Professional Documents
Culture Documents
hydrogeology, climate, process and the nature of the well-supported and well-logged trial trenches to
ground as controlled by its physical properties. All too explore the near-surface features mapped,
often, however, the site morphology is ignored, some- the influence line approach to the response of slopes to
times even destroyed in a day by the bulldozing of access applied cuts and fills, deriving from the morphology
tracks for drill rigs (for boreholes which are often badly of the slip surfaces present,
sited), and its Quaternary geology neglected. These validated slope development models.
factors are believed to be responsible for the tendency of
In addition, on both a personal and a teaching level, it is
initial site appraisal to lag behind the impressive devel-
very rewarding to visit the sites of past and recent classic
opments in other areas of geotechnics and to be the
failures, such as Malpasset, Vaiont, Hawkley Hanger,
source of many of our worst mistakes.
Folkestone Warren, Sevenoaks and Mam Tor.
The main themes of this paper are thus:
The vocabulary includes the following elements:
that the weakest area of our professional skills lies in
surface and near-surface rocks, their lithology,
initial site appraisal,
diagenesis and weathering,
that in such appraisals, a holistic approach should be
their structures and discontinuities,
made which, following a thorough desk study, will
the climatic and sea-level changes of the Quaternary,
include in its early stages an appraisal of the geo
the resulting, active and relict, erosional and depo-
morphology of the site in its geological, especially
sitional, glacial, periglacial, extraglacial, fluvial and
Quaternary, setting. In this I am following the lead of
marine features,
my predecessors, which include Glossop, Skempton,
hydrogeological features,
Henkel, Higginbottom and Fookes.
fluvial and coastal changes,
A major paper by Fookes et al. (2000) addresses the climatic records and predictions,
general problem of site investigation and emphasizes the mass movements on slopes and those involving
need for an understanding of the total geological and sinking of the ground surface,
geomorphological history of any site, including event classification schemes and terminology,
magnitude/frequency relationships. The present paper landforms and their dating (particularly whether
pursues a similar theme on a very much smaller canvas, Post-glacial or earlier),
concentrating chiefly on conditions close at hand, in volcanic and seismic activity (not discussed further
temperate and relict cold climates, and on mass move- here).
ments on slopes. Nevertheless, some general principles
emerge.
Fig. 4. The Influence Line approach: (a) Case SiS; (b) Influence Lines (diagrammatic); (c) Case GoS; (d) Case SoS.
Single landslides Case SoS (Fig. 4d) (toe slip steeply out of slope),
Case SiS (Fig. 4a) (toe slip into slope) with the with positive but > mob, e.g. Joss Bay failure
inclination, , of the emerging slip surface at toe (Hutchinson 1972).
negative, e.g. Waltons Wood (Early & Skempton
1972) (Fig. 5);
Case GoS (Fig. 4c) (toe slip gently out of slope), with Complex landslides
positive, but < mob, e.g. River Beas slide (Henkel Case Com (Fig. 2 of Hutchinson 1984), e.g. the Taren
& Yudhbir 1966); Slip (Hinch & Fookes 1989).
THE FOURTH GLOSSOP LECTURE 13
There the natural slope was already unstable, the the Pennant Sandstone, are associated with the largest
motorway centreline pegs having moved downslope by proportion of slope failures (Jennings & Siddle 1998).
1.5 m on a width of about 200 m in the period 1958 to The slide-prone nature of the shales and marls associ-
early 1961(c. 600 mm/a, dismissed as creep). The influ- ated with the Rhondda No. 2 Seam was recognized by
ence line approach indicates that the rapid placing of the Knox (1928) and by Evans (1928). In the Cotswolds, a
motorway bank in Zone M, with insucient buttressing similar slide-prone association exists where the Upper
in Zones T and T , would cause failure, as indeed Fullers Earth is overlain by the aquifer of the Great
happened a month after bank filling started in October Oolite (Higginbottom & Fookes 1970; Denness 1972). In
1961; also that moving the roadline downslope to the the London Basin, shallow slips in the London Clay just
position of the eventual remedial toe weighting (i.e. in below its contact with the water-bearing Claygate Beds
Zones T and T ) would have enabled the project to are common (Denness & Riddols 1976).
have been completed successfully using about half the Slide-prone horizons resulting predominantly from
ultimate volume of fill. sedimentological/mechanical variations within the Gault
clay are reported by Bromhead et al. (1991) and by
Hutchinson (1995a). In the former case, in the Under-
Vocabulary for reading the ground cli of the Isle of Wight, the horizon is 15 to 18 m above
the base of the Gault. In the latter case, the five main old
A brief review is given, chiefly from a NW European,
landslips flanking the Channel Tunnel terminal behind
formerly cold climate perspective, of some bedrock and
Folkestone, were found to be seated in a common band
drift features which can impinge upon the construction
within Zone XI of the Gault, 21 to 27 m above its
and performance of engineering projects. The choice of
base. The inter-relationships of these horizons could be
features is informed to some extent by the philosophy of
explored further.
terrain evaluation, introduced in the 1950s and 1960s
Tephra layers within a sedimentary sequence can
(see review by Dearman 1991). This is based on the
weather to form smectite-rich clays with very low r
belief that, particularly within a single climatic zone,
values, leading to associated landslide problems, for
characteristic features of the landscape may be recog-
example at Pelton, Oregon (Cornforth & Vessely 1992).
