Considering the fact that, under

steady flow, sediment concentration increases with slope length and will finally
approach that

corresponding to the sediment transport capacity, a laboratory flume experimental

method with

variable slope length is advanced for transport capacity determination. And a

mathematical

expression is suggested to estimate the transport capacity with thus obtained

experimental data. Transport

capacity is related to slope gradient and inflow rate. Based on the experiments thus
made, a

method was advanced to compute the detachment rate of sediment loading water
flow, under

the assumption that the flow and soil are behaving the same way along rills. Then
detachment

rates were presented as functions of sediment concentration and rill length

As mentioned in Chapter 3, the equipment measures concentration at different heights and

times during settling. In this study, initial concentration values were in the range of 250 g/l to
1000 g/l. The height, time and concentration values recorded and the H (height) vs. T (time)
and H vs. C (concentration) graphs are plotted. The activities in the settling bed according to
initial concentration are explained. The places where the reverse concentration and channels
occur are pointed out by graphical values. The effect of solids upflow on descent path at
steady settling condition at different initial concentrations is shown.
From observations of settling beds in Chapter 3 and from considerations of the theories in
Chapter 2, it can be stated that channelling and reverse concentration gradients have
influenced the settling bed. Slurries with higher concentration demonstrate channelling and
reverse concentration in the settling bed to a much larger extent. Also, the initial
concentration has a significant effect on batch settling.

At the beginning of the experiments the suspension is placed into the settling
column. It is

homogeneous and well dispersed. The particles then start to settle down as
individual flocs or

particles, as in this early stage of free settling, they are not hindered by other
particles or flocs.

However, as the particles or flocs approach each other, the settling of each particle
will be

affected by the surrounding particles, leading to a process of hindered settling. From

this point

of time, the settling particles can be seen as a single body undergoing compaction.
n free settling, the flocs begin to move individually at quite high speeds and in
unsystematic

directions after the induction period. It can be observed that the amount of solid is
similar

traveling downwards and upwards. After a while, at the bottom of the container a

consolidated region is formed. This region can be seen with the naked eye. On top
of this

level is a region where the flocs became interconnected and fell as one floc right
from the start

of the experiment. At the very top region, it was observed that flocs flowed upwards
as a

result of the fluid flow from lower regions. When the liquid forces its way upward, it
has

preferred paths so that only a part of the bed appears to be supporting the upward
flow of

fluid. When the liquid flowing upward breaks the crevices between the larger
interconnected

flocs and passes between them, it picks up smaller solid particles in its way. Finally,
once the
crevices are formed there is a great deal of bunching and breaking of flocs that act
as a firmly

established passageway for the liquid flow. As the concentration increases, the
initial frantic

movement slows down and the solid particles come close together. After less than
an hour it

can be observed that streams carrying liquid and solid move upward within the bed
from the

upper part of the consolidated region. No channels were seen on the sediment
tubes. The volcanoes, as they appear when viewed in transparent settling columns
on the top of the

settling bed are shown in Figure 5.6. Besides the apparent channelling that exists in
the sludge

sediment, the formation of volcanoes is also observed at the upper surface or

sediment/supernatant interface which is an important characteristic. Enormous

amounts of

particles through the surface of volcanoes. Particles are deposited on top of the bed
(Figure 5.7) which changes the bed concentration.

Volcanoes on the slurry surface are formed as a result of the channeled section
having moved

upward through the interface and vanishing afterwards. Because of channelling,

the velocity of some flocs is expected to increase in order to fill the void left by
liquid that can

flow upward more freely through the channel (with less resistance). However, as the
liquid

also drags some solid with it, the average settling process will be slowed down, and
as a

result, the average floc velocity will probably decrease. Observations indicate that
reverse concentration gradients occur when the settling process

starts with higher initial concentrations. However, there is a limit to such high initial

concentrations, and if the experiment has too high an initial concentration, that is in
excess of
1000 g/l or so (ODonnell 1972), there is no time between the start of settling and
the

formation of reverse concentration gradients. The data from the batch

sedimentation experiments can be plotted as H vs. T (Height against

Time) or H vs. C (Height against Concentration) curves. Due to solids upflow, S

shaped

concentration curves show the formation of reverse concentration gradients. Even

for low

initial concentration experiments, the concentration loci show a tendency to form S

shapes .

The formation of an S shaped curves occurred from the early stages.

