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DOI 10.1007/s00466-006-0029-x
O R I G I NA L PA P E R
Received: 14 April 2005 / Accepted: 23 December 2005 / Published online: 31 August 2006
Springer-Verlag 2006
Vu-Quoc and Ebcioglu 1995, 1996, Vu-Quoc and Simo like beam and shell elements in bionic structural mod-
1987). For an asymmetric tangent stiffness matrix, more elling of dragonflys wing.
storage is occupied so as to store all its components.
Simo and Vu-Quoc (1986c) denoted that in a conser-
vative system, although their developing tangent stiff-
ness matrix is always asymmetric, it will become sym- 2 Description of the co-rotational framework
metric once the incremental loading process arrives at
an equilibrium level, Crisfield and his co-worker (Cr- In this beam element formulation, several basic assump-
isfield 1990, 1996, Crisfield and Moita 1996) had also tions were adopted: (1) all elements are straight at the
found this phenomenon, so they symmetrized element initial configuration; (2) the shape of the cross-section
tangent stiffness matrix by excluding the non-symmet- does not distort with element deforming; (3) restrained
ric term (Simo and Vu-Quoc 1986c, Crisfield 1990, 1996, warping effects are ignored. Certainly, this co-rotational
Crisfield and Moita 1996). This treatment can improve procedure and vectorial rotational variables can also
the computational efficiency greatly. Simo (1992) pre- be easily extended to solve some complicated beam
sented a rigorous justification for the symmetrization of or shell problems, such as open cross-section beams,
non-symmetric tangent stiffness matrix. Simo (1992) and curved beam, multi-layered composite beam and lami-
Crisfield (1996) also predicted that a symmetric tangent nated curved shell element etc.
stiffness matrix in the co-rotational framework could be Local coordinate system and global coordinate sys-
achieved if a certain set of additive rotational variables tem are illustrated in Fig. 1, both of them are Cartesian
were adopted. coordinate systems, where the local coordinate system
Up to now, numerous theoretical models of beams is fixed at the internal node of element, and translates
have been developed and applied to various practical and rotates with the element rigid-body translation and
circumstances. No single theory has proven to be gen- rotation, but does not deform with the element.
eral and comprehensive enough for the entire range of In order to define the initial orientation of the local
applications. Some beam formulations address better coordinate axes, an auxiliary node is prescribed, which is
performance over certain class of physical problems with located in one of the symmetry plane of the element (see
greater accuracy and efficiency rather than their general- Point A in Fig. 1). Vectors v120 and v3A0 are calculated
ity, while, other models tend to a wider range of practical from,
engineering problems, and the accuracy of the formula-
tions has been somewhat sacrificed. In this paper, the v120 = X20 X10 v3A0 = XA0 X30
author defined a set of vectorial rotational variables and
developed an advanced co-rotational formulation for where, Xi0 (i = 1, 2, 3, A) is the global coordinates of
3D beam element. In contrast with other existing beam Node i, then the orientation vectors of local axes are
element formulations for large displacement and large defined as,
rotation analysis of frame structures, this formulation
v120 v120 v3A0
has several advantages: (1) all the variables are additive ex0 = ez0 = ey0 = ez0 ex0
in an incremental solution procedure, this renders great |v120 | |v120 v3A0 |
simplification in updating vectorial rotational variables
in incremental loading; (2) a quite simple relationship is where, ex0 , ey0 , ez0 (see Fig. 1) are the normalized ori-
established between the local variables and the global entation vectors of x-axis, y-axis and z-axis in global
variables, and the transformation matrix can be derived coordinate system, respectively.
