Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2 June 2015
An Earthquake History:
Finding Faults in Virginia
by Wendy S. Kelly and Anne C. Witt
Source: Modified from the U.S. Geological Survey (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/mag_vs_int.php and http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/
2 earthq4/severitygip.html)
Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service June 2015
To date, no
Virginia earth-
quakes have been
attributed to oil
and gas activity.
During oil and natural gas production, flu- to release stress in the crust. Nearly 60 cases of
ids may be removed or injected underground. reservoirs causing earthquakes are documented
This activity can cause stresses within the Earths in the scientific literature.4 Some of these earth-
crust to change, potentially triggering earth- quakes, such as a magnitude 6.1 earthquake
quakes. For example, a magnitude 6.5 earth- that occurred in 1993 after the construction of
quake in California in 1983 and a magnitude a water reservoir in southwestern India, can be
7.0 earthquake in Uzbekistan in 1984 have been quite large.
attributed to oil and gas production.2 The mod-
ern technique of hydraulic fracturing to stimu- Unraveling Virginias Seismic History
late deep underground oil and gas reservoirs has Although a great deal has been learned about
been associated with the increase of seismicity earthquakes in other portions of the globe,
in the central U.S.3, but this increase has been much remains to be understood about seismicity
primarily attributed to the injection of oilfield in the eastern United States. Far from a tectonic
wastewater into deep disposal wells. To date, no plate boundary, Virginia rests within the geo-
Virginia earthquakes have been attributed to oil logically stable center of the North American
and gas activity. tectonic plate. Even so, earthquakes are nothing
Mining can also cause seismicity. In areas new to Virginia. Hundreds of millions of years
where coal is mined, such as the Appalachian of geological processes have shaped the com-
Basin of West Virginia, Kentucky, and far south- monwealths landscape. The same processes that
western Virginia, underground voids left by the built the Appalachian Mountains and opened
removal of coal sometimes collapse, causing trem- the Atlantic Ocean have left Virginia laced with
ors. Rock blasting in the mining process can also geologic faults. Because these faults are loca-
cause ground shaking. The tremors are detected by tions of weaker crust, they potentially present
seismometers in the region and often reported as a path of least resistance for the Earths shift-
earthquakes, although their location and seismic ing tectonic plates. Even though generations
waveforms usually inform researchers that the of geologists have mapped thousands of faults
events are not natural. across Virginia, many remain to be discovered.
Reservoir-induced seismicity is another Often, faults are blind or hidden underground
well-known phenomenon in which earthquakes (see Figure 1). Without surface evidence, locat-
are triggered by the filling of large, man-made ing faults and attributing an earthquake to
water reservoirs. Although the mechanisms motion along a particular fault can be challeng-
by which these earthquakes occur are not well ing. Examining Virginias seismic history may
understood, it is likely that the geologically reveal trends in earthquake frequency and clus-
rapid loading of the earths crust from the tering, which may also help geologists determine
weight of water and the propagation of hydrau- recurrence probabilities and identify potentially
lic forces into existing fracture systems combine active faults. 3
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Note, magnitude increases as shading transitions from grey to red. Refer back to table 1 for more information about magnitude.
4 Source: The Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals, and Energy (DMME) Division of Geology and Mineral Resources (DGMR)
Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service June 2015
Figure 5: Generalized Felt Area with Intensities for the February 21, 1774 Earthquake
Many earthquakes
are preceded or
followed by a series
of more minor
earthquakes that
may cause just as
much damage as the
main shock.
Source: Modified from M.G. Hopper, and G.A. Bollinger, The Earthquake History of Virginia, 1774 to 1900, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University, Blacksburg, Va., 1971.
estate house, Monticello, was shaken so terribly reports suggest that this event was felt over an area
that the inhabitants are reported to have run out- of 300,000 square miles from Georgia to Penn-
side in fear.8 People also ran outside in the towns sylvania and as far west as Indiana (Figure 6).14
of Williamsburg and Fredericksburg, where build- This 5.8 magnitude event caused the greatest
ings shook and glasses rattled.3 The first newspa- damage in the towns of Narrows and Pearisburg,
per published in Virginia, The Virginia Gazette, which were closest to the epicenter. Brick homes
also recorded this event as being strongly felt in and chimneys were damaged (cracked, shifted,
Richmond and Westover, accompanied by a loud or toppled) in a wide area around the epicenter
thunderous sound.9 from Knoxville, Tennessee and Bluefield, West
Aside from causing a general panic, the Virginia to Raleigh, North Carolina.15 Springs
1774 earthquake reportedly resulted in serious are reported to have been disturbed and landslides
structural damage close to the probable epicen- triggered.16
ter. In the towns of both Petersburg and nearby Many earthquakes are preceded or followed
Blandford, houses were physically dislodged from by a series of more minor earthquakes that may
their foundations.3,10 Store bells as far away as cause just as much damage as the main shock.