All values for four different concentrations (250 g/l, 500 g/l, 750 g/l and 1000 g/l)
from

experimental work are given in Appendix A (in the CD-ROM). The values of H versus
T, and

H versus C are shown in Appendix B. By plotting the concentration loci curve, it is

possible to show the formation, persistence and

decay of concentration gradients. Auzerais (1989) affirmed that the concentration

gradients

form at the bottom of the container and propagate upward to meet the zone of
initial

concentration. When the settling solids in lower layers move upwards through
channels in the

bed, reverse concentration gradients occur. They are caused by liquid finding
shortcuts

through the sediment bed. The liquid carries settled particles upwards to be
deposited near the

top of the compaction region. This region is just below the initial concentration. As
the solids

settle under these conditions the result is a reverse concentration gradient and the

concentration loci curves present S-shaped profiles. As this period continues, the
solid tends
to spread over several vertical layers of particles. After a certain period of time, the

concentration of solid in the upper region of the bed increases while it decreases in
the middle

levels.

The main purpose of plotting the concentration profiles (H-C) is to show the
distribution of

solids in the sedimentation column at specific settling times.

93

The profile is drawn as a series of curves of height versus slurry concentration with
time as

parameter. Reverse concentration gradients usually occur at the beginning of batch

settling,

when a high initial concentration is used. This means channel formation is

established at a

very early stage in the settling. Figure 5.9 shows the experimental results for an
initial

concentration of 250 g/l. Results show that the activities in the settling tube are
totally

different from the high initial concentration experiments. During mixing, particles
are randomly moving in the slurry and, due to low concentrations,

particles are not touching each other. When particles fall, they encounter slight
jostling at the

bottom and can change position and settle in a tightly packed pattern. In the early
period of

the settling process at low initial concentrations, the flocs mostly fall under free
settling. As

they are not hindered by neighboring flocs, they are likely to attain the maximum
possible

velocity which is the terminal velocity. Although the total volume of solids going
down

94
should be equal to the volume of liquid going upwards, due to the overall low
porosity, the

upward liquid velocity will be low.

Figure 5.9 shows that the different concentrations build the layers at a very early
stage of the

process but they are not stable. Some layers start to form from the beginning of the
process

but then quickly disappear (for example, the 500 and 750 g/l curves merge with the
1000 g/l

curve). This type of instability could be observed for about 50 min, and thereafter
stable

formations of the concentration layers were observed.

Finally, near the end of the experiment, few concentration layers could be seen but
no

channels or reverse concentration gradients were seen to occur, and if the initial
concentration

was less than 200-250 g/l, no channels occurred. At the end of the settling, the bed
reached a

stable state with a more or less constant concentration distribution, as can be seen
from Figure

5.9 where the constant-concentration lines became almost horizontal.

Figure 5.10 shows the behaviour of a 500 g/l initial concentration slurry. Unlike the
previous

case (Figure 5.9) with an initial concentration of 250 g/l where no reverse
concentration was

observed, the H-T graph of 500 g/l initial concentration clearly indicates the
occurrence and

position of reverse concentration gradients in the 1200 and 1300 g/l concentration
curves. The

shape of the constant-concentration lines of 1200 g/l and 1300 g/l show a particular
S-shape
behaviour indicating the same values of concentrations at different heights at the
same time.

The positions of the reverse concentration region, as can be seen from Figure 5.10,
was

between 30-50 cm from the bottom of the bed, and this phenomenon occurred
between 100

and 200 minutes after the experiment started. As mentioned before, two types of
settling

occur during batch sedimentation with respect to the initial concentration. In this
experiment

the initial concentration is higher than 300-350 g/l so the effective settling type is
different

95

from the previous experiment. At the very beginning of the experiment, up to

around 60 minutes after the start, hindered

settling behaviour can be clearly seen at the top part of the settling column, down
to a height

of about 50 cm. However, below that height, no settling was observed.

It suggests that as the slurry is allowed to settle, the concentration decreases

rapidly at

relatively higher heights and hence the solid particles have more and more space to
move

around and they can settle quicker. On the other hand, the lower region of the
settling bed

becomes more concentrated and the individual particles start to come in contact
with each

other, forming a consolidated or network structure. The particles can no longer

move

individually but collectively they act as a compacting bed. In the next stage of the
settling process, some form of dispersion or classification is seen to

occur near the surface of the formed bed. After approximately 100 minutes (Figure
5.10) a
large amount of solid starts to move from inside the settling bed to the top. The
distribution of

concentrations displayed an irregular behaviour between 100 minutes and 420

minutes. At the

end of the experiment, the entire bed is seen to attain a constant concentration
distribution

with only a small gradient, and from Figure 5.10 an average value of 1500 g/l can be

estimated.