nized, of similar morphology, geology and vegetational
associations, which are repetitive. Then, if the engineer-
ing geomorphology and geology of one such landform
are understood, particularly with the help of engineering
Tectonics
case records, it is often reasonable to assume that those
Central and Western Europe have been aected by three
of related landforms will be similar.
main orogenic episodes, the Caledonian, about 450
400 Ma ago, the Variscan, around 300280 Ma ago, and
1. Bedrock (solid) geology: pre-Quaternary the Alpine, mainly between about 40 and 25 Ma and still
continuing. These events have had profound eects on
While bedrock geology clearly plays a fundamental role, the engineering properties of the rocks aected and
it is evidently not feasible to deal with it comprehen- dominate the pattern of discontinuities and disruption at
sively here. Accordingly, mention is restricted to two large and small scales. The locations and trends of the
features which impinge particularly strongly on the corresponding fronts in and around Britain are shown
present-day reading of the ground, i.e. lithology and in Figure 7 (Zeigler 1982). In places superposition of
tectonics. dierent phases of movement has taken place. Knowl-
edge of these patterns can provide useful indications to
Lithology the engineering geologist as to the nature of the discon-
tinuities to be expected on a particular site (Harris et al.
Leaving aside soluble strata such as rock salt and 1996; Fookes et al. 2000).
calcareous rocks, which often lead to considerable The more important eects of these tectonic move-
ground subsidence and water retention problems, ments in the present context are the creation of persist-
certain sedimentary beds, chiefly the mudrocks, can be ent discontinuities by tension, as in joints, or by
recognized which are important in a slope instability shearing. The two main manifestations of the latter are
context, forming weaker, slide-prone horizons. These faulting and flexural slip.
generally depend partly on the geo-mechanical proper-
ties of the weak layer itself and partly on associated Faulting. Faulting is well known in principle and is often
unfavourable hydrogeological conditions. mappable, though an undetected fault contributed to the
Examples of both these features are common in the failure of the Malpasset arch dam in France in 1959
South Wales coalfield where, in the Upper Coal (Londe 1987). Numerous faults and minor flexures in
Measures, the Rhondda Nos. 1 and 2 Seams and their the London Basin, associated chiefly with the Alpine
underlying seatearths, overlain by sandstone aquifers of orogeny (some inherited from the Variscan) have
THE FOURTH GLOSSOP LECTURE 15
Fig. 7. Main orogenic fronts in Britain (after Zeigler 1982) with some related cases of flexural slip in southern Britain:
1=Heathrow, 2=Folkestone, 3=M4, Cardi, 4=Aberystwyth.
sometimes aected tunnel construction. In other cases, and the rock avalanche at Tal-y-llyn, described later, in
the failure surface of a landslide exploits in part an the southwesterly continuation of this, exemplify such
associated fault, such as in the opening out of the features.
Cofton Tunnel, Worcestershire (McCallum 1931) and in
the rear scarp of the Taren slip, Mid-Glamorganshire, Flexural slip. Flexural slip has received less attention
which follows the Kilkenny Fault (Woodland & Evans than faulting and, except in strongly folded situations as
1964). The western scarp of the Godrer-graig landslide, first explored geotechnically at the Mangla Dam (Binnie
West Glamorgan, follows a NE trending normal fault et al.1967), its importance has generally been under-
(Siddle 2000). These three faults are probably associated rated. Fell et al. (1988) and Hutchinson (1988) drew
with the Variscan orogeny. Other examples are given by attention to this situation and presented case records of
Donnelly et al. (2000b). Very extensive faulting during flexural slip shears at residual strength in beds dipping at
the Caledonian orogeny, exploited much later by glacial only about 1 to 4. Theoretical models, supported by
and fluvial erosion, has contributed greatly to the estab- case records, were developed by Hutchinson (1988,
lishment of the strong grain of NW Britain and doubt- 1995b). An updated summary plot for the incidence of
less also to much instability of the valley sides. The flexural slip shears is given in Figure 8. This illustrates
U-shaped valley following the Bala fault in north Wales the power of this mechanism for generating pre-existing
16 J. N. HUTCHINSON
Fig. 9. Outline of main climatic events and associated stratigraphy for the mid- to late-Quaternary: oceanic and terrestrial
records (partly after Bowen et al. 1986).
present at the foot of high slopes. They are sometimes moval of lateral support and the strata there may
revealed by sand/silt volcanoes in drainage ditches (e.g., already have been weakened by deep freeze-thaw and
Taren slide, South Wales, in winters of the early 1970s) valley bulging (Hutchinson 1991a), by rebound
or by the presence of relict, open-system pingos (Watson (Matheson & Thomson 1973) and by high groundwater
& Watson 1972). Negative pore-water pressures, pressures.
especially in areas of high Soil Moisture Deficit, have Various types of erosion of engineering geological
significant stabilizing eects on clay slopes (Hutchinson significance are outlined below.
& Gostelow 1976). Such slopes at Southend, Essex, are
described subsequently.