Winston-Salem, North Carolina chimed.11 Even Weeks before the 1897 event an intensity VII
though seismometers did not exist in the 1700s, foreshock caused plaster and chimney damage in
historic records of damage can help todays geolo- the towns of Radford, Pulaski, and Roanoke, and
gists assign intensities and piece together a pos- was felt in several North Carolina towns.15,17 The
sible epicenter and magnitude for previous events. 1897 main shock was also followed by a series of
Based on historic documents, people within aftershocks that lasted throughout the remainder
50,000 square miles of the 1774 earthquake of the year.16 On June 28, an aftershock was felt
reported feeling the event, shocking individu- from Lexington to Wytheville, causing a general
als throughout much of Virginia and into North disturbance and rattling kitchenware and win-
Carolina (Figure 5). 2,12,13 dows in Roanoke.9 Another pronounced after-
One of Virginias largest earthquakes occurred shock occurred in Pearisburg on September 3, and
over a hundred years later in Giles County in a third in Wytheville on October 20.9 Although
western Virginia on May 31, 1897. Newspaper none of these aftershocks caused significant 5
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Figure 6: Generalized Felt Area with Intensities for the May 31, 1897 Earthquake
Source: Modified from M.G. Hopper, and G.A. Bollinger, The Earthquake History of Virginia, 1774 to 1900, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University, Blacksburg, Va., 1971 and from S. E. Hough, Initial Assessment of the intensity Distribution of the 2011 MW 5.8 Mineral,
Virginia Earthquake, Seismological Research Letters, Vol. 83, No. 4, (2012) p. 649-57. http://pasadena.wr.usgs.gov/office/hough/649.full.pdf
damage, they were described in local newspapers This 5.8 magnitude earthquake shocked resi-
as distinct. dents of Central Virginia as homes were shifted
off of their foundations, chimneys toppled, and
Modern Earthquakes house walls and framing cracked and buckled
In modern times, networks of seismometers have (Figure 9). Total damages resulting from the
been installed across the eastern United States 2011 earthquake reached at least $300 million.19
to detect even the slightest of earthquakes. Such Eight counties in Central Virginia were included
highly sensitive seismic networks help scientists in the declared disaster area; Louisa County alone
accurately pinpoint earthquake epicenters and received almost 1,500 damage reports from resi-
measure magnitudes. In Virginia, several seis- dents.19 The entire Louisa County school system
mometers are recording Earth tremors and relay- closed down for weeks following the earthquake,
ing the information back to universities and other and two schools were considered damaged beyond
scientific facilities for analysis (Figure 7). repair.20 Only 11 miles from the epicenter, the
With the help of some of these devices, the North Anna Nuclear Generating Station expe-
most damaging earthquake ever felt in Virginias rienced an automatic safe-shutdownthe first
documented history was recorded on August safe automatic shutdown of a nuclear power plant
23, 2011. Approximately 150,000 individuals in U.S. history.21 Although ground motion from
reported feeling the earthquake through the U.S. the earthquake exceeded plant seismic design
Geological Survey Earthquake Hazard Program, levels, the station experienced only minor struc-
Did You Feel It? website (http://earthquake. tural damage and no critical structures were
usgs.gov/earthquakes/dyfi/). The earthquake was affected.22 The earthquake also triggered several
felt over the entire eastern United States and into small rock falls, damaged two small dams, broke
Canada, potentially making it the most widely felt a water main in the town of Mineral, and left
earthquake in United States history (Figure 8).18 3,000 people without power.23 While the great-
6 est damage occurred in Central Virginia, damage
Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service June 2015
Source: The Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals, and Energy (DMME) Division of Geology and Mineral Resources (DGMR)
Note: Live seismic recordings from these stations can be viewed at the following web address:
http://dmme.virginia.gov/DGMR/PDF/Seismic_Stations.pdf
Figure 8: Generalized Felt Area with Intensities for the August 23, 2011 Earthquake
Source: The Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals, and Energy (DMME) Division of Geology and Mineral Resources (DGMR) using data
compiled from S. E. Hough, Initial Assessment of the Intensity Distribution of the 2011 MW 5.8 Mineral, Virginia Earthquake, Seismological
Research Letters, Vol. 83, No. 4, (2012), pp. 649-57 and the U.S. Geological Survey, Did You Feel It? web site: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/
earthquakes/dyfi/events/se/082311a/us/index.html 7
The Virginia News Letter
Historic epicentral
data reveals that
the majority of
Virginias earth-
quakes occur in three
zones of relatively
frequent seismicity.