Figure 5.11 shows the behaviour for an initial concentration value of 750 g/l. The
settling

process takes longer than the 500 g/l initial concentration experiment
(approximately 700

minutes). The first changes in the settling process can be seen after 90 minutes.
The 900g/l,

1000 g/l and 1100 g/l lines show similar behaviour. The differences start to appear
in the 1200 g/l concentration line at the very bottom of the bed

in the first 30 minutes. The changes in concentration are clearly visible within 120
minutes. In

100 minutes the S-shaped curves start to appear showing reverse concentration
gradients.

Such reverse concentration gradients are found to take place at the middle of the
bed where

concentrations ranged from 1300 g/l to 1500 g/l. There is no such behaviour near
the top of

the bed where the concentration is less than 1200 g/l. The concentration layers
start to change

at 1300 g/l concentration. The H-T graph shows S-type curves in the 1400 g/l and
1500 g/l

concentrations where the reverse concentration gradients are present. At the

highest

concentration (1600 g/l), the bottom of the settling bed reaches the steady state
condition and
the concentration is fixed.

Figure 5.12 shows the results when a high initial concentration (1000 g/l) is used.
Hindered

settling can clearly be seen at the beginning of the settling process. Initially, before
the concentration reaches 850g/l, solid particles move randomly in the settling

tube, such that there are some dispersion effects. For the first 80 minutes, they
demonstrate

hindered settling in the suspension at the top of the bed. Channels form and behave
like tubes

in the bed and carry a large amount of solids upward. After 1400 g/l, the
concentration layers

in the settling bed start to change. Reverse concentrations appear in the bed. For
these

experiments, the settling bed becomes compact around 1450g/l. Therefore, the
reverse

concentration gradients and channels are seen at 1400 g/l, 1500 g/l and 1600 g/l.
For

concentrations higher than 1600g/l, the plot would be a straight line.

In Figure 5.13, the H-C graph has been plotted at a low initial concentration of 250
g/l.

According to this graph, settling occupies some time in the settling tube prior to 42
minutes.

The initial concentration value line lies at the left of the plot. The time distributions
show

stable behaviour until 300 g/l. Most of the lines show a movement between 800 g/l
and 1300 g/l. There is an unusual

behaviour in the case of the 600 g/l and 1400 g/l concentrations. It is thought that
this

abnormal behaviour can be explained by bubbling in the settling bed.

The H-C graph in Figure 5.14 demonstrates almost constant behaviour at times t
125
minutes, at the height of 60 cm, until the concentration is approximately 1300 g/l. It
can be

seen clearly that the concentration changes start at the early stage of experiment
(seen in the t

= 83 min curve). At later times, the S-shaped curve can be seen between 1300 g/l
and 1400 g/l

concentrations indicating channelling behaviour. At 167 minutes, the plot shows

significant changes in concentration indicating a considerable

movement of the flocs, which suggests that the solid bed is unstable. In addition,
the H-C

graph indicates reverse concentration gradients between 1200 g/l and 1500 g/l
concentration

values. When the solid bed reaches 375 minutes, all material is in the bed, but a
reverse concentration gradient is still observed

The heights versus concentration results for 750 g/l are shown in Figure 5.15. The
top of the

bed is clearly seen by the discontinuities at about 1400 g/l. Small reverse
concentration

gradients arise at this concentration for times between 292 and 417 minutes,
indicating that

this phenomenon occurs at the top of the bed. Figure 5.16 shows the 1000 g/l
results. Due to high concentration, there is limited space for

settling and greater interaction between the particles, which results in the slurry
behaving as

one whole floc indicated by the similarity of the plots. At 42 minutes, the settling
material is

at about 925 g/l; at 83 and 125 minutes, there is a sharp decline at about 850 g/l
these results

are indicative that the settling material is also diluting. At 208 minutes and greater,
Figure

101

5.16 shows S-shaped curves for concentrations greater than 1400 g/l (the start of
the
compression zone), indicating reverse concentration gradients in the bed.

