Autopal Led Report

Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
CHAPTER 1
COMPANY PROFILE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Autopal group, a 40 years old enterprise with excellence and pioneer-ship in many engineering
and lighting products. Embedded with many international acclaimed quality & product
certification the company has established world-wide marketing network with agents, distributors
and customers across the globe. Autopal was the first company to manufacture the CFL
technology in India. It has continued to shape the group by breaking new grounds & pioneering
critical developments in automotive & lighting industry. The group extends its State-of-Art
technology, Avant-garde design in consumer durable goods like CFL, MHL, domestic use Fan
Series. Autopal forays wide products range of Energy saving lamps CFL, MHL, Down-lighters,
LED Series & Tube-light.
Lighting is our business, World is our market
Fig 1.1 View of AUTOLIT

1.2 HISTORY
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Autopal Industries Limited was promoted by Shri Dharam Pal Gupta and his brothers as an
energy saving lighting manufacturing industry. The Company become Public Limited in 15th
oct,1985 and started its commercial production on 27th April, 1992. The Company was first in
India to manufacture Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) in India with Koren technology and also
manufactured automotive/domestic Halogen lamps & General lighting products.
The unit was established with installed capacity of 12.00 lacs nos. per annum unit of CFL and 30
lakh nos per annum unit of Automotive/Domestic Halogen Lamp. With its substantial investment
and effort in R&D, the company achieved various milstones, in terms of Patents and technology
awards.
1.3 VISION
Innovative and energy conscious solutions are our future. With Autopals significant and
sustained development in state of the art lighting technology and globally competitive
manufacturing operations, supported by award winning product designers sales team and
engineers, Autopal Industries is confident of a progressive and environmentally conscious future.
Fig 1.2 Vision of Autolite (India) Limited
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Whether your lighting design challenges are interior, exterior, industrial, and commercial or
architectural, we at Autopal are confident that we have the experience, service locations and
design solutions to meet your every need.
1.4 ACHIVEMENT
Rajasthan State Export Award in 2010
Vendor Award from Lucas India Service in 2005
EEPC Export Excellence Award in 2002
ACMA Technology Award in 1998
MARUTI SUZUKI Vendor Performance Award in 1998
ACMA Best Export Performance Award in 1997
State Award for Export Excellence in 1996
National Productivity Award in 1995
Vishwakarma Award for Best Unit in 1995
ACMA Certificate of Merit in 1995
Vishwakarma Award for Highest Exporter in 1995
Govt. of India National Award Certificate of Merit in 1992
Govt. of India National Award Certificate of Merit in 1988
1.5 SERVICES
Avant-garde design in consumer durable goods like CFL, MHL
Domestic use Fan Series
Energy saving lamps
CFL
MHL
Downlighters
LED Series & Tubelight
Halogen Bulbs
LED Lamps
Head Lamps
Universal Head Lamps
Lamps for Trucks
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1.6 NETWORK
Fig 1.3 Network of Autolite (India) Limited
Autopal empoers its people to build sturdy & lasting relationship with its business partners,
employees & customers, thus paning the way for continuous growth throughout the nation.
Autopal empowers its people to build sturdy & lasting relationship with its business partners,
employees & customers, thus paning the way for continuous growth throughout the nation
Head Office & Works
Jaipur Address :E-195 (A), RIICO Industrial Area, Mansrovar, Jaipur (Raj) 302020
E-Mail :info@autopal.net.in, marketing@autopal.net.in
Branch Office
Branch Address: B-Wing, Office No.1005, Express Zone Building, Western Express Highway
(Dindoshi Flyover) Malad (East), Mumbai-400063
E-Mail: info@autopal.net.in, marketing@autopal.net.in
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CHAPTER 2
LED
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps
in many devices and are increasingly used for general lighting. Appearing as practical electronic
components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
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When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine with holes within the
device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the
color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band
gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated
optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs have many advantages over
incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved
physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. However, LEDs powerful enough for
room lighting are relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat management
than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive lighting,
advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video displays,
and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced
communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many
commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic appliances. LEDs
are also used in seven-segment display.
2.2 LED DOWNLIGHTERS

A recessed light or downlight (also pot light in Canadian English, sometimes can light (for
canister light) in American English) is a light fixture that is installed into a hollow opening in a
ceiling.
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Fig 2.1 LED Downlighters
When installed it appears to have light shining from a hole in the ceiling, concentrating the light
in a downward direction as a broad floodlight or narrow spotlight. There are two parts to recessed
lights, the trim and housing. The trim is the visible portion of the light. It is the insert that is seen
when looking up into the fixture, and also includes the thin lining around the edge of the light.
The housing is the fixture itself that is installed inside the ceiling and contains the lamp holder.
2.2.1 TRIM STYLES