Property damage near the earthquake epicenter in Mineral, Virginia (left) and the steeple of the National Cathe-
dral in Washington, D.C. that was displaced by the 2011 earthquake (right).
Source: Photos by Francis Ashland (left) and William Leith (right), the U.S. Geological Survey
was reported into Northern Virginia and Mary- earthquake and previous seismic events in Central
land. Monitoring of water wells revealed a distur- Virginia.
bance in groundwater levels as far as 350 miles
away. 18,24 In Washington, D.C., several of the What does Virginias Seismic History
Smithsonian Museum of Natural Historys speci- Tell Us?
men jars fell to the floor, the Washington Monu- Historic epicentral data reveals that the majority
ment developed several cracks, and the National of Virginias earthquakes occur in three zones of
Cathedral was significantly damaged.25 Enough relatively frequent seismicity (Figure 11). Scien-
books fell in the University of Maryland library to tists have identified these seismic zones, along
cause a temporary building shutdown. with many other earthquake hot spots across the
Following the main shock, temporary seismic eastern United States. Stretching from Richmond
networks recorded a series of over 450 aftershocks to Charlottesville, the Central Virginia Seismic
with a magnitude greater than 1.26,21 Studying Zone (CVSZ), rests largely within the Piedmont.
the aftershock sequence helped to reveal the loca- To the southwest, the Giles County Seismic Zone
tion of a previously undiscovered fault and may (GCSZ) extends through the New River Val-
suggest that there are other potentially active ley, while the Eastern Tennessee Seismic Zone
faults within the area.27 (ETSZ) envelopes the southwestern tip of Vir-
Not only did the 2011 earthquake cause ginia. Although it is likely that Virginias geologic
structural damage, but it also left its mark in history has much to do with how stress from tec-
the geologic record. Soft sediment deforma- tonic plate motion is transferred and stored within
tion, such as sand boils (Figure 3) and sand dikes the center of tectonic plates,28 much remains to
(Figure 10) were identified within the epicentral be discovered about why these zones exist.
area following the earthquake. Although some of By reviewing the history of earthquakes in
these surface features were washed away by the Virginia, we gain a better understanding for the
soon-to-follow Hurricane Irene, geologists con- potential future of seismicity in our state. His-
tinue to search for sub-surface deformation fea- torically, low magnitude earthquakes have not
8 tures that may help us learn more about the 2011 been uncommon. Although less frequent, high
Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service June 2015
Figure 10: Soft Sediment Deformation Sand Boils understand why, where, and when earthquakes
Near the 2011 Earthquake Epicenter
occur. Gaining a better scientific understanding of
seismicity in the eastern U.S. will provide a stronger
foundation for local agencies and planning districts
to mitigate potential risk from future events.