Glacial and glaciofluvial erosion. Past glacial erosion
has had profound eects in parts of Britain. Ice sheets
Erosional features have caused significant areal erosion, particularly on
mudrocks and the chalk, as attested by the huge
General. Erosion is the main agent of landscape degra- volumes of chalk in the tills of Suolk and Essex.
dation and is thus an important element here. It can lead Clayton (2000) estimates the mean depth of erosion of
to instability by steepening and undermining and leave these soft rocks by the Anglian ice advance to have
unexpected, potentially hazardous boundaries between been 74 m. This gives a rate of glacial erosion during
superficial and solid strata. Ice, armoured by debris, and the period of Anglian activity of 3000 to 4000 mm/ka,
water (and wind) carrying sediments, are the most or 167 mm/ka if calculated as an average rate over the
important erosion agents. Those involving ice and water succeeding period. Valley glaciers through more intense
are particularly eective at the foot of slopes and in local erosion have led to massive unloading of slope
valley bottoms, where the in situ stress conditions, toes by both downward and lateral erosion to form
approximating to passive, are most sensitive to a re- U-shaped valleys, often exploiting major fault lines.
18 J. N. HUTCHINSON
Fig. 16. Long profile of R. Severn, Shrewsbury to R. Teme confluence (acknowledgements to Environment Agency for bed, river
and bank profiles), plus details of instability in Ironbridge Gorge.
Fig. 17. Past and present thalwegs of the Severn in relation to the Ironbridge Gorge and Glacial Lakes Coalbrookdale, Buildwas
and Lapworth (after Wills 1948).
rates of several metres/year in the softer deposits. The The response to strong and medium erosion in the
Zenkovich (1967) model (Fig. 19) is recalled and the London Clay Formation and in the Chalk, including
primacy of shore platform erosion, which is followed chalk flows, has been described by Hutchinson (1973,
by notching and landsliding of clis (Hutchinson 1988). An inherent characteristic of coastal slides is their
1986). This has important implications for coast defence periodicity which, if conditions remain uniform, may
strategies. Earlier hard defences at the cli foot can exhibit some regularity. The length of such a landslide
now be seen to have been inappropriate in the long- cycle naturally tends to increase with the resistance of
term, being inevitably undermined by shore platform the rocks to marine erosion. This is illustrated by the
lowering. The modern use of soft revetments in such following cases. The recurring deep-seated rotational
locations is welcome. Logic points to prevention of slides in the London Clay Formation at Warden Point,
shore platform lowering as a desirable aim. This is very Isle of Sheppey, exhibit a cycle which is repeated every
dicult to accomplish however. The use of oshore 30 to 40 years. In the clis of often sandy glacial
breakwaters is to some extent a step in that direction. deposits in Norfolk, the slide of 17th May 1962 between
22 J. N. HUTCHINSON
Fig. 18. Fosse Dangeard; (a) Plan (after Birch & Griths
1996), (b) Section showing relation to the Channel Tunnel
(after Varley et al. 1996b).
Fig. 24. Dounreay, Caithness. Slot with tafoni under overhang (photo JNH). Vertical stick c. 0.5 m long.
Fig. 31. Lake Sarez, Tajikistan, and the Usoi Landslide Dam
of 1911. View from right bank of lake, looking downstream to
dam. Landslide came from niche on right (acknowledgements
to J. Hanisch, BGR, Hanover).
Fig. 33. Quaternary Provinces of southern Britain (modified from Harris 1990, and Foster et al. 1999) and sites of landslides
considered. The whole coastline is in Province T, except where features associated with earlier Provinces are being exhumed.
28
Table 1. Morphology of some clayey clis and inland scarps, predominantly in southern Britain
J. N. HUTCHINSON
THE FOURTH GLOSSOP LECTURE 29
Fig. 34. Cross section of Hadleigh abandoned cli in London Clay Formation, Essex (after Hutchinson & Gostelow 1976).
smoother and less inclined accumulation zone of as described for the London Clay Formation by
angle ]ult. Hutchinson (1973).
(2) The degradation zone declines by generally retro- At Hadleigh and other related slopes (Hutchinson
gressive successive rotation slips. The debris from 1973) it is noteworthy that the decline of the degradation
these tends to break down as it descends the slope zone, from around 13 to the ultimate angle of 8, is
and is emplaced on the growing accumulation zone brought about by predominantly retrogressive, succes-
in a translational manner. sive rotational slips. As shown on Figure 37, based on
(3) Not surprisingly, in view of its sheared nature and the Hadleigh degradation zone, this is at first sight
location at the slope foot with high groundwater surprising, as for an average inclination, , of 10.8 and
pressures, the inclination of the accumulation zone,
as noted, tends to anticipate the eventual ultimate
angle of stability against landsliding for the slope.
(4) For Hadleigh, the factors of safety in the winter are
estimated to be about 1.00 and 1.05 for the degra-
dation and accumulation zones, respectively. Thus
the whole slope is sensitive to further destabiliz-
ation by earthworks or adverse groundwater
changes.
An interesting variant of the Hadleigh type
abandoned cli is provided by that at Lympne, Kent,
part of the old cli-line, predominantly of Weald Clay,
behind Romney Marsh. Investigation of the foundations
of the slipped Roman Fort there in relation to the
engineering geology of the slope (Hutchinson et al. 1985) Fig. 35. Diagrammatic development of a deficient accumu-
established vectors of slide movement and thus allowed lation zone (based on Lympne abandoned cli in Weald Clay,
reconstruction of the pre-Roman situation. This showed Kent).
that, at the time the fort was built, the inclination of the
accumulation zone, d, exceeded by 12 ult for the
Weald Clay, the latter value being restored by the slip.