6.1 CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER WORK

This work investigated the phenomena of reverse concentration gradients,

channelling and

volcano formation in batch sedimentation. These effects can have large impacts on
settling

behaviour, and are not accounted for in theories of sedimentation. Experiments

were

performed using a laboratory-scale sedimentation unit in which the local

concentration was

measured as a function of height and time using a gamma-ray source and a

detector. A

photographic study was performed in conjunction with the experiments. The

dewatering

characterisation of the material was performed using stepped-pressure filtration and

batch

settling experiments, and the results used to predict batch sedimentation which was
then

compared with the experimental results.

The scope of this project was to improve knowledge of thickening by understanding

behaviour such as channelling in the batch sedimentation process and highlighting

the

importance of material characterisation testing. A greater understanding of the

principles

involved will impact on better thickener designs and therefore reduce the costs of
recovery

processes.

6.2 CONCLUSIONS

In this study, theoretical and experimental work on channelling behaviour in batch

sedimentation has been presented. Graphical interpretations show the changes in

the settling
bed at different concentrations. Numerical computations allow description of the
relationship

between the experimental study and the mathematical model predictions. General
conclusions

124

are given here from the basis of observations of the settling bed and from
considerations of

the theories and results of the previous chapters.

6.2.1 Channelling Behaviour

The role of channels during batch settling is examined in order to understand their
importance

in batch sedimentation (see Chapter 2 and Chapter 5 for further details).

Channelling in the

settling bed can affect the performance of thickeners but is not accounted for in
current

theories. Inspections showed that channels need an appreciable time to form and
usually

vanish towards the end of the batch test. Channels formed that were from 2 to 20
cm in length

and 0.5 to 3 mm wide. Channelling occurred in the fan region and at the top of the

compressing bed. Three types of channels (major, minor and local) were observed
by the

photographic study.

Part of this study was to demonstrate that channels of liquid carry solid particles to
the upper

reaches of the sedimenting bed. The major cause of channelling is the high-pressure
gradient

at the bottom of the bed and water bubbles in the settling bed. The fluid rising from
the

compression zone causes cracks through the bed. The most important factors that
cause
channelling are high initial concentration (up to 1000 g/l) and settling time. No
channelling

was observed in the 250 g/l experiment, confirming that there is a lower limit in the
initial

concentration for CaCO 3 suspensions below which no channels are formed. It has
been seen

in this study that channelling can occur only when the initial concentration is more
than or

equal to 500 g/l. This can be important information for design and operation of
batch settlers.

The second important factor was found to be time. Even when the initial
concentration was

high, channelling occurred after 2 hours.

This critical time, however, depended on the initial concentration. Higher initial
concentration

caused channelling to start earlier, bringing the critical time to 1.5 hours.

125

6.2.2 Reverse Concentration Gradients

Reverse concentration gradients are a result of channelling in batch sedimentation.

Once

channelling starts, the liquid flowing upward in the channels carries the solids with
it, and

there is a net upward transportation of solid in the channelling region of the bed.

As with the channelling, no reverse concentration gradients were observed for the
250g/l

experiment. At very high initial concentration, the reverse concentration gradients

started

almost from the very beginning of settling. The significance of reverse concentration

gradients is discussed in Chapter 2 and graphs reflecting this phenomenon are

shown in
Chapter 5. The literature review in this research showed that the reverse
concentration

gradients have been usually ignored and not counted for the mathematical
modelling by the

researchers.

6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK

The following are recommended as subjects for future studies regarding batch
sedimentation

phenomena and channelling behaviour.

6.3.1 Advanced High Speed Videography

As an extension to the current study, further photographic work can be done by

using a high

speed camera. A problem in this work was changing the position of the camera and
lights to

follow the formation of channels, such that the process took a long time to capture
useful

photos. A circular rig could be set up around the experiment with the camera and
lights set up

on the rig to give more flexibility to the operator and allow more images to be taken
at any

position and any time.

6.3.2 Flocculant and Material Effects

Different types and doses of flocculants such as polymer types (Zetag, Magnafloc,
Superfloc),

detergents (Teepol) and electrostatic flocculating agents can be used with various
materials,

for example Kaolin, Calcium Oxide, Ferric Oxide, Limestone and Sandstone in batch

sedimentation. Flocculation affects the settling time in batch sedimentation tests.

