sunya is vajra or the thunderbolt (hence the name
Vajrayanaor the "vehicle" of vajra). As Advaya-vajra-sangraha, a Vajrayanatext
explains, sunya "which is firm, substantial, indivisible, impenetrable, incapable
of being burnt and imperishable, is called Vajra" (Dasgupta I969:26). The
consciousness (vijiinna) of the absolute, and intransient void (sunya as vajra),as
intransient as the thunderbolt, is mahasukha. But there are other aspects of
vajraas well:

Spiritually, it [vajra]represents the eternal, innate state of Buddhahood


possessed by all beings, as well as the cutting edge of wisdom. The per-
sonification of this condition and power is Vajrasattva [the sattvaof sunya
or the quintessence of void], a deity and an abstractprinciple. (G6mez
1987:376)

Vajrasattva(or the quintessence sunya as vajra) is the nondual state ofprajiia


and upaya. The nondual or unified state is often compared with salt melting in
Carya N[tya I73

water, where duality between the two objects ceases to exist. According to the
Gujyasamdja-tantra(XVIII:37), "[t]he bodhi-cittais the unity of voidness and
compassion; it is beginningless and endless, quiescent and bereft of the notion
of being and non-being" (in Nakamura I987:333). To attain bodhi-citta is to
attain nirviaa because mahasukha is nirvara. As Harvey explains:

The aim of the Vajrayanaadept [is] to become conscious of the identity


between Vajra-sattvaand his "own" empty "nature," so as to "become"
such a "being." To do this [is] to gain enlightenment, or siddhi, "suc-
cess." (I990:I35)

Carya Nrtya As Sddhandfor TranscendingDuality


The ritual of sadhanaaims at nonduality of the sadhakwith the quintessence
of suinyaas vajra, i.e., Vajrasattva.The process of achieving the state of non-
duality is gradual. As in ordinary meditation, it seeks to calm the waves of the
seven consciousnesses on the ocean of Alaya Vijfiana and develop one-pointed
concentration on the mental image of the chosen deity (perceived to be in har-
mony with the nature of the sadhak) to the point that the deity appears as a
vision that is as "real" as the world perceived by the first six consciousnesses.
All the deities invoked during sadhana-male or female, wrathful or com-
passionate-represent various aspects of the enlightened state of mind, i.e.,
aspects of the Vajrasattva.At the same time, it is also recognized by the prac-
titioners that the deity is nothing but a construct of the mind. It merely serves
as an upaya, and beyond that, it is void. Thus, sadhana seeks to develop a re-
alization that "everything is 'thought-only,' no more (or less) real than the vi-
sion" (Harvey 1990:266).
In order to achieve the above, the sadhak first learns to generate the mental
image of the deity by becoming extremely familiar with images of the deity in
paintings, iconic form, and textual descriptions (such as those given in Carya
songs), and the mardala world. When one is adept in generating the mental
image, s/he learns to "draw [...] on the energies, and spiritual qualities of the
archetypal visualized form" by fully identifying with the deity in terms of the
external appearance and the mairdala.Like salt melts in water, duality between
the dancer and the deity is sought to be nullified. By seeking to identify with
the deity, the sadhak seeks to be turned into the deity as much as the deity
becomes the sadhak. This act of identification is affected in the dance of Carya
Nrtya. By identifying with the evoked deity, the sadhak achieves the aspect of
vajra (as sunya), which the deity represents. The Carya songs, which are con-
sidered to be "the manifestation of the realisation of unity of emptiness and
skillful means" (Bajracharya2002), serve as aural stimuli as well as disciplined
concentration for the goal of the sadhak. The graphic descriptions that some
of the songs provide, such as that of Vajrapali ("his flesh is black," "his hair
flies in the air," "on his head is a flaming crown") cannot but strike a deep
chord in the sadhak, stimulating further his/her visualization. The music, cos-
tume, mask, and other accessories; the olfactory and savory stimuli; and the
agam (inner sanctum) as the performance space all contribute to the genera-
tion of the nondual state.
If the identification is achieved, not only should the sadhak appear as the
deity externally (facilitated, of course, by the costume and accessories), but the
sadhak also should visualize the Pure Land as represented in the magdala. This
act of identification is seen as achieving a lucid state of nonduality between the
sadhak and the deity. By achieving nonduality, the sadhak begins to identify
with his/her "basic nature purged of faults." The deity "reveals aspects of [the
174 Syedjamil Ahmed