from this relationship conveniently; (3) symmetric tan- The orientation vectors eix , eiy , eiz of Node i at the
gent stiffness matrices are achieved both in local system deformed configuration are calculated from the rota-
and global system; (4) total variables are used in calcu- tional variables directly in incremental solution pro-
lating tangent stiffness matrix in local system and global cedure. In particular, at Node 3 (the internal node),
system, this ensures the accuracy and reliability of beam e3x , e3y , e3z are coincident with the orientations of lo-
element formulation. Considering the merits of the pro- cal coordinate axes,
posed co-rotational procedure and vectorial rotational
variables, the author and his co-worker (Izzuddin and LI e3x = ex e3y = ey e3z = ez
2004, Li and Izzuddin 2005) have also extended them to
2D beam element, curved shell element, multi-layered and at the initial configuration,
tube-like beam element, laminated curved shell element
and several super-elements consisting of multiple tube- e3x0 = ex0 e3y0 = ey0 e3z0 = ez0
Comput Mech (2007) 39:309322 311
e 2y 0
r2y0
A r2x0
Y e3y 0 e2x0
r3y 0 x
r3x0 2 r2z0
e 1y 0 3
e3x0 e2z0
r1y 0
o r3z 0
e3z 0 z
r1x0
1 e1x0
e1z 0 r1z 0
o
X
however, the initial orientation vectors of two end nodes eiy,l eiz,l + eiy,m eiz,m + eiy,n eiz,n = 0 (1a)
are defined as e2iy,l + e2iy,m + e2iy,n = 1 (1b)
T T
eix0 = {1, 0, 0} eiy0 = {0, 1, 0} e2iz,l + e2iz,m + e2iz,n
=1 (1c)
eiz0 = {0, 0, 1}T i = 1, 2
Firstly, assumed that eiy,l eiy,m , eiy,l eiy,n (l, m,
In global coordinate system, there are 18 degree of free- n {1, 2, 3}, and l = m = n) at the end of the current
doms per element, and each node six freedoms, incremental loading or iterating step:
uG = U1 V1 W1 e1y,n1 e1y,m1 e1z,n1 , . . . ,
T Case 1 If eiz,l eiz,m and eiz,l eiz,n , then three
U3 V3 W3 e3y,n3 e3y,m3 e3z,n3 rotational variables at the next incremental loading or
where, Ui , Vi and Wi are the displacements of Node i, iterating step are eiy,n , eiy,m
, e
iz,n , where n m l are the
eiy,ni , eiy,mi and eiz,ni are the vectorial rotational vari- cyclic permutations of 1 2 3 , according to Eq. (1),
ables, they are three smaller components of eiy and other components of eiy and eiz are calculated from
eiz . This definition can eliminate the possibility of the these rotational variables as,
denominators approaching to zero in the partial deriv-
eiy,l = s1 1 e2iy,n e2iy,m (2a)
atives of the rest components of eiy and eiz with respect
to eiy,ni , eiy,mi and eiz,ni [referred to Eqs. (2) and (3)], eiy,m eiy,n eiz,n + s2 eiy,l 1 e2iy,n e2iz,n
accordingly, avoid the occurrence of ill-conditioned tan- eiz,m = (2b)
gent stiffness matrix in global system. 1 e2iy,n
In local coordinate system, there are 12 freedoms per
eiz,l = s3 1 e2iz,m e2iz,n (2c)
element, and each end node 6 degree of freedoms,
T where, s1 , s3 are the sign flags of eiy,l and eiz,l at the start
uL= u1 v1 w1 r1y,n1 r1y,m1 r1z,n1 u2 v2 w2 r2y,n2 r2y,m2 r2z,n2
of the incremental loading or iterating step, respectively,
where, ui , vi , wi are the local displacements of Node i, they are one of the numeric values of 1 or 1, s2 is also
and riy,ni , riy,mi and riz,ni are the local vectorial rotational such a constant, and it is conditioned on eT iy eiz = 0. Note
variables, which are three smaller components of riy and that n, m, l may have different values at different node
riz . This definition can avoid the occurrence of ill-condi- or at different incremental loading or iterating step.
tioned tangent stiffness matrix in local system.