Factors

which can be used as a basis to identify the best flocculant include; settling time,
chemical

behaviour, compatibility and recyclability. By carrying out a study of various

flocculants and

their effects, it can be shown which material, type and amount of flocculant is the
most

suitable.

6.3.3 Using Mixing Tank

A useful and practical set up would be to add a tank and mixer unit next to the
settling

column. The idea here would be to mix the material and liquid in the tank during
flocculation

and then transfer to the settling column using a low-shear pump. Thus efficient and
uniform

mixing would be ensured.

DISCUSSION

The sedimentation curves for different mass concentrations, illustrated in graph 1,

are similar to

those in figure 3 (taken from Coulson and Richardson, 1991). Graph 1 shows that
rate of fall of

suspension height decreases with increasing concentration. That is, the rate of mass
settling
decreases with increasing concentration. According to the theory, this is due to an
increased

upward velocity of displaced fluid. This means that gravitational sedimentation is of

low cost to

20

industries as long as the suspension to be settled is not too concentrated such that
the process

becomes too time consuming.

Graph 1 already shows that the rate of mass settling decreases with increasing
concentration.

Graph 3 shows that this rate of decrease of mass settling with increasing
concentration, is linear

in the linear hindered settling region. This linear relation can be used to determine
the mass

settling rate for any concentration suspension of the same substance and liquid.

The limiting concentration is the concentration at which the mass rate of solids is a
minimum.

For the 2.5% mass concentration suspension the limiting concentration was found
to be 2.84%

mass concentration or 25.2274 kg m -3 and the corresponding settling velocity to

be

0.2278 mm s -1 . If a sedimentation tank or thickener were to be designed for this

concentration

suspension the fastest rate of addition of solids that would be used depends on the
limiting

concentration and its corresponding settling velocity.

The main error/problem that occurred for this experiment was determining the
suspension

height, especially for the 2% and 2.5% mass concentration suspensions. For these
lower mass

concentration suspensions the suspension height was not well defined - there was a
cloud of
particles above the suspension height. This was probably due to the rapid decrease
in suspension

height as this was not an issue for 4% concentration suspension - in which

suspension height

decreased slowly. As time progressed this cloud disappeared and the suspension
height became

more defined.

The suspensions were made-up of coloured particles to make the determination of

the

suspension height easy.

CONCLUSION

The effects of initial suspension concentration on sedimentation characteristics

were determined

from plots of suspension height with time (sedimentation curves) for different mass

concentrations, and mass settling rate in linear hindered settling against mass
concentrations.

Plots showed that the rate of fall of suspension height decreased linearly, in the
linear hindered

settling region, with increasing mass concentrations.

21

The concentration at which mass settling rate of solids is a minimum for the 2.5%
mass

concentration, and the corresponding settling velocity was determined through

graphical analysis

of the sedimentation curve for the 2.5% concentration suspension. The limiting
concentration

and corresponding settling velocity were found to be 2.84% (or 25.2274 kg m -3 )

and
0.2278 mm s -1 , respectively.
 Factors Affecting Rate of
Sedimentation
Sedimentation is not an independent process. It is governed by several factors. More important
factor is to know the density and the size of the particles to calculate their rate of fall and there should
be no turbulence in the tank as it will tend to reduce settlement. There must be an even flow through
the tank to prevent a narrow stream flowing through quickly from one end to the other .
Moreover, other effects like concentration, height, wall resistance etc. affecting. the rate of
settling are discussed below:

Effect of Concentration
Rate of sedimentation has an inverse relation with the concentration of particles. Greater the
concentration, smaller would be the rate and vice versa.

Particle Size
Greater the size of the particles, which is to be sediment, greater the gravitational force will act
upon it and vice versa. Force of gravity on the particle is given by the following mathematical
equation:
W = mg
Temperature
Temperature has an inverse relation with the sedimentation rate. High temperature means low
sedimentation rate. In order to increase the sedimentation rate temperature should be minimized.

Height Effect
In general the height of the initial suspension does not affect the rate of sedimentation. However,
in case of larger height, greater amount of sediment has to build up before the critical point.

Wall Effect
Provided the particle size to the tube diameter is not greater than 1:100, no wall effect s should
be apparent.