e. & 8s.PtrajwalVaj - ra
charyain the danceof hVaj-e a a
rapdni,diirecited
by Prajwalie w '"( v
Vajracharya,at the Hotel
Vajra, 1995. (Photos by
SharodShakya)

sddhak's] character which [s/he] persists in overlooking." The dance should


enable the sadhak to "transmute the energy of [his/her] characteristic fault
into a parallel kind of wisdom" which the deity embodies. With Ak?obhya
Buddha as the "chosen deity," "the brilliance and power of hate and anger may
be transmuted into openness and precision of'mirror-like wisdom'" (Harvey
I990:26I).
Finally, the sSdhaklearns to dissolve the deity into emptiness as nothing but
a construct of the mind. By recognizing the deity as nothing but his/her own
construct, an aspect of his/her latent personality, the sadhak seeks to experi-
ence the insubstantial nature of his/her own being. By repeating visualization,
achieving nonduality and dissolution, the sadhak begins to comprehend that
everything in the world is "thought only," neither more nor less real than the
vision of the deity: a creation of consciousness. At the same time, by retaining
the wisdom gained through the act of achieving nonduality, s/he begins (or
should begin), to transcend to the state of Vajrasattva.
The mandala too serves as a means toward integration of the practitioner
with the absolute truth-realization of the nondual. The relationship between
the circle/s, and the center of the mardala is important:

The circle drawn around stands for the dynamic consciousness of the
initiated. The outlying square symbolizes the physical world bound in
four directions [...]; and the midmost or the central area is the residence
of the deity. Thus the center is visualized as the essence and the circum-
ference as the grasping, thus in its complete picture a mandala means
grasping the essence. (Kumar 2000)

The symbol of Buddha "resides" in the center surrounded by circles of en-


lightenment, which the sadhak must achieve in order to gain access to the cen-
ter. However, the mandala is nothing but a mental construct. It is seen as a
symbolic space visually articulating the journey the sadhak must make. Thus,
Carya NVtya seeks to equate the actual dance in the maQdalacreated in the
shrine with a metaphorical journey of the sadhak to the Buddha. Reinforcing
the "seeking of nonduality" of the sadhak, and the deity at a physical level of
Carya Ntya 175

the dance, the mandala serves to reinforce the same in terms of a "journey."
By "seeking nonduality," and making the "journey," the sadhak begins to
equate him/herself with the deity. It is then that the circle/s of the deity's
maindalais visualized as the consciousness of the sadhak, the outlying square as
his/her physical body. The deity is placed in the temple of the "heart," i.e.,
the Eighth Consciousness (AlayaVijinana).Hence, the sadhak'sjourney in the
176 SyedJamil Ahmed
maidala is a journey to his/her Eighth Consciousness. It is expected that the
dance and maidala, aided further by aural (music and songs), savory (wine),
and olfactory (burning of incense) stimuli, will serve, or ideally should serve as
a powerful experiential vehicle of the senses, which "makes tangible" the ab-
straction of metaphysics to enable the sadhak to experience directly the ulti-
mate reality.
"Making tangible" in physical terms is further built up in a dance of a non-
celibate male and his female partner, seeking nonduality in a male deity and
his consort respectively. The dance may culminate in sexo-yogic union of
Yab-Yum "under very controlled meditative conditions, so that lust is directly
confronted, and crushed, by transmuting its energy into a form of wisdom"
(Harvey I990:267). As Dasgupta explains, "Vajrayanaperceives bodhi-citta as
the extremely blissful state of consciousness (mahasukha) produced through
the yogic union of the male (karuVaas the means or upaya) and the female
(sunya as wisdom or prajina)(I969:27). By incorporating the tactile element,
the ritual of sadhana brings on board all the five senses to play an active part.
By this, the practitioner attempts to engage the five sense-consciousnesses so
that they can ultimately function in a purified state of wisdom without attach-
ment or distortion.
For those who do not dance but participate in the ritual nevertheless, the
dance functions, or should function, experientially. For them, the aural, sa-
vory, and olfactory stimuli are the same as they are for the dancer. Instead of
undergoing the act of transcending nonduality through the dance, the ritual
participants visualize the deity in the dancer/s.
A neurobiologist would possibly explain the nondual state in sadhana in
terms of simultaneous stimulation of the left cerebral hemisphere (the seat of
the ergotropic system) and the right cerebral hemisphere (the seat of the tro-
photropic system). "Stimulating the left lobe makes one energized, aroused,
and alert. [...] Stimulating the right hemisphere loosens a person's ego, dis-
solves boundaries between self and other, inner and outer" (Schechner
2002:165). In daily life, one of the systems is dominant. In sadhana, the sadhak
induces the simultaneous stimulation by means of music, dance, alcoholic
spirit, incense, sexual intercourse, and meditation. When one of the systems is
brought fully into activation, it causes a "rebound" which "produces a balance
or 'tuning' of the two systems." Consequently:

both systems operate simultaneously-resulting in intense and varied


experience such as sexual orgasm, yogic or zen meditation, and trance.
[...] In this state of maximum bihemispheric arousal, people feel [...]
"one with the universe" or "one with the community," totally without
personal self. (Schechner 2002:165, 167)

Vajrayanapractitioners may relate the neurobiological explanation in terms


of the system of the cakras(internal makeup of seven psychophysical energy
centers). Full activation of the ergotropic left lobe is raising kundalinienergy
(avadhutT,prdaa, or chi), which usually lies dormant in the muladhara(lowest
cakra located at the base of the spine), up through the su,umna (a theoretical
central channel running along or through the spine)12to the sahasrara(the sev-
enth or the "thousand-petaled lotus" cakra located above the crown of the
head). Activation of the sahasraraachieves maximum bihemispheric arousal.
When the sadhak achieves or attempts to achieve nonduality with his/her de-
ity, it is not only in terms of the external appearance and the mandala, but also
the internal makeup of the cakras.
For anthropologists, sadhana is a transformative ritual in that it seeks com-
Carya Nftya I77

plete alteration of the ordinary state of mind into a state of nonduality with
Vajrasattva.In it, Myerhoff's "invisible world" is "made manifest" by seeking
the nondual state where the "subject" is not only placed within the "invisible
world" but the latter is also placed within the "subject." Furthermore, by rec-
ognizing the deity to be a construct of the mind, reflexivity is set in a chal-
lenging binary relationship with flow. The "perceptual play with mirrors and
masks, with borders and transitions" is set in a dialectical relationship of flux.
In learning to generate the mental image of the deity, the deity is a mask for
the subject, the "other" with which the subject seeks union. In terms of the
Upanisadic-Brahmanical tradition, the atman of the self (microcosm) seeks
union with the Atman of the Self (macrocosm). During the dance, the deity
becomes a mirror of the subject (since it is but an aspect of the subject's dor-
mant personality). In the dissolution phase, the mirror is destroyed. It is turned
void-a black hole-emptiness. And hence, the atman of the Upanisadic-
Brahmanical tradition is seen as nonexistent.

Sadhana: Authentic or Spurious?


The border-crossings and transitions from the self to the void, from the
Upanisadic-Brahmanical to the Vajrayanaconceptual "territories" (the latter
adopting the framework of the former as an upaya, only to deconstruct it at a
later phase) is complex and will vary from individual to individual. However,
what is always questionable is how far the ritual is successful. How many ses-
sions does it take to achieve the ultimate Vajrasattvaas the quintessence of
void? How much of each session is retained at the end when the subject "re-
enters" daily life "inscribed" with his/her new identities? What effect do the
"spectators" carry away with them? How much are they "moved" or
"touched"? How much of it is "authentic"? Is not the supposed "achieve-
ment" of an aspect of the Vajrasattvanothing but void in itself?
Roy Rappaport argues that the question of "belief" and "disbelief," if not
irrelevant, is of subordinate importance. What is of primary importance is that
ritual, as a "performance of a more or less invariantsequence of formal acts and
utterances, not entirely encoded by the performers" (I999:24), is a social act:

While ritual participation may not transform the private state of the
performer from one of "disbelief" to "belief," our argument is that in it
the ambiguity, ambivalence and volatility of the private processes are
subordinated to a simple and unambiguous public act, sensible both to
the performers themselves and the witnesses as well. Liturgical perfor-
mance is, thus, a fundamental social act, for the acceptance intrinsic to it
forms a basis for public orders which unknowable and volatile belief or
conviction cannot. (I999:I22-23)