Considering that eiy and eiz are always orthogonal Case 2 If eiz,m eiz,l and eiz,m eiz,n at the end
eTiy eiz = 0, and both of them are unit vectors, the rest of the current incremental loading or iterating step, then
components of eiy and eiz can be calculated from the three rotational variables are defined as eiy,n , eiy,m , eiz,n ,
rotational variables eiy,ni , eiy,mi and eiz,ni according to the according to Eq. (1), other components of eiy and eiz are
following equations, calculated from them as,
312 Comput Mech (2007) 39:309322
r1y r
e'1y0 r1y0 r1x0 e'1x0 e1y 1x
e1x
r1z0
r1z
y 1
1
e1z Y
e'1z0 A e 2y0 r2y0
e3y0 r3y0 r2x0
e2x0
e3x0 x 2
e1y0 3 r3x0 e2z0 r2z0
r1y0 o r3z0
1 r1x0 e3z0 z
1 e1x0
e1z0 o X
r1z0
Z
eiy,l = s1 1 e2iy,n e2iy,m (3a) and from (2) to (3), it suffers pure deformation. In the
co-rotational framework presented in Fig.2, the process
s1 1e2iy,me2iy,n eiy,n eiz,n +s2 eiy,m 1e2iy,ne2iz,n from (1) to (2) is excluded, and only the process from
eiz,l = (2) to (3) is considered, where, (2) is treated as a pseudo
1e2iy,n
initial configuration of (3), so the relationships of local
(3b) variables and global variables are given as,
eiz,m = s3 1 e2iz,n e2iz,l (3c)
ti = R(di d3 + vi0 ) R0 vi0 (5a)
where, s1 , s2 , s3 are the same kind of constants as those riy = RRT
i ey0 (5b)
in case 1.
riz = RRT
i ez0 (5c)
Vector eix is the cross-product of vectors eiy and eiz , T T
ex0 ex
eix = eiy eiz (4) ui
T T
where, ti = vi , R0 = ey0 , R = ey , Ri =
The definition of local vectorial rotational variables
wi eT eT
riy,ni , riy,mi and riz,ni (they are three smaller components T z0 z
eix
of riy and riz ) follows the same route as that of global T
vectorial rotational variables (eiy,ni , eiy,mi and eiz,ni are eiy (i = 1, 2). At the right side of Eq. (5a), the first
three smaller components of eiy and eiz ). eT
iz
Rigid-body motion contributes nothing to strain, so it term is the local coordinates of Node i at the deformed
is excluded in advance so as to achieve an element-inde- configuration, while, the second term is its initial local
pendent co-rotational formulation. In Fig. 2, (1) denotes coordinates. At the right side of Eq. (5b,5c), e iy = RT
i ey0
the initial configuration; (3) represents the current con- and e iz = RTi ez0 are the cross-sectional principal vec-
figuration. From (1) to (3), the element experiences both tors of Node i at the deformed configuration (they are
rigid-body motion and pure deformation. (2) is an inter- coincident with ey0 and ez0 at undeformed configuration
mediate configuration between (1) and (3). From (1) for a straight beam element, and the nodal orientation
to (2), the element experiences pure rigid-body motion, matrix Ri0 at initial configuration is a unit matrix, while,
Comput Mech (2007) 39:309322 313
3
The strain energy of element can be calculated as below,
u= hi ( ) ti + yl riy riy0 + zl (riz riz0 ) (8)
i=1 1 T
U= DdV (10)
2
Considering the possibility of large displacements and V
large rotations, Green strain measure is introduced to where, D is the elastic constant matrix, D
describe the straindisplacement relationship of this
E 0 0
beam element formulation, = 0 k0 G 0 ; E and G are the elastic modulus and
0 0 k0 G
1 (u+x) (u+x) x x
xx
2 x x x x shear modulus, respectively; k0 is the shear factor of
= xy = (u+x) (u+x) x x cross-section; V the volume of element.
y x y
(9)
x
xz (u+x) (u+x) x x The internal force vector in local system is the first
x z x z derivatives of the strain energy with respect to local
variables, it is calculated from
For convenience, Eq. (9) is rewritten as,
U
f= = BT DdV (11)
= (0) + yl (1) + zl (2) + yl zl (3) + y2l (4) + z2l (5) uL
V
314 Comput Mech (2007) 39:309322
where, where, uLj and uLk are the jth and kth components of
uL , respectively. Due to the commutativity of uLj and
(0) (1) (2) (3)
B= = + yl + zl + yl zl uLk in the differentiation of Eq. (12), kt is symmetric.