Density of The Particle

Density of the particles greatly affects the rate of the sedimentation. Greater the density, in
compare to medium through which sedimentation takes place, greater would be rate of
sedimentation and vice versa.
One of the objectives of this experiment is to determine theeffect of varying initial slurry
heights (or volume) on thesedimentation characteristics. Initially, the concentrations
of thethree samples were kept constant and their initial height wasvaried. The
results for the first objective are presented first,followed by the results for the
varying concentration.

As discussed earlier and shown in Fig. 1, different zones appearduring

sedimentation. Fig. 2 is a plot of the depth of the clearzone versus time. The plot
shows that during initial stages of sedimentation, the depth of the clear zone
decreases at aconstant rate as sedimentation goes along, as shown by the
steeplinear part of the plot. The plot also shows that the slope changesafter a
certain depth has been reached. The curve of the plotduring the later stages of
sedimentation is almost horizontal yetstill almost linear. The part of the plot that is
almost horizontalrepresents the compression settling stage, wherein
hinderedsettling dominates.

Fig. 4 shows the method used in this experiment to determinethe settling velocities at different
points. The slopes of thetangent lines at each point, which is equal to the settling velocityat the
point, were determined. In equation,(3)The exact values of the settling velocities of each trial are
shownin the appendix.From the y-intercept of the tangent lines in Fig. 4, the height
z
i
that the slurry would occupy at concentration
c
L

is determined.The
z
i

data can be used to determine the minimum concentration

c
L
at which boundary layer interferes, using the equation(4)where
c
o

and
z
o

are the initial concentration and height,respectively. Exact values of

c
L

are given in the appendix.As the sedimentation process goes along, the concentration of the
solids region increasingly becomes more concentratedbecause the solids are getting more
compacted. As this happens,the settling velocity decreases as the concentration increases,
asshown in Fig. 5. Notice that the velocity decreases at almost aconstant rate when the
concentration is relatively low.Fig. 6 shows the trend of settling velocity as sedimentation
goesalong. It should be noted that there are regions wherein thevelocity is approximately
constant. The settling velocity alsoexperiences significant change. It can be seen that the
velocitydecreases as the sedimentation goes along, as is theoreticallyexpected. This is because
the hindered settling region isincreasingly becoming more concentrated as time goes on and
the nearer presence of the other particles slow each otherssettling velocity. The
velocity in the compression settling zoneis significantly less than that in the earlier
region. Fig. 5 alsoshows how the initial height (or volume) of the mixture affectsthe settling
velocity of the mixture. The sample with the highestinitial height (namely, tube 1)
had, in general, the fastest settlingrates compared to rates of the other samples

Additional information that can be determined from the

z

vs.

plot is the critical settling point, as illustrated in Fig. 7. Thecritical point is the point where a
single distinct interface formsbetween the clear liquid and sediment can be obtained. At thestart
of sedimentation, the solids have a concentration
c
o
andfree settling is observed. A tangent line is drawn at this part. Onthe other hand, another linear
behavior which is almosthorizontal is observed at the other end of the graph. A tangentline is also
drawn at this part. These lines are extended until theyintersect. The angle between these two lines
is measured and anangle bisector is used. The bisector is extended until it touchesthe curve. The
point of intersection is the critical point. Atangent line is made at the critical point. Extending
this linegives the value of the concentration and time at the critical point.(Foust, 1980

rom Fig. 8, it is observed that the sample with the highestvolume (or height) takes
longer to reach its critical point. Themain reason for this phenomenon is that the
time to reach thecritical point would be influenced by the amount of sedimentthat
has to settle as it reaches the critical point. Generally, this isthe only effect of
varying the height of the slurry can have.Initial height doesnt necessarily affect the
sedimentation rate.For the second part of the experiment, the objective was todetermine the
effect of initial concentration on sedimentationcharacteristics. Three samples of
kaolin-water slurry were madewith different concentration. It is expected that the
rate of descent of the solid-liquid interface is a function of localconcentration (Foust,
1980)

As observed from the Fig. 9, evident differences in their plotsare present. A linear
behavior is observed at the start of sedimentation although the sample with the
highest initialconcentration flattened out the quickest

In accordance with theory, the more concentrated sample hadlower settling

velocity, as shown in Fig. 11. Greater number of solids block the water below from
rising up, thus the solids takelonger to settle down. However, as the particles reach
thecompression settling zone, the trend is reversed, that is, the moreconcentrated
sample had faster settling velocity. This isprobably because the weight of the solids
that compress theparticle matrix is the determining factor in the compression
settling zone. The settling velocity used in Fig. 11 wascomputed using the method
illustrated in Fig. 4.It should be noted from Fig. 6 and Fig. 11 that the zone
settlingvelocity depends more on the initial concentration than on theinitial height.
The velocity of the particles are may be affectedby the wall of the cylindrical vessel
used.