It is possible to follow this position and investigate a question that Schechner


poses: "At what moment does a tourist show become itself an authentic the-
atrical art?" (1983:I46).
The question itself is fascinating for it forces one to investigate the eco-
nomic pressures and cultural redundancy that many South Asian performers
face in a "globalized" world threatening to erode cultural plurality. It is also
possible to investigate the antagonistic relation between a ruling elite (the
upper-caste Hindus of Nepal), and a minority religious group (the Newar
Buddhists), and examine what role the tourist performances play in what An-
tonio Gramsci identifies as hegemony (I971).
Having said that, it is also true that to consider Carya N;tya sans sadhana is
178 Syedjamil Ahmed

in
9. PrajwalVajracharya
the danceof Vajrapani,
di-
rectedby PrajwalVajra-
charya,at theHimalayan
BuddhistMeditationCenter
in Kathmandu,1999.
(Photoby ShahnajJahan)

to extricate a "product" from a "process." It is not so much, as Bharucha


claims, that in India (and by extension, in the sympathetic cultural context of
Nepal), "the recycling of culture, the conversion of the spurious into the 'au-
thentic,' is a totally alien concept" (1993:37). "Recycling" and "the conver-
sion of the spurious into the authentic" exists all over India, South Asia,
Asia-and the entire world. However, the problem with Carya NVtya sans
sadhana is that one does not experience-or one does not permit oneself the
freedom to attempt to probe into experiencing-nonduality with the quin-
tessence of void. Hence, Carya NVtyasans sadhana can certainly be exquisite,
exotic, and whatever else that you may wish to add, but it is not sadhana.
Laying these questions aside for the "believers" and the "seekers of the mys-
teries of life through rituals," and at the same time also recognizing that sad-
hana may well be deemed to be an efficacious upaya for some people, I wish
to end by going back to the matter of "becoming the character."

Becoming the Character


The analysis so far has demonstrated that the performance of Carya Nvtya,
as part of a ritual known as sadhana, seeks transformation of the self, the pro-
cess of which can be described as a perceptual journey to the void: from the
mask to the mirror, and then to the destruction of the mirror.
Schechner reminds us that in strict theatrical terms, "performing rituals is
not 'acting'" because "most rituals involve no impersonation" (2002:I62).
But does not the first part of the journey (i.e., to the mask, which, more spe-
cifically, is the deity) involve impersonation? Carya NVtya, even in a ritual
context, bears the strong imprint of"codified acting," which Schechner de-
fines as "[p]erforming based on semiotically constructed gestures, movements,
songs, costumes, and makeup set by tradition, and passed down from teacher
to student by means of rigorous training" (I 56). On the other hand, if the de-
ity is recognized as an aspect of sadhak, then Schechner is correct in pointing
out that "those performing rituals are not impersonating others. The ritualist
is himself in his designated ritual role" (I63).
The act of impersonation in Carya NVtyainvolves ajourney from the "self"
(the sadhak) to the "other" (the deity). The deity is clearly "characterized" in
Carya Nrtya 179