uL uL uL uL uL Equation (12) can be rewritten as
(4) (5)
+y2l + z2l % &
uL uL T T B
kt = B DB + D dAdx
= B(0) + yl B(1) + zl B(2) + yl zl B(3) + y2l B(4) + z2l B(5) uL
L A
Eq. (11) can be rewritten as
= b0 A + b1 Sy + b2 Sz + b3 Syz + b4 Iy + b5 Iz
L
f = BT DdAdx
+b6 Swyz + b7 Swzy + b8 Iwyz + b9 Iwy +b10 Iwz dx
L A
where,
= a0 A + a1 Sy + a2 Sz + a3 Syz + a4 Iy + a5 Iz
L B(0)
b0 = B(0) DB(0) + (0) D
T T
+a6 Swyz + a7 Swzy + a8 Iwyz + a9 Iwy + a10 Iwz dx uL
B (1)
= B(0) DB(1) + (0) D + B(1) DB(0)
T T T
where, A and L are the cross-sectional
" area and"length b1
of beam element, respectively; A = dA; Sy = yl dA; uL
B (0)
" " "A "A
+(1) D
T
Sz = zl dA; Syz = yl zl dA; Iy = y2l dA; Iz = z2l dA; uL
A " A " A "A
Swyz = y2l zl dA; Swzy = z2l yl dA; Iwyz = y2l z2l dA; B(2)
= B(0) DB(2) + (0) D + B(2) DB(0)
T T T
b2
"A " A A uL
Iwy = y4l dA; Iwz = z4l dA, for a beam element with
B(0)
+(2) D
T
A A
bisymmetric cross-section, Sy = Sz = Syz = Swyz = uL
Swzy = 0; a0 a10 can be calculated as below, B(3)
= B(0) DB(3) + (0) D + B(3) DB(0)
T T T
b3
uL
a0 = B(0) D(0)
T
B(0) B(2)
+(3) D + B(1) DB(2) + (1) D
T T T
a1 = B(1) D(0) + B(0) D(1)
T T
uL uL
a2 = B(2) D(0) + B(0) D(2)
T T
B (1)
+B(2) DB(1) + (2) D
T T
a3 = B(3) D(0) + B(0) D(3) + B(2) D(1)
T T T
uL
+B(1) D(2)
T
B (4)
= B(0) DB(4) + (0) D + B(4) DB(0)
T T T
b4
a4 = B(4) D(0) + B(0) D(4) + B(1) D(1)
T T T
uL
(0) B(1)
a5 = B(5) D(0) + B(0) D(5) + B(2) D(2) B
T T T
uL uL
The tangent stiffness matrix in local system is the sec- (2)
B
+B(4) DB(2) + (4) D
T T
ond partial derivative of the strain energy U with respect
to local variables, it is given as, uL
B (5)
# $ % &
= B(1) DB(5) + (1) D + B(5) DB(1)
T T T
2U B b7
kt = = T T
B DB + D dV uL
uLj uLk 1212 uL (1)
B B(3)
+(5) D + B(2) DB(3) + (2) D
V T T T
(12) uL uL
Comput Mech (2007) 39:309322 315
uL as below,
B(5) fG f TT TT
b8 = B(4) DB(5) + (4) D + B(5) DB(4)
T T T
uL ktG = = TT + f = TT kt T + f (17)
uG uG uG uG
B (4)
+(5) D
T
T
uL where, ktG is an 18 18 matrix; u G
is a 12 18 18
matrix, it is calculated from
B(4)
b9 = B(4) DB(4) + (4) D
T T
R R R16
uL uG 0 0 0 u G uG
B(5)
b10 = B(5) DB(5) + (5) D
T T T 0 R 22
0 0 0 R 26
= uG uG
(18)
uL uG R R R36
0 0 u G
0 u G uG
Gaussian integral procedure is adopted to calculate 0 0 0 R 44
uG 0 R 46
uG
the internal force vector and tangent stiffness matrix,
R
n0 #
the nonzero sub-matrices of uGij (i = 1, 2, 3, 4; j = 2, 4, 6)
are given in Appendix A.2. Considering that
f= a0 A + a1 Sy + a2 Sz + a3 Syz + a4 Iy + a5 Iz
# $
i=1 T 2 uLi
+a6 Swyz + a7 Swzy + a8 Iwyz + a9 Iwy = (19)
$ uG uGj uGk 121818
+a10 Iwz wt (i)J (13) and the commutativity of the uGj and uGk in the differ-
i
entiation of Eq. (19), it is obvious that the second term
in the right-hand side of Eq. (17) is symmetric, further-
n0 #
more, ktG is symmetric.