DISCUSSION

Sedimentation can either be a batch or continuous process. When the process is

continuous the

concentration at which the mass rate of the solids is especially important for the
correct

functioning of the system and design of the equipment used. Sedimentation is

widely utilised in

the process industry. It is the major process employed by sewage water treatment
companies to

purify the water so that it can be released back into the environment without
causing an

imbalance of the ecosystem. Sedimentation processes are also employed by

companies that use

minerals or solids as the raw materials or final products for their processes where
sedimentation

is used to recover these minerals or solids from suspensions. In this experiment the

sedimentation process carried out was a batch process and the analysis carried out
here is

comparable to any industrial settling process.

In this experiment, the effect of concentration of the suspension was not

investigated since the

concentrations of the suspensions were constant at 4%. Since the settling vessels
were long

cylindrical tubes that were vertically oriented, the vessel had little or no effect on
the rate of

sedimentation. On analysing the graph of suspension interface height against time

it was deduced
that the relationship was a decreasing one. Initially the graphs were linear as shown
in Figure 1,

which indicated that the rate of settling was the highest. The rate of settling then
fell off when

the consolidation started to form since the resistance to the flow of liquid increased
and the

height of the interface decreased. This is represented by the curved part of the
graph. In the final

consolidation region which is linear, the sediment settled the slowest since the
displaced fluid

had to flow through the small spaces between the particles.

When an x=y line was drawn from the origin, it was seen the ratio of the distances
of this line

from the 550mm curve to the origin and to the 650mm curve to the origin varied by
a constant

factor of approximately 1.2. The distance between the 650mm and 750mm curves
varied by

approximately the same factor of 1.2. It was expected that the distance between
the 750mm and

850mm graphs would vary by this same factor. However this was not obtained due
to errors

which may have occurred during the experiment. The height of the suspension
interface varied

11

with time by a constant factor of 1.2 and if this factor was known for two sets of
heights then the

curves for the 750mm, 850mm etc could be reproduced with needing experimental
data.

The settling velocity was found for the different suspensions over the region 300
500mm. It

calculated from the gradient of the tangents to these points on the height of the
suspension
interface vs time graph. From Figure 2, the general trend was that the velocity
decreased non-

linearly for the different heights of suspension examined. This was in agreement
with the theory

since as the settling progresses the upward movement of the liquid is reduced due
to the fact that

the some of the sediment begins to coagulate. This caused the area over which the
particles

moved to decrease thus the settling velocity decreased. The order of decreasing
settling velocity

was 550mm, 650mm, 750mm and 850mm respectively with the 550mm suspension
settling the

fastest and the 850mm suspension settling the slowest. Also the settling velocity
was a function

of height such that as the settling velocity decreased the height of the suspension
increased. Thus

it can be concluded that greater volumes of suspension have lower settling

velocities and hence

take a longer time to settle.

The plot of suspension interface height vs time for the initial suspension height of
750mm,

Figure 3, was plotted to find the limiting concentration, C L and settling velocity, v L
at the critical

point. This was found by drawing tangents from the initial and final linear parts of
the

suspension height curve. A bisector was then drawn at the point where the tangents
intersected to

touch the suspension height curve at the critical point which corresponded to a
suspension

interface height H i . The tangent at the critical point was extended to cut the y-axis
at the point

*
i

H . An empirical relationship between H i ,

H and C o and C L was used to calculate the value of

C L which was calculated to be 0.0469 or approximately 4.69%. The settling velocity

at the

critical point was obtained by calculating the gradient of the tangent to the critical
point. The

corresponding value of v L at this point was -0.0002239ms -1 . This value of C L is

important for

continuous sedimentation processes and it usually lies between C o and C max

which this is the

minimum and maximum concentrations of the suspension respectively.

12

Precautions that were taken during the experiment:

1. The chalk and water suspension was gently agitated for approximately 2minutes
by holding

the vessel at either end (stopper at the top to the base of the vessel) and turning it
through a

45 angle. This was to ensure that the suspension was thoroughly mixed.