Figure 11: Virginias Seismic Zones are Defined by Areas of Increased Earthquake Frequency
9
Source: The Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals, and Energy (DMME) Division of Geology and Mineral Resources (DGMR)
The Virginia News Letter
seismic history and producing a geologic fault orderly and efficient development of the physical,
geodatabase, focusing on the three defined areas social and economic elements of the district by
of greatest seismic activity in Virginia. The geo- planning, and encouraging and assisting locali-
database will be a compilation of faults, at varying ties to plan, for the future.30 Under the Disas-
scales, mapped by geologists over approximately ter Mitigation Act of 2000, Virginias planning
the past 100 years. The incorporation of new district commissions develop Hazard Mitigation
technology, like high-resolution remotely-sensed Plans that attempt to identify natural hazards
digital elevation data (Light Detection and Rang- with the potential to impact that location, assess
ingLiDAR) may also help identify topographic potential damage to infrastructure and the public
In addition to features and offsets that indicate the presence of that could result, and present strategies that may
assessing Virginias previously unrecognized faults. help mitigate such loss. The DGMR is collaborat-
seismic hazards, Assessing the commonwealths seismic haz- ing with the twelve Virginia districts that overlap
effective communi- ards involves defining areas of greatest risk. Virginias seismic zones. Although each district
cation of earthquake Earthquakes that occur in areas of high popula- discusses earthquakes as a potential natural disas-
tion density, with considerable development, have ter within its hazard mitigation plan, the plans are
hazards and poten-
the potential to do the most damage. Overlaying updated every five years, presenting an opportu-
tial risk is impera- cultural data with geologic fault mapping will nity to incorporate new scientific information to
tive to improving help to identify communities and infrastructure improve mitigation strategies.
Virginias prepared- potentially at risk to future earthquake damage.
ness for future In addition to assessing Virginias seis- Conclusions
seismic events. mic hazards, effective communication of earth- Earthquakes are a significant geologic hazard in
quake hazards and potential risk is imperative the United States. Although much research has
to improving Virginias preparedness for future focused on the active tectonic setting of the west-
seismic events. The DGMR is collaborating with ern U.S., seismicity in the eastern U.S. is not as
emergency management and planning agencies to well understood. Over hundreds of millions of
increase public understanding of seismic hazards years of geologic time, Virginia has developed a
and improve possible hazard mitigation. complex underground network of geologic faults.
Virginia is divided into 21 planning district Motion along some of these faults has caused
commissions (PDCs) (Figure 12). Each PDC hundreds of earthquakes documented throughout
is composed of local government elected offi- Virginias history. Although severe earthquakes
cials and appointed citizens, who promote the are relatively infrequent, they have occasionally
Figure 12: Virginia Planning District Commissions and Overlapping Seismic Zones
10 Source: The Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals, and Energy (DMME) Division of Geology and Mineral Resources (DGMR)
Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service June 2015
Endnotes
1 M. Gall, K.A. Borden, C.T. Emrich, and S.L. Cutter, The 7 W.C. Burton, R.W. Harrison, D.B. Spears, N.H. Evans, and S.
Unsustainable Trend of Natural Hazard Losses in the United States, Mahan, Geologic Framework and Evidence for Neotectonism in
Sustainability 3 (2011), pp. 2,157-81. the Epicentral Area of the 2011 Mineral, Virginia, Earthquake, The
2 A. McGarr, D. Simpson, and L. Seeber, 40 Case Histories of Geological Society of America Special Paper 509, (2015).
Induced and Triggered Seismicity, International Geophysics, Vol. 81A, 8 J.A. Bear, Jr. and L.C. Stanton, eds.Jeffersons Memorandum
(2002), pp.647-661. Books: Accounts, with Legal Records and Miscellany, 1767-1826.
3 U.S. Geological Survey http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/ (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997).
induced/ 9 M.G. Hopper, and G.A. Bollinger, The Earthquake History of
4 D.P. Schwartz, W.B. Joyner, R.S. Stein, R.D. Brown, A.F. McGarr, Virginia, 1774 to 1900, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
S.H. Hickman, and W.H. Bakun, Review of Seismic Hazard Issues University, Blacksburg, Va., (1971).
Associated with the Auburn Dam Project, Sierra Nevada Foothills, 10 The Virginia Gazette, February 24, 1774, p. 3.
California, U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 96-0011 (1996). 11 G.R. MacCarthy, An Annotated List of North Carolina
5 Ebasco Services Incorporated, Studies of Speleothem Deposits in Earthquakes, Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Vol. 73,
the Giles County, VA Seismic Zone, Progress Report for April and (1957), pp. 84-100.
May (1993). 12 C.W. Stover and J.L. Coffman, Seismicity of the United States,
6 S.F. Obermeier and W.E. McNulty, Paleoliquefaction Evidence 1568-1989 (Revised), U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
for Seismic Quiescence in Central Virginia during Late and Middle 1527, (1993) pp. 375-78.