kt = b0 A + b1 Sy + b2 Sz + b3 Syz + b4 Iy + b5 Iz In incremental solution procedure, the equilibrium
i=1
equation at the start of ith loading increment is given as,
+b6 Swyz + b7 Swzy + b8 Iwyz + b9 Iwy
$ ktG0 i uG1 i = i1 P (20)
+b10 Iwz wt (i)J (14)
i where, kitG0 is the global tangent stiffness matrix at the
start of incremental loading Step i; uG1 i and i1 are
where, n0 is the number of Gaussian integral points
the increments of the global variables and the load-
along the central axis of element, n0 = 2 in solving
ing parameter, respectively; P is the prescribed external
the examples below; i and wt (i) are the dimensionless
force vector.
coordinate and weight factor at Gaussian point i, respec-
The equilibrium equation at jth iterating step of ith
tively; J is the jacobian, J = 3i=1 hi ( ) xi0 .
loading increment is given as,
The relationship of the global internal force vector fG
and the local internal force vector f is given as, ktG ij1 uG ij = ij P + Pres j2 (21)
T
fG = T f (15) where, ktG ij1 is the tangent stiffness matrix at the end
of (j 1)th iterating step; uG ij and ij are the incre-
where, T is the transformation matrix from global coor-
ments of the global variables and the loading parameter
dinate system to local coordinate system, it is calculated
achieved at jth iterating step; Pres is the unbalanced load-
from
ing vector at the end of last iterating step; i1 and ij
uLi are calculated in accordance with general displacement
Ti,j = (16a)
uGj controlling procedure (Yang and Shieh 1990).
For convenience, Eq. (21) can be rewritten as
R 0 0 0 R R16
0 R22 0 0 0 R26
T=
0 0
(16b) ktG ij1 u1 ij = P (22a)
R 0 R R36
0 0 0 R44 0 R46 ktG ij1 u2 ij = Pres (22b)
T is a 12 18 matrix, R and Rij (i = 1, 2, 3, 4; j = 2, 4, 6) and the increments of the global variables can be given
are its sub-matrices. R represents the same matrix as as
that in Eq. (5); Rij is a 3 3 matrix (see Appendix A.1),
and 0 is a 3 3 zero matrix. uG ij = ij u1 ij + u2 ij (23)
316 Comput Mech (2007) 39:309322
u v w u v w u v w
300 7.01 11.93 40.15 6.8 11.5 39.5 6.97 11.86 40.08
450 10.73 18.47 48.46 10.68 18.38 48.39
600 13.55 23.56 53.43 13.4 23.5 53.4 13.51 23.47 53.37
1
n
i1
uiG = uG + uG ij (24)
j=1 O Y
i1
where, uG is the values of the global variables at the
end of (i 1)th loading increment, and n is the number P
of iterations at ith increment.
v
45
Iterating process will be terminated if the following X
0
converge criterion is satisfied,
R
u w
u2 i T Pres
j
err (25)
uG i1 T i1 P
Fig. 3 A cantilever 450 -bend with a concentrated tip load
-20 M=0
M=21.42 5.3 A portal frame subject to a concentrated load
M=35.99
-40 M=43.98 A portal frame is subjected to a concentrated load (see
M=54.95 Fig. 6). the cross sections of its three members are rect-
-60 angular, and their sizes are b = 0.5 and h = 0.1, respec-
tively. The material properties are E = 2.1 107 and
= 0.3, and the cross-sectional shear factor is 5/6.
-80 X
-25 0 25 50 75 100 In order to check the convergence of the proposed
procedure, each member is divided into 4, 8 and 16 equal
Fig. 5 Deformed shapes of the cantilever under different end beam elements, respectively. The curve of load against
moment levels
displacement at loading point is depicted in Fig. 7. It
is shown that four elements per member are enough
to achieve satisfying accuracy. Considering the effects
variables of end node firstly. The relationship of the rota- of shear locking and membrane locking phenomena in
tion iz and the vectorial rotational variables at end node thin beam element, reduced integration procedure can
i is given as below: alleviate or eliminate locking problems of this portal
If eiy,1 0 and eiy,2 > 0, then iz = arcsineiy,1 ; frame effectively.
If eiy,1 < 0 and eiy,2 > 0, then iz = 2 + arcsineiy,1 ; The deformed shapes of portal frame under differ-
If eiy,2 0, then iz = arcsineiy,1 . ent loading levels are depicted in Fig. 8. It demonstrates
If 22 eiy,1 22 , then eiy,1 , eiy,3 and eiz,1 are three that the proposed procedure is reliable and efficient in
vectorial rotational variables at the end node, solving large displacement and large rotation problems.