2. Immediately after the suspension was agitated the suspension was quickly
replaced in the

sedimentation apparatus and timing was started.

3. The coloured chalk was used as the sediment and the back light on the apparatus
made it

easier to detect the height of the interface.

4. One person measured the time for the duration of the experiment and another
person agitated
the suspension and measured the height of the interface so as to reduce errors due
to human

reaction.

5. Shaking of the table where the sedimentation apparatus was placed on was
avoided.

Possible errors which occurred:

1. Errors occurred when measuring the height of the interface since there were
suspended

particles in this zone which made it difficult to actual determine the boundaries of
the

interface.

2. Settling started as soon as the agitation was stopped. Thus there was a time
delay when the

vessel had to be fitted onto the apparatus.

3. For the 850mm, the time delay was greater since this vessel was the heaviest
and took a

longer time to replace in the apparatus.

4. The degree of agitation was different for each of the suspensions since it was
manually done.

Safety Consideration to be made when conducting this experiment:

1. The apparatus had grooves which the vessels fit into to hold the vessels securely
while the

rate of sedimentation was observed.

2. The equipment had a back light which made it easier to see the zones of settling.

3. Care was exercised when agitating the mixture since the vessel was made of
glass. Also the

vessel was held securely at the top (placing hand over the stopper) and bottom
during the

agitation.

13
4. Personal protective equipment such as safety glasses, laboratory coats and
closed footwear

were worn which were adequate for the experiment. Gloves were not needed for
handling

the suspension.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on all the data and graphs gathered from this experiment,it can be concluded that the
initial concentration and height (orvolume) of the slurry affects its sedimentation characteristics.
Inparticular, increasing the initial height of the slurry would alsoincrease the settling time needed
to reach the final height andsomewhat increase the settling velocity.It can also be concluded that
increasing the initial mixtureconcentration decreases the settling velocity of the particlesbefore
the compression settling zone. During the compressionsettling zone, the higher concentrations
would result to highersettling velocities.It was also observed that the sedimentation process
obeyedStokes Law, and that the drag force
F
D
, Reynolds number
N
Re
,and terminal settling velocity
v
t

behaved in a similar manner.

The following conclusions can be drawn from the analysis of the experiment:
1. The effect of the initial height of the suspension with a constant mass concentration of 4%
on the sedimentation characteristics was such that for each height the settling characteristics
varied by a constant factor of approximately 1.2. The suspension interface height varied with
the time linearly for the first an last periods but non-linearly during the middle period. This
trend was exhibited for the four suspensions used.
2. The results for the 850mm suspension were not as expected because settling which not
measured started before the vessel was replaced onto the apparatus.
3. The settling velocity varied in a non-linear decreasing manner with the height of the
interface where it was seen that the settling velocity decreased as the height of the interface
increased. Also, settling occurred the fastest for the 550mm, 650mm, 750mm and 850mm
suspensions respectively.
4. The limiting concentration at which the mass rate of the solids is a minimum (C L ) at an
initial height of 750mm was found to be 4.69% and the settling velocity (v L ) at this height
was found to be -0.0002239ms -1 .
5. The final settling heights for the 550mm, 650mm, 750mm and 850mm were 86mm, 102mm,
115mm and 128mm respectively.
Recommendations:
1. The apparatus should be equipped with an electric stirrer to eliminate the time delay when
replacing the cylinders onto the apparatus.
14
2. The time taken to measure the interface should be longer (about 1 minute) so that there
would be fewer particles in the interface making it easier to measure.
3. The suspension should be gently agitated so that the final consolidation of the sediment
would be more tightly packed.
4. The results should be trended while the experiment is being carried out so that any major
errors which occurred can be reduced by repeating the experiment as in the case of the
850mm suspension.

REFERENCES
Foust, A.S. (1980).
Principles of Unit Operations.
Singapore:John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd. pp. 629-636Geankoplis, C.J. (1993).
Transport Processes and Unit Operations.
Singapore: Prentice Hall. pp. 816-817, 820, 825McCabe, W.L. (2001).
Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering.
Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Co. pp. 164, 168,1039-1040

J.M. Coulson & J.F. Richardson. Chemical Engineering Volume 2 (5 th Edition) Chapter
5.

Particle Technology & Separation Processes. J.R. Backhurst, J.H. Harker