This situation arose because a previous accumulation
zone was eroded away by renewed marine erosion as
sea-levels recovered eustatically about 5000 years ,
leaving a steep sea cli in the unweathered Weald Clay.
This did not break down to produce further debris and
the existing debris which slid over the edge of the sea cli
from the remaining upper slopes was insucient to
rebuild a full accumulation zone (Fig. 35). This type of
feature is thus termed a deficient accumulation zone
(Hutchinson 1995). As discussed later, the Lympne slope
is now very mature, with ]. Accordingly the succes-
sive rotational slips in its degradation zone have Fig. 36. Photo (JNH) of undulations in degradation zone at
degraded into smooth contoured undulations (Fig. 36), Lympne, Kent.
30 J. N. HUTCHINSON
Fig. 38. Cross sections of landslides mainly in Gault near Swindon, Wilts (Skempton 1972): (a) Burderop Wood, (b) Hodson.
THE FOURTH GLOSSOP LECTURE 31
paper. Brief mention is made, however, of the numerous the slope are weathering-limited or transport-limited
ice-marginal and overflow channels within this Province, (Young 1972; Carson & Kirkby 1972). While local
associated with the retreat of the Devensian ice. The field measurements are usually the best guide in these
landslipped ice-marginal drainage channel at Waltons matters, slope development models, if validated by field
Wood (Fig. 6 & Table 1) (Early & Skempton 1972) is a observations, can sometimes be helpful.
good example. This feature is Late-glacial, but not
significantly soliflucted as the climate was ameliorating.
Clis in chalk. Under conditions of strong marine
Accordingly it is roughly analogous to a Post-
erosion in the harder chalks, falls such as Joss Bay occur
glacial abandoned cli, such as Hadleigh, but with an
(Hutchinson 1972), partially exploiting pre-existing dis-
erosion- steepened toe.
continuities, the debris forming a talus at around 35. In
softer, higher porosity chalk, such falls can develop into
In Province GLP. Not treated in this paper.
chalk flows, in which the debris can run out seaward by
Crest rounding in clayey abandoned clis. In Britain, the up to five times the cli height (Hutchinson 1988, in
latest significant solifluction episode was that associated press).
with the Loch Lomond Stadial (Fig. 9), which ended In abandoned chalk clis, in which degradation takes
about 10 ka years ago at the start of the Holocene place by a multitude of small-scale weathering events
(minor activity doubtless occurred in some places during rather than by any deeper-seated failures, the accumu-
the Little Ice Age). Thus Holocene (Post-glacial) clis lating talus protects the lower cli and leads to the
have not been soliflucted. They are characterized by development of a buried convex-outward rock profile.
having concave crests. Older, Late-glacial clis in similar Such a process, unlike larger scale landslipping, lends
materials have been soliflucted and have convex crests. itself to treatment by the infinitesimal calculus, as by
Surveys of slope crests of both types in the London Clay Fisher (1866), Lehmann (1933) and Bakker & Le Heux
Formation and in some tills are given in Figure 41. (1947). The predictions of the related, weathering
These data support the conclusion that the presence or limited Fisher-Lehmann and Bakker-Le Heux models
absence of rounding of scarp crests in Britain is diagnos- compare well with a small-scale field example at Overton
tic of whether or not they have been subjected to Down (Hutchinson 1998) (Fig. 42). The rate of recession
periglacial solifluction (Hutchinson 1973, 1991a). of the 1.7 m high scarp of weathered chalk there is
Much attention is paid to this topic in the geo- shown (and compared with that for the Warden Point
morphological literature, with creep, rainsplash and rear scarp) in Figure 43.
solifluction generally being considered as the most
relevant processes (Carson & Kirkby 1972). For British Clis in the London Clay Formation. Qualitative models
conditions, at least, it appears that solifluction and its for strong, moderate and zero basal erosion on coastal
preceding frost action are the chief agents. As shown on clis in the London Clay Formation are given by
Figure 41a, frost will penetrate deeper than average at Hutchinson (1967, 1973) and quantitative ones for
an obtuse scarp crest and, on thawing, tend to round it. strong erosion in this formation by Bromhead (1978).
Other quantitative data on slope development are
available for the deep-seated rotational slide at the
Changes in cliffs with time and some slope strongly eroding Warden Point on 21st November, 1971
development models (Figure 44). This slide, in 43 m high clis, left a steep
rear scarp around 15 m high, the degradation of which
Many of the inland clis and scarps described above are was monitored for 902 days by Gostelow (1974). Al-
in a quiescent or near-quiescent state and it is their though a component in the behaviour of a strongly
considerable sensitivity to being destabilized by earth- eroding cli, this rear scarp approximated for about this
works that constitutes their chief potential hazard to time to an abandoned cli, though eventually its height
engineering projects. Where marine or fluvial erosion is increased significantly as the slipped mass descended
still active, however, slope profiles can change signifi- seawards. As shown by Figure 45, degradation was
cantly each year and even abandoned clayey clis can rapid at first, particularly from the weaker upper parts
continue to degrade for up to thousands of years after of the scarp. This had the eect of preserving the lower
abandonment. exposed part of the original scarp and thus producing a
In these latter cases, the dynamic nature of the marked deviation from the predictions of the Bakker-Le
landscape becomes important and rates of crest retreat, Heux model. A similar pattern was observed over
and thus the necessary set-back of building lines (e.g. 19 years by Wallace (1980) for the degradation of a
Cruden et al. 1989), need to be defined. The mode of 4.5 m high normal fault scarp in morainic material
development clearly depends strongly on the conditions in Montana. In both cases the slope crest remained
of debris removal, particularly by erosion at the concave throughout. The progress of crest retreat at
slope base, and whether the processes operating on Warden Point over 902 days, averaged over the five
THE FOURTH GLOSSOP LECTURE 33
Fig. 41. Rounding of slope crests: (a) Isothermal for an obtuse 160 corner (R. E. Gibson pers. comm. 1978); Sections of some
crests of Late- and Post-glacial clis in, (b) London Clay Formation, (c) tills (after Gostelow 1974).
