BASIC OP-AMP CIRCUITS

A comparator is a specialized op-amp circuit that compares two input voltages and produces an
output that is always at either one of two states, indicating the greater or less than relationship
between the inputs.
For less critical applications, an op-amp running without negative feedback (open-loop) is often
used as a comparator.
In general, comparators cannot be used as op-amps, but op-amps can be used as comparators in
noncritical applications.
One application of an op-amp used as a comparator: is to determine when an input voltage
exceeds a certain level zero-level
detector
Because of the high open-loop
voltage gain, a very small difference
voltage between the two inputs
drives the amplifier into saturation,
causing the output voltage to go to
its limit. For example, consider an
op-amp having Aol 100,000. A voltage difference of only 0.25 mV between the inputs could
produce an output voltage of (0.25 mV)(100,000) =25 V.
When the sine wave is positive, the output is at its maximum positive level. When the sine wave
crosses 0, the amplifier is driven to its opposite state and the output goes to its maximum
negative level, as shown. As you can see, the zero level detector can be used as a squaring circuit
to produce a square wave from a sine wave.
Nonzero-Level Detection
The zero-level detector can be modified to detect positive and negative voltages by connecting a
fixed reference voltage source to the inverting input.

As long as Vin is less than VREF, the output remains at the maximum negative level. When the
input voltage exceeds the reference voltage, the output goes to its maximum positive voltage.

1
Effects of Input Noise on Comparator Operation

An erratic output voltage

caused by noise on the
input occurs because the
op-amp comparator
switches from its negative
output state to its positive
output state at the same
input voltage level that
causes it to switch in the
opposite direction, from
positive to negative.

2
Reducing Noise Effects with Hysteresis
hysteresis is a technique incorporating positive feedback to
make the comparator less sensitive to noise.
The two reference levels are referred to as the upper trigger
point (UTP) and the lower trigger point (LTP). This two-
level hysteresis is established with a positive feedback
arrangement.
The basic operation of the comparator with hysteresis:
Assume that the output voltage is at its positive maximum, Vout(max). The voltage feedback to the
noninverting input is VUTP

the voltage fed back to the noninverting input is

VLTP:

Therefore, the importance of UTP and LTP is

making the o/p change at only the reference
voltage obtained from +ve feedback.
The amount of hysteresis is defined by the
difference of the two trigger levels:

Output Bounding

3
In some applications, it is necessary to
limit the output voltage levels of a
comparator to a value less than that
provided by the saturated op-amp. A
single zener diode can be used.
Zener Diode: when the output voltage
reaches a positive value equal to the
zener voltage, it limits at that value.
When the output switches negative,
the zener acts as a regular diode and
becomes forward-biased at 0.7 V.
Two zener diodes:

EXAMPLE 133: page 674

Comparator Applications
1. Over-Temperature Sensing Circuit
2. Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion

SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
Summing Amplifier with Unity Gain
A summing amplifier has two or more inputs, and its output voltage is proportional to the
negative of the algebraic sum of its input voltages (without any added gain to sum o/p).
Using the concepts of infinite input impedance
and virtual ground:
I T I1 I 2
VOUT IT R f
V V
VOUT ( I1 I 2 ) R f IN 1 IN 2 R f
R1 R2
let : R1 R2 R f R
V V
VOUT IN 1 IN 2 R VIN 1 VIN 2
R R

4
The previous equation shows that the output voltage has the same magnitude as the sum of the
two input voltages but with a negative sign, indicating inversion. So, we can write a general
VOUT VIN 1 VIN 2 ....... VINn
expression:

Summing Amplifier with Gain Greater Than Unity

When Rf is larger than the input resistors, the amplifier has a gain of Rf /R, where R is the value
of each equal-value input resistor. The general expression for the output is
Rf
VOUT VIN 1 VIN 2 ....... VINn
R

Averaging Amplifier
A summing amplifier can be made to produce the mathematical average of the input voltages.
This is done by setting the ratio Rf /R equal to the reciprocal of the number of inputs (n). (i.e. Rf
1
VOUT VIN 1 VIN 2 ....... VINn
/R=1/n). So n .
Scaling Adder
A different weight can be assigned to each input of a summing amplifier by simply adjusting the
values of the input resistors. This can be represented mathematically as following:

Rf Rf Rf
VOUT VIN 1 VIN 2 ....... VINn
R1 R2 Rn
Application of summing amplifier:
D/A conversion

INTEGRATORS AND DIFFERENTIATORS

The Op-Amp Integrator
The Ideal Integrator:

How an Integrator Works?