visual form, and hence cannot but be seen as imper-


sonation of an "other." At the point where the sid-
hak seeks to transcend nonduality of the self and the
other, s/he begins to perceive the "mask" as the
"mirror." From this point, the "character" is per-
ceived to be "self." The act of nonduality may be
taken to be "trance acting," in which "performers
are taken over, or 'possessed' by non-human beings
[...] more powerful than the performer" (Schechner
2002:I63)-in our case, by deities. However, there is
a fine distinction. The sadhak is not "taken over" by
a deity, s/he achieves a state of nonduality: s/he is the
deity as much as the deity is him/herself. Finally, in
the act of "destruction of the mirror," the performer
clearly demonstrates that the deity is not "more pow-
erful than the performer" but in fact is only a con-
struct of the mind-void. Most importantly, the
performer cognizes that all phenomena are "thought-
only."
Performing in Carya NVtya is neither like per-
forming a ritual nor trance acting, nor even codified
acting; it lies somewhere in a triangle between the B
three. "Becoming the character"in Carya Nrtya may
perhaps be best expressed as "becoming self-as-
void." Or perhaps, in the Madhymika tradition of re-
ducing everything to void, one could also say that
"becoming-self-as-void" itself is void, at which lo. Manik Bajracharya in
Goffman would perhaps laugh with satisfaction, and add, "the performer can
the danceof VajravTraMa-
be fully taken in by his own act" (197I:28). Either way, it is not Zarrilli's sim-
hdkala,directedby Prajwal
plified version of Indian/Hindu tat tvam asi. at the Hima-
Vajracharya,
layanBuddhistMeditation
Notes Centerin Kathmandu,
i. On 6 December 1992, fanatic Hindu devotees destroyeda I6th-century mosque at Ay- 1999. (Photo by Shahnaj
odhya, which was known as the Babri Mosque. The incident sparkedriots in which Jahan)
more than 3,000 people are believed to have been killed, including severalhundred in
Mumbai (Dawn 2002). The Hindus believe that a temple commemorating the birth of
Rama originally stood on the site. Mughal emperorBabarhad the temple razedand the
mosque constructed.
2. "Dedication of Merit" is the practice of dedicating the rewardof one's merits for one's
own salvationor for the salvationof others.
3. Some of the terms used in this section have been taken from Adshead et al. (I988:22-
24, 34-35).
4. The most frequentlyused analogyfor explaining rasais that of"tasting food." "Because
it is enjoyably tasted, it is called rasa"(RangacharyaI996:55). Just as sensitive people
enjoy different tastes of food mixed with different condiments and sauces, "sensitive
spectators,after enjoying the various emotions expressedby the actors through words,
gestures and feelings feel pleasure etc. This (final) feeling by the spectatorsis here ex-
plained as various rasa-sofnaiya" (55).
The Natyasastrarecognizes eight rasas:the erotic (srngara), the comic (hasya),the pa-
thetic (karuna),the furious (raudra),the heroic (vira),the terrible (bhayanak),the odious
(bibhatsa),and the marvelous (adbhuta)(Natyasastra,VI, 15; Ghosh 1967:102). It may be
helpful to note that one of the distinctionsbetween rasaand human emotions is that the
former is alwaysvicarious. Human emotions are alwaysaccompaniedby an urge to act
while this featureis completely absentin rasa.Rasas, therefore,are"desirelessemotions,
sensualimpressionswhich do not generate want" (George 1999:32).
I80 SyedJamil Ahmed
5. Unless otherwise noted, all information on Carya Nrtya given in this section has been
gathered from personal communication with PrajwalVajracharya,a Carya Nrtya per-
former, and Min BahadurSakya,Director, Nagarjun Institute of Exact Method, Patan,
on I, 2, and 4 May 1999.
6. A branch of Tantric Buddhism believed to have been founded by the Kashmiriyogin
Lui-pa in the second half of the 8th century. Extant Sahajayanaliteratureprojecting its
doctrine, such as Dohdkosaand Carya Gfti, were composed in Apabhrafia and early
Bengali languagesrespectively,possibly from the 8th to the Ioth centuries. These texts
belong to the same tradition as that of CaryaGFtaof the Newari Buddhists. Sahajayana
practitionersare also known to perform dance with their songs.
7. Allen does not specificallysay when and where the ceremony was conducted. However,
in the foreword, P.R. Sharmamentions that the researchwas carried out in Kathmandu
between September 1973 andJanuary1974 (Allen I996:v).
8. Two male Vajrayanadeities. Cakrasambharais a manifestation of a four-faced and
twelve-armed deity known as Sambharawhose consort is Vajravarahi.Literally,the
name Cakrasamvaradenotes "joined to the wheel," which is interpreted to mean,
"joined to the wheel of wisdom and bliss." Yogambarais a three-faced and six-armed
deity whose consort is Prajia-jiian.
9. A female Vajrayanadeity.
IO. As Cai Zongqi points out:
[T]here exist many important parallelsin methods, strategies, and rationalebe-
tween [contemporary deconstructive philosophy and MadhyamikaBuddhism].
Recently, a number of scholars have discovered significant parallelsin the Der-
ridean negation and the Madhyamika prasnaga (reductio ad absurdum).
(I993:389)
I1. Although the Sahajiyasnever cared to formulate their doctrine in coherent consistency,
what can be deciphered from Dohakosaand CarydGCtiappearsto be an unsystematized
amalgamationof Yogacaraand Madhyamikaphilosophy.
12. Practitioners believe that the cakrasare bioplasmatic energy fields composed of ions,
free protons, and electrons. In the nonpractitioners,the susumnais closed while the two
subsidiaryducts (Ici and Piiigala)running on either sides are open. Correct meditation
is supposed to open the susumna.When sahasrarais activated,the adept attemptsto im-
mobilize all the three ducts, thereby retainingmahasukha.

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SyedJamil Ahmed is a theatre practitioner based in Bangladesh, and Associate Pro-


fessor at the Department of Theatre and Music, University of Dhaka. He trained at
the National School of Drama (India), did his MA at the University of Warwick, and
his PhD at the University of Dhaka. His publications include Acinpakhi Infinity:
Indigenous Theatre in Bangladesh (University Press Limited, 2000) and In Praise
of Niranjan: Islam, Theatre, and Bangladesh (Pathak Samabesh, 2001).

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