monitored profiles, is shown in Figure 46: the average slide will occur after 40 years, Figure 47, relevant in the
height of the rear scarp during this period was 16 m. management of coast erosion, has been drawn to show
The cyclical nature of the Warden Point slides has the progress of cli top retreat during the whole of such
been referred to above. On the assumption that the next a cycle.
34 J. N. HUTCHINSON
Fig. 44. Warden Point slide, Kent, and its steep initial rear
scarp in London Clay Formation, looking west (acknowledge-
ments to Committee for Aerial Photography, University of
Cambridge).
F=fill, C=cut, Fu=rapidly placed fill giving +ve undrained pore water pressures, Fmb=fill monitored to control such pressures and buttressed by fill downslope (in T or M). *While the term
geomorphological map was not used, all cracks and scarps were mapped, the history of the behaviour of the railway at the toe studied, and a trial bank constructed. This failure was roughly half
due to solifluction shears and half to the design of the dam. The cases (mostly involving roads) covered by this table fall approximately in the main period of motorway and trunk road construction.
37
38 J. N. HUTCHINSON
Fig. 52. Cross section of Ok Ma landslide, Papua New Guinea (authors files).
engineering disciplines (Freeze, et al. 1990, as noted (5) In addition, room must be made for the critical
earlier), we cannot aord to continue with a system of discussion of representative case records, particularly
education and training which is deficient to some degree of failed projects. Such case records make an
in the respects discussed above. The start of this new invaluable contribution to our understanding of
millennium seems a good time to review this situation the eects of our interventions with the ground.
and to take steps to improve it. Some suggestions are: They need to be continually borne in mind and
(1) Past experience indicates that it is unrealistic to added to whenever possible.
expect the universities to somehow put things right. (6) The time allotted to engineering geology/
As a profession, therefore, we need to be pro-active engineering geomorphology, especially in under-
and to take whatever steps are necessary at under- graduate civil engineering courses, has been cut
graduate and Masters levels, and in Continuing back severely over the years, frequently to non-
Professional Development, to arrange for a proper viable levels (Appendix C). This is partly the result
education and training in these ground-related of these disciplines being regarded, improperly, as
matters. expendable because largely non-quantitative. Cost
(2) As a first step, a thorough review of the present and safety aspects of field work have also led to this
situation in the universities with regard to the being additionally reduced, although engineering
teaching of engineering geology will be needed, in geology is essentially a field subject. The need for
collaboration with the appropriate professional restoration of appropriate levels of teaching time in
bodies. (The questionnaire summarized in this area is urgent, as illustrated below.
Appendix C represents only a preliminary step in On average for 31 of the universities oering
this direction.) Further detailed steps will naturally accredited civil engineering courses, for example,
depend on what is revealed. the total times spent on combined engineering
(3) The essential aim should be to re-integrate geomor- geology teaching (i.e. basic, engineering and
phology with engineering geology. The appropriate Quaternary geology, plus any geomorphology) in
geomorphological material will thus preferably be their whole civil engineering undergraduate courses
added to expanded engineering geology modules are 24.9 hours lectures, 3.8 hours laboratories and
rather than be treated as a separate unit. What 2.6 days field courses. Of these times, 3.7 hours,
constitutes appropriate geomorphological material 0.5 hours and 0.7 days, on average, are devoted to
will need to be discussed. A major injection of engineering geomorphology.
geomorphology into civil engineering courses is not Out of these 31 undergraduate courses, 8 have
proposed, but basic concepts, mapping and related 12 hours or less of combined engineering geology
fieldwork, remote sensing, and hazard and risk lectures, and 10 have 4 hours or less of laboratories
assessment, with coverage of the main geomorpho- and 1 day or less in the field. The figures speak for
logical environments would all seem to be needed themselves.
(J. S. Griths pers. comm.). Corresponding times for MSc courses are slightly
(4) This expansion of engineering geology modules will better, but very variable.
also be needed to accommodate a fuller treatment (7) Because of the considerable time for which this
of Quaternary engineering geology. The great situation has existed, it will not be easy to find the
importance of this has been urged by previous right teachers. In order to provide the necessary
authors (e.g. Fookes 1997, in The First Glossop authority and enthusiasm, it is highly desirable
Lecture, and Fookes et al. 2000) and is also for them to have professional experience of
brought out in this paper. site appraisal on engineering sites. At present
40 J. N. HUTCHINSON
(Appendix C), around 40%, on average, of engi- geomorphology, giving due weight to the Quaternary
neering geology sta in the universities are reported and valuing and re-valuing its case records. It also
as having professional site experience. reminds us of the richness and variety of British
(8) The influential BS5930:1999 (British Standards geology within a compact area, with most geological
Institution 1999), while containing much sound periods except the Miocene well represented, and with a
advice, does not provide appropriate guidance in Quaternary that gives us glaciated, periglaciated and
the area of initial site appraisal. A supplementary temperate Holocene landscapes. With such resources, it
publication to remedy this should be published should not be dicult to re-ignite interest and enthusi-
without delay. asm in this fieldundoubtedly the best way of securing
(9) Recent developments in computerized data-bases the future health of the profession in the areas of
are useful, but could be more comprehensive and engineering geology and site appraisal.