M
W = Miz = eiy,1 P
eiy,2
100
and eiz,1 are equal tozero.
If 22 < eiy,2 < 22 , then eiy,2 , eiy,3 and eiz,2 are three
vectorial rotational variables at the end node,
100
M
W = Miz = eiy,2
eiy,1 Fig. 6 A portal frame subject to a concentrated load
Y P
100 -10
-8
50
-6
Present study
0 Wen & Rahimzadeh(1983)
-4
Hsiao et al(1987)
P=0
P=-62.07
-50 P=-44.94 -2
P=-10.82
P=-70 w
0
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
-100 X
-30 0 30 60 90 120
Fig. 10 Response of space arc frame under ultimate concentrated
Fig. 8 Deformed shapes of portal frame under different load loading
levels
1.22
subjected to two lateral concentrated loads 0.001P (see
Fig. 9).
In large displacement analysis of this space arc frame,
each leg is divided into two equal beam elements, while, X
the rest members are treated as one element, respec-
tively. The curve of nodal displacement w against load P
10.885
P P
w
P P 12.19
2 1
30
1 2 P
12.57
0.001P
40
0.001P
1
4.55 1.55
1 1 Z
1
6.285 X
o
24.38
69.28 61.44 69.28
P(MN)
-150
-120
-90
Y
0
w(m)
0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
2
one beam element. The load-displacement curve at the
6.216
apex is depicted in Fig. 12. Comparison of the results Z
from the proposed procedure and those from Teh and X
Clarke (1999) and Izzuddin (2001) is given in Fig. 12. It 25 25
is shown that they are in agreement with each other very
43.3 43.3
well.
Fig. 13 Twenty four member star-shaped dome subject to a con-
centrated load at the apex
where, i = 1, 2.
Compared with the existing 3-D beam element formu-
Note that the subscripts nr and mr denote the nr th and
lations for frame structures with large displacements
mr th components of the related vectors, respectively.
and large rotations, there are several advantages in the
proposed procedure: (1) the element tangent stiffness
T
matrix is symmetric, so it ensures the computational A.2 Sub-matrices of uG
efficiency and the saving of storage source; (2) vec-
torial rotational variables are defined so all the vari-
ables of freedoms are additive, and correction matrix T R R R
= s
is avoided; (3) these variables can be used to describe uG i=i1 :i3 ,j=16:18,k=k1 :k3 e3y,n e3y,m e3z,n
Appendixes
where, if l = 1, then i1 : i3 = 1 : 3; if l = 2, then
A. 1 Sub-matrices of T i1 : i3 = 7 : 9.
R T
R
Ri6 = (dk d3 + vk0 ) (dk d3 + vk0 ) uG i=i1 :i3 ,j=16:18,k=16:18
e3y,n e3y,m
R
(dk d3 + vk0 )
e3z,n
Comput Mech (2007) 39:309322 321
2R T
2R T
2R T
e3y,n uGS Rl ey0 ,n e3y,m uGS Rl ey0 ,n e3z,n uGS Rl ey0 ,n
r r r
2R 2R 2R
= e3y,n uGS RTl ey0 e u R Te
y0 e u R Te
y0
,mr 3y,m2 GS l ,mr 3z,n2 GS l ,mr
2R Te R Te R Te
R
e3y,n uGS l z0 R
e3y,m uGS l z0 R
e3z,n uGS l z0
,nr ,nr ,nr
where, uGS = e3y,n , e3y,m , e3z,n T , if l = 1, then i1 : i3 = Crisfield MA (1996) Nonlinear finite element analysis of solid and
4 : 6; if l = 2, then i1 : i3 = 10 : 12. structures, vol 2. Wiley, Chichester
Crisfield MA, Moita GF (1996) A unified co-rotational framework
T T for solids, shells and beams. Int J Solids Struct 33:29692992
=
uG i=i1 :i2 ,j=16:18,k=k1 :k3 uG i=i1 :i2 ,k=k1 :k3 ,j=16:18 Hsiao KM, Horng HJ, Chen YR (1987) A co-rotational proce-
dure that handles large rotations of spatial beam structures.
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