Holocene Time, EOS, Transaction of the American Geophysical 13 G.R.MacCarthy, A Descriptive List of Virginia Earthquakes
Union, Vol. 79, No. 17, Spring Meeting Supplement, Abstract through 1960, Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Vol. 80,
T41A-9, (1998). No.2 (1964), pp. 95-114. 11
The Virginia News Letter
14 G.A. Bollinger, and C.W. Stover, List of Intensities, Epicentral 23 R.A Green, S. Lasley, M.W. Carter, J.W. Munsey, B.W. Maurer,
Distances, and Azimuths for the 1897 Giles County, Virginia, and M.P. Tuttle, Geotechnical Aspects in the Epicentral Region of
Earthquake and the 1969 Elgood, West Virginia, Earthquake, USGS the 2011 Mw 5.8 Mineral, Virginia, Earthquake, The Geological
Open-File Report 78-1017, (1978). Society of America Special Paper 509, (2015).
15 J.L. Coffman and C.A. von Hake, Earthquake History of the 24 E.A Roeloffs, D.L. Nelms, and R.A. Sheets, Widespread
United States, U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA and U.S. Groundwater-Level Offsets Caused by the Mw 5.8 Mineral, Virginia,
Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Publication 41-1, Earthquake of 23 August 2011, The Geological Society of America
(1982). Special Paper 509, (2015).
16 M.R. Campbell, Earthquake Shocks in Giles Co., Va, Science, 25 D. Wells, J.A.Egan, D.G Murphy, and T. Paret, Ground Shaking
Vol. 7, No. 164, p. 233-235, (1898). and Structural Response of the Washington Monument During the
17 N. H. Heck, Earthquake History of the United States, 2011 Mineral, Virginia, Earthquake, The Geological Society of
Department of Commerce U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special America Special Paper 509, (2015).
Publication No. 149 (1928). 26 A.W. Horton Jr., M.C. Chapman, and R.A. Green, The 2011
18 J.W. Horton and R.A. Williams, The 2011 Virginia Earthquake: Mineral, Virginia, Earthquake, and its Significance for Seismic
What are Scientists Learning?, EOS, Vol. 93, No. 33, p. 317-318, Hazards in Eastern North America - an Overview, The Geological
(2012). Society of America Special Paper 509, (2015).
19 GEER (Geotechnical Extreme Events Reconnaissance) 27 A.W. Horton Jr., A.K. Shah, D.E. McNamara, S.L. Snyder, and
Association. Geotechnical quick report on the affected region of the A.M. Carter, Aftershocks Illuminate the 2011 Mineral, Virginia,
23 August 2011 M5.8 Central Virginia earthquake near Mineral, Earthquake Causative Fault Zone and Nearby Active Faults, The
Virginia, GEER Association Report No. GEER-026 (2011). Geological Society of America Special Paper 509, (2015).
20 M.J. Heller and A.M. Carter, Residential Property Damage 28 A. Gangopadhyay and P. Talwani, Symptomatic Features of
in the Epicentral Area of the Mineral, Virginia, Earthquake of 23 Intraplate Earthquakes, Seismological Research Letters, Vol. 74, No. 6,
August 2011, The Geological Society of America Special Paper 509, (2003).
(2015). 29 For example: M.D. Petersen, M.P. Moschetti, P.M. Powers, ,
21 D. F. Fenster and L. S. Walsh, Preliminary information on the C.S. Mueller, K.M. Haller, A.D. Frankel, Y. Zeng, S. Rezaeian, S.C.
Mw 5.8 Mineral, VA, earthquake, AEG News, Vol. 54, No.4, p. 2630, Harmsen, O.S. Boyd, N. Field, R. Chen, K.S. Rukstales, N. Luco, R.L.
(2011). Wheeler, R.A. Williams, and A.H. Olsen, Documentation for the
22 Y. Li, G.L. Stirewalt, and K.A. Monoly, Overview of 2014 Update of the United States National Seismic Hazard Maps,
Performance of the North Anna Nuclear Power Station during U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 20141091, ( July 17, 2014)
the 2011 Mineral, Virginia, Earthquake and Continued Seismic http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/ofr20141091.
Evaluations, The Geological Society of America Special Paper 509, 30 Virginia General Assembly Legislative Information System, Code
(2015). of Virginia 15.2-4207
(https://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?000+cod+15.2-4207)
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