better coordinated. Universities and others could,
with advantage, jointly produce reference lists and Acknowledgements. I thank the Engineering Group of the
Geological Society for inviting me to give the Fourth Glossop
case record summaries, which would help greatly in
Lecture and for the excellent support provided by the Confer-
teaching and in desk studies and an associated web ence Team. I have been greatly helped by a wide group of
site could be opened. The DOE Landslide Survey, colleagues, to whom I am most grateful. These include: Miss
not added to since 1991 (Jones & Lee 1994), is now R. E. Allington, Mr L. Attewill, Mr C. A. Bonnard, Professor
held by the British Geological Survey. It is good D. Q. Bowen, Dr E. E, Brabb, Mr A. Bracegirdle, Professor
E. N. Bromhead, Professor D. Brunsden, Professor J. B.
news (A. Forster pers. comm.) that this important
Burland, Dr J. A, Catt, Professor R. J. Chandler, Professor
data source is currently being revived as part of a R. J. Chorley, Mr M. M. Chrimes, Dr A. R. Clark, Professor
BGS central registry of landslides, collapses and K. Clayton, Dr J. W. Cosgrove, Dr F. Cotecchia, Dr M. J.
other valuable engineering geological and mining Crozier, Professor D. M. Cruden, Professor G. L. Herries
data. Davies, Professor T. R. Davies, Dr M. H. de Freitas, Dr P. L.
Gibbard, Dr T. P. Gostelow, Dr D. Graham, Mr R. E. Gray,
Dr J. S. Griths, Professor M. Hamza, Dr J Hanisch, Mr
R. B. Haryott, Dr G. J. Hearn, Mr J. Henry, Dr A. F.
Howland, Professor O. Hungr, Mr C. Ing, Mr D. Jarman, Dr
R. H. Johnson, Professor D. K. C. Jones, Dr C. R. J. Kilburn,
Endpiece Mr E. M. Lee, Professor J. Lewin, Professor G. S. Littlejohn,
Mr M. Machacek, Dr M. C. Matthews, Mr R. S. Morley, Mr
Significant, long-standing gaps have been identified in D. Norbury, Dr A. D. M. Penman, Dr K. Privett, Mr W. J.
Rankin, Professor K. S. Richards, Dr C. Schindler, Dr R. J.
the education and training in Britain of civil engineers Schuster, Mr D. T. Shilston, Mr H. J. Siddle, Dr G. P. Sims,
and, to some extent, of engineering geologists, in the Dr A. E. Skinner, Mr T. W. Spink, Professor N. Stephens,
areas of geomorphology and Quaternary geology. Professor P. R. Vaughan, Dr A. Warwick, Mrs S. Watson, Dr
Remedying these should result not only in a major A. G. Weeks, Mr P. Wheeler and Professor P. Worsley. I
improvement in our treatment of earthworks on clayey would also like to thank very particularly Professor P. G.
Fookes, Mr A. A. McMillan, Mr D. L. Millar, Dr D. J. Petley
slopes, but also in raising our sights and technological and Professor Sir Alec Skempton. I am deeply grateful to my
confidence to tackle the numerous major environmental wife for her interest and support.
problems of the world, of which saving the Aral Sea I gratefully acknowledge the permission of Dr T. P.
could be just a beginning. Gostelow to quote from his PhD Thesis, and that of UKAEA
Above all, I hope that the paper demonstrates, to make reference to the work at Dounreay. The help provided
by W. S. Atkins Consultants Ltd in drafting Tables 1 & 2 and
particularly to our present and future students, how Figure 9 and by Mott MacDonald with the presentation is
stimulating and rewarding engineering geology becomes much appreciated, as is the work of Miss R. Beaumont on the
when restored to its proper position, re-integrated with graphics and Mr P. Howard on the photographs.
Appendices
investigations. One diculty is sourcing aerial photographs. In the UK, there are separate major archives for England,
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. In addition there is the Ordnance Survey, several commercial and academic
sources. These primary sources are listed below. All air photo collections are listed in the NAPLIB Directory of Aerial
Photographic Collections in the United Kingdom, 2nd Edition, 1999.
When acquiring and viewing aerial photography, it is fundamentally important to order stereo cover. That is,
overlapping photographs that can be viewed through a stereoscope and observed in 3-dimensions. Not only can slope
angles, heights and depths of structures, excavations and landfills be measured or estimated, but also much significant
detail emerges that is not discernible from a single photograph.
Stereo air photography exists because the photogrammatic technology of the past 60 years has required it in order
to produce topographic maps. The geological and geotechnical use of it is a fortunate by product. The advent of digital
cameras and image interpretation techniques uses the powerful but narrow capabilities of computers to discriminate
colours, textures and patterns on photographs and satellite images. However, this approach has had the unfortunate
tendency to ignore what computer image analysis can not deal with, i.e. the sensitive interpretation of slope form and
change of form over time.