Recall: Capacitor Charging process,
The charge Q on a capacitor is proportional to the
charging current (IC) and the time (t): Q = IC*t or in
terms of the voltage: Q = C*VC.

I C t CVC
I
VC C t
C

5
Vc equation is linear equation represented by starting with zero with a constant slope of IC/C.
Recall that the capacitor voltage in a simple RC circuit is not linear but is exponential. This is
because the charging current continuously decreases.
Why op-amp use an RC circuit to form an integrator?
The capacitors charging current is made constant, thus producing a straight-line (linear) voltage
rather than an exponential voltage.
Vin
I in , I in I c
Using concept of virtual ground, Ri The charge of Vc

Vin I in Ic
If is constant so and are also constant.
I
The constant c charges the capacitor linearly and
produces a linear voltage across C. The positive side
of the capacitor is connected by the virtual ground of
the op-amp. While, negative side of the capacitor is
connected to o/p of the op-amp. So Vc (negative ramp
due to constant positive input) decreases linearly from
zero as the capacitor charges.
V
What is the o/p of op-amp? out is the
same as the voltage on the negative side of
the capacitor.
When a constant positive input voltage in
the form of a step or pulse (a pulse has a
constant amplitude when high) is applied,
the output ramp decreases negatively until
the op-amp saturates at its maximum
negative level.
The rate at which the capacitor charges, and
therefore the slope of the output ramp, is set
by the ratio IC/C.
Vin
I in , I in I c
Ri
Vin
Ic
Ri
Vout I V
c in
t C Ri C

6
 EXAMPLE 1310, page 689

The Practical Integrator

The ideal integrator uses a capacitor in the feedback path,

which is open to dc. This implies that the gain at dc is the
open-loop gain of the op-amp. Therefore, the offset error
will cause the output error in form of ramp, even when no
signal is present.
Practical integrators must have some means of
overcoming the effects of offset and bias current. The
simplest solution is to use a resistor in parallel with the capacitor in the feedback path.
The feedback resistor, Rf, should be large compared to the input resistor Rin, in order to have a
negligible effect on the output waveform. In addition, a compensating resistor, Rc, may be added
to the noninverting input to balance the effects of bias current.

The Op-Amp Differentiator

The Ideal Differentiator

The capacitor is now the input element, and the

resistor is the feedback element. (the positions of
capacitor and resistor are interchanged w.r.t.
integrator). A differentiator produces an output that is
proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage.
How the differentiator works?
Apply a positive-going ramp voltage
to the input. Based on concept of
virtual ground. So, we have
I C orI in I R ,Vc Vin
and the voltage
V
across the capacitor is equal to in .
Recall,
I VC
VC orVin C t, IC C
C t

VC
I
Since C has a constant rate of change t so C is constant and hence R . Then, we can say,
V I
the o/p voltage is constant and equal to the voltage across Rf because one side of the feedback

7
resistor is always 0 V (virtual
ground).

V
Vout I R R f I C R f C CR f
t V
. out is proportional to rate change of i/p (Vc/t) and proportional
CR
constant is time constant, f .
During the positive slope of the input, the
capacitor is charging from the input
I
source and the constant current C
through the feedback resistor. During the
negative slope of the input, the current is
in the opposite direction because the
capacitor is discharging.

The Practical Differentiator:

Xc
The ideal differentiator uses a capacitor in series with the inverting input. At high frequency,
Rf
Acl ( I )
is very low so the gain X c will be very high. This means that a differentiator circuit
tends to be noisy because electrical noise mainly consists of high frequencies. To solve this
problem: add a resistor, Rin, in series with the capacitor to act as a low-pass filter and reduce the
gain at high frequencies. The resistor should be small compared to the feedback resistor in order
to have a negligible effect on the desired signal. A bias compensating resistor may also be used
on the noninverting input.