The application of airborne lasers to terrain profiling coupled at the pixel to directly scanned images (through
GPSglobal positioning system) of a photogrammetric standard is a rapidly developing technology. Within the next
10 to 15 years we are likely to find that the current technical diculties (of vast data files demanding large amounts of
onboard memory or economical rapid down-link systems to ground stations) will be resolved into an aordable
technology. This will replace aerial survey photography and photogrammetry as we know it.
High resolution satellite imagery became available in January 2000, as a potential rival to aerial photography or
scanned imagery. Its 1 m resolution gives a photographic quality picture at 1:10 000 scale. It is particularly useful for
large areas and in countries where the military prevents aerial photography. At present it does not have a stereo
viewing capability and the entry cost is too high for many projects.
Despite the ease of handling digital images, we must not be deluded that digital aerial or satellite images clipped out
of the most recent survey for illustrative use is sucient without sensitive 3-D portrayal for a desk study. We need to
be aware that digital technology that enables invisible patching of new detail into existing cover is actually corrupting
the images usefulness as a historical document.
The challenge will be to retain data (i.e. digital images and terrain models) in a form which continues to be useful
and accessible in computing terms to geotechnical engineers and geologists of the future who may be considering our
construction activities and land uses in their desk studies.
For the present and future, our excellent photographic archives remain a powerful resource which should be used for
eective desk studies of the second half of the twentieth century and the early decades of the twenty-first.
Government
English Heritage, Kemble Drive, SWINDON, Wilts, SN2 2 GZ Tel. 01793 414 833
National Monument Record Fax. 01793 414 606
Royal Commission for Ancient and John Sinclair House, 16 Bernard Terrace, Tel. 0131 662 1456
Historical Monuments in Scotland EDINBURGH EH8 9NX Fax. 0131 662 1477
Welsh Oce, Air Photographs Unit Crown Oces, Cathays Park, CARDIFF CF1 3NQ Tel. 01222 823 815
Fax. 01222 823 036
Ordnance Survey of Colby House, Stranmillis Court, BELFAST BT9 5BJ Tel. 028 9025 5755
Northern Ireland Fax. 028 9025 5700
ADAS, Ministry of Agriculture, Woodthorne, Wergs Road, Tel. 01902 693 199
Fisheries and Food WOLVERHAMPTON WV6 8TQ Fax. 01902 693 400
Ordnance Survey Refer to your local OS map agent www.ordsvy.gov.uk
Commercial
Aerofilms Ltd Gate Studios, Station Road, Tel. 020 8207 0666
BOREHAMWOOD, Herts, WD6 1EJ Fax. 020 8207 5433
BKS Surveys Ltd 47 Ballycairn Road, COLERAINE, Co Londonderry, Tel. 028 7035 2311
Northern Ireland BT51 3HZ Fax. 028 7035 7637
Cartographical Services Ltd The Survey Centre, Waterworks Road, Tel. 01905 29085
WORCESTER WR1 3EZ Fax. 01905 617 771
42 J. N. HUTCHINSON
National Remote Sensing Centre Ltd Barwell Business Centre, Arthur Street, Tel. 01455 849 207
(for air photos) BARWELL, Leics, LE9 8GZ Fax 01455 841 785
Wildgoose Ltd The Old Toy Factory, 10 The Business Park, Tel. 01530 835 685
Jackson Street, COALVILLE, Leics, LE67 3NR Fax. 01530 835 691
Academic
Cambridge University Committee Mond Building, Free School Lane, Tel. 01223 334 578
for Air Photographs CAMBRIDGE CB2 3RF Fax. 01223 334 400
Keele University, Aerial Dept. of Geography, KEELE, Stas, ST5 5BG Tel. 01782 583 395
photography manager (for RAF Fax. 01782 584 144
WW II air photos outside UK)
Satellite coverage
National Remote Sensing Centre Ltd Delta House, Southwood Crescent, Southwood, Tel. 01252 541 464
FARNBOROUGH, Hants, GU14 0NL Fax. 01252 375 016
Nigel Press Associates 1 Fircroft Way, EDENBRIDGE, Kent TN8 6HS Tel. 01732 865 023
Fax. 01732 866 521
County, universities and other collections hold local photography from the above sources as well as much coverage
from local individual flyers. These collections are listed in the NAPLIB Directory of Aerial Photographic Collections in
the United Kingdom, 2nd Edition, 1999. www.naplib.org.uk.
John Henry
OVE ARUP & PARTNERS
13 Fitzroy Street
London W1P 6BQ
United Kingdom
john.henry@arup.com
www.arup.com
Appendix B. Brief note on the history of geomorphology and Quaternary geology in Britain
(Chorley et al. 1964; Davies 1966)
Geomorphology. In the late eighteenth century, as shown in the writings of Hutton (1788) and Playfair (1802), a strong
interest in landforms meant that geology and what we now term geomorphology were integrated. This situation
continued into the early to mid-nineteenth century and, as late as 1864, Ramsay delivered, in the Royal School of
Mines, six lectures on Physical Geology and Geography which continued this tradition. However, in the latter part of
the nineteenth century, the interest of most British geologists in geomorphology waned, partly because of the natural
dominance of their vigorous and trail-blazing palaeontological and stratigraphical work on the elucidation of the
Palaeozoic rocks of western Britain and partly through the lead taken by American geologists and geomorphologists
in the magnificently exposed, newly opened up areas of the American West. After visiting there, Archibald Geikie, the
leading British geologist and geomorphologist of his day, concluded that the future of geomorphology lay in the U. S.
and turned his attention to other fields (G. L. Davies pers. comm.).
In Britain the vacuum left by the separation of geomorphology from geology, and its subsequent neglect by
geologists, was filled by the growth of departments of physical geography from the late nineteenth century onwards.
These naturally proceeded to build up the subject of geomorphology, largely distinct from geology, which further
intensified the divorce of the two subjects. This separation was accentuated by the influential Harvard school of
geomorphology, set up by the geographer, W. M. Davis, in the late nineteenth century. His non-quantitative, cycle of
erosion/denudation chronology concepts dominated geomorphology on both sides of the Atlantic from then until
about the second World War.
The discipline was drastically modernized during the period 194565 by the introduction of a quantified,
process-response-systems approach, deriving initially from ideas which originated mainly in hydrology and hydraulic
engineering (Horton 1945; Mackin 1948) (R. J. Chorley pers. comm.), which has generally been continued. In 1966,
Davies (1966) wrote that the present revival of landform studies has been the work not of British geologists, but of
British geographers. Not since the days of Jukes, Ramsay and Geikie has British geology taken any serious interest in
the configuration of the earths surface. This situation has since improved, largely through increasing environmental
THE FOURTH GLOSSOP LECTURE 43
demands in planning and consultancy. Regrettably, after a flowering in the 1970s and early 1980s in the universities of
London and Nottingham, with useful impact in practice, interest in applied and engineering geomorphology in most
universities has diminished, in part through a concentration on process studies and in part through course proliferation
and diversification.
Quaternary geology. Acceptance of the glacial theory in Britain was encouraged by the visit of Agassiz to London and
Scotland in 1840 and the support of geologists such as Buckland, A. Geikie and, eventually, Lyell. After initial strong
opposition the glacial theory was firmly established by about 1865, but study of the associated geological features was
generally not seriously considered. The view of most geologists in the late nineteenth century was that Pleistocene
deposits were so much heterogeneous rubbish which obscured the all-important exposures of the solid rocks, an
attitude which unfortunately still persists to some degree. Head, an old quarrymens term for overburden, which
commonly also reflects this view, was first applied by a geologist (De La Beche) to superficial Pleistocene deposits in
1839 (Dines et al. 1940). This neglect of, even disdain for, the Quaternary has aected many university geology
departments for the past century or more, and still persists to a significant extent. The resultant vacuum, like that in
geomorphology mentioned above, has to a large extent been filled by geographers. Since the early 1970s, some balance
is being restored by the strong regrowth of interest in the Quaternary within the British Geological Survey, under the
stimulus of oshore mapping, the results of deep sea drilling (Shackleton 1967), environmental geological mapping,
resource surveys and hydrogeological mapping (Foster et al. 1999).
In April, 2000, with the cooperation on the Joint Board of Moderators, a questionnaire on the teaching of engineering
geology and geomorphology to civil engineers was circulated to 52 British universities oering JBM accredited, BEng
and BSc courses in civil engineering. Of these, 31 relevant replies (60%) were received. (One of these, Oxford Brookes,
is omitted as its modular course structure makes it theoretically possible for unusually large periods to be spent on the
above subjects). A similar question on 11 taught MSc and Diploma, Engineering Geology and Geotechnical
Engineering (& Geotechnology) courses, brought 9 replies (82%).
In the following, the main questions are stated and the average and, in parenthesis, the range of replies are given for
undergraduate courses in Civil Engineering. MSc and Diploma courses have widely varying titles and no attempt is
made here to summarize these. Individual institutions are not identified. The actual replies received are filed with the
Joint Board of Moderators at 17 Great George Street, London SW1P 3AA.
Times, given in hours unless stated otherwise, apply to the whole UG Civil Engineering course.
Q1. Times spent on total engineering geology and any engineering geomorphology:
Lects: 25.3 (4 to 76) Labs: 2.9 (0 to 35) Field: 2.7 (0 to 6) days
Q2. Times spent, within the Q1 figures, on Quaternary geology:
Lects: 4.0 (0 to 15) Labs: 2.1 (0 to 20) Field: 0.7 (0 to 3) days
Q3. Times spent, within the Q1 figures, on engineering geomorphology:
Lects: 3.6 (0 to 12) Labs: 0.4 (0 to 4) Field: 0.6 (0 to 4.7) days
Q4. Times spent, within the Q1 figures, on critical case records:
2.9 (0 to 30)
Q5. Number of landslides/collapses mapped in the field:
0.1 (0 to 1)/0.1 (0 to 1)
Q6. Number of slip surfaces seen in field:
1.5 (0 to 8)
Q7. What proportion of teaching sta are practising engineering geologists?
Generally 37%
Q8. What proportion of civil engrg depts have an associated geology/geography dept?
Generally 47%
Q9. What proportion of those included in Q8 use their geology/geography link?
Generally 53%
44 J. N. HUTCHINSON
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would be like: a scholarly exposition of the subject, thank Professor John Hutchinson for this lecture, in the
painstakingly researched, beautifully illustrated, and certain knowledge that it will bear the test of time and be
fluently delivered. I knew we would be informed and seen as a milestone in its field. It has been a perfect
entertained at the same time. On behalf of the Society, combination of Lecturer and Subject.
the audience and the profession at large, I would like to