Recessed lighting styles have evolved with more manufacturers creating quality trims for a
variety of applications. You can find recessed lighting trim with the standard baffle in black or
white, which is the most popular. They are made to absorb extra light and create a crisp
architectural appearance. There are cone trims which produce a low-brightness aperture.
Multipliers are offered which are designed to control the omni-directional light from "A" style
incandescent light bulbs and compact fluorescents. Lens trim is designed to provide a diffused
light and protect the lamp. Lensed trims are normally found in wet locations.
The luminous trims combine the diffused quality of lensed trim but with an open down light
component. Adjustable trim allows for the adjustment of the light whether it is eyeball style,
which protrudes from the trim or gimbal ring style, which adjusts inside the recess. These lights
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allow for full versatility. Lastly, there are the wall-washer trims, which are designed to eliminate
the often seen "scalloped light effect".
2.2.2 LAMP STYLES

There are two types of lamps for recessed lighting: directional and diffuse. Directional lamps (R,
BR, PAR, MR) contain reflectors that direct and control the light. Diffuse lamps (A, S, PS, G)
control light distribution through their omni-directional light.
2.3 SURFACE LED

Surface Mount LEDs are cost-efficient solutions for low-power, compact designs. The products
come in a variety of available color, lens, and package types and are highly durable.
Surface Mount LEDs are smaller than leaded components, making them ideal for space-limited
board sizes and equipment. They are also highly resistant to shock and vibration and are available
in packages with a considerably higher number of pins than leaded LEDs.
The light weight of Surface Mount LEDs makes them optimal for mobile appliances. They are
also ideally suited for RF applications because of their low levels of parasitic inductance and
capacitance.
2.3.1 FEATURES
Low Power Consumption
Wide Viewing Angle
Variety of Available Colors, Lens and Package Types
High Reliability
Durable
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Fig 2.2 Surface LED
2.3.2 APPLICATIONS
LCD Backlighting
Pushbutton Backlighting
Keypad Backlighting
Automotive Interior Lighting
Symbol Indicators
Front Panel Indicators
Small Message Panel Signage
2.4 LEADED LEDs
Fig 2.3 Leaded LEDs
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Leaded LEDs, also called through-hole LEDs, have for many years played an integral role in
electronic designs. These LEDs are known for their ruggedness, long lifespan, and low power
consumption. Leaded LEDs are available in a variety of package shapes and sizes and colors.
2.4.1 FEATURES
Highly Reliable
Range of Viewing Angles from Narrow to Wide
Long-Life Solid State Reliability
Rugged Design
Variety of Available Colors, Package Styles
2.4.2 APPLICATIONS
Outdoor LED panels,
Traffic Signals
Automotive Lighting
Instrumentation Indicators
Front Panel Indicators
Small Area Backlighting
2.5 ULTRAVOILET LEDs

Ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation, commonly known as UV, is currently employed in many
industries and applications. The emerging UV LEDs will be an enabling, competitive technology
that drives new and innovative applications. UV-LEDs have a long operating life and are more
environmentally friendly than traditional mercury UV lamps.
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Fig 2.4 Ultraviolet LED
2.5.1 APPLICATIONS
Industrial Curing
Fluorescence disclosing and verification
Air Purification
Medical and Biomedical Applications
Dermatological Equipment
Currency Validation
Forensics Equipment
Photo Polymerization
Spectroscopy
Dental Curing and Teeth Whitening
Sterilization and Medical
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DNA Gel
2.5.2 FEATURES
Low Current Requirement
Tight Tolerance of Wavelengths
Long Life
Environmentally Friendly
Fig 2.5 Electromagnetic Spectrum of LED
2.5.3 WARNINGS AND HANDLING INSTRUCTIONS

UV-LEDs emit invisible ultraviolet radiation when in operation, which may be harmful to eyes or
skin, even for brief periods. Do NOT look directly into the UV-LED during operation. Be sure
that you and all persons in the vicinity wear adequate " UV " Safety protection for eyes and skin.
If you incorporate a UV-LED into a product, be sure to provide WARNING labels.
2.6 FLOOD LIGHT

Floodlights are broad-beamed, high-intensity artificial lights often used to illuminate outdoor
playing fields while an outdoor sports event is being held during low-light conditions.
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Fig 2.6 Flood light in Football Stadium
In the top tiers of many professional sports, it is a requirement for stadiums to have floodlights to
allow games to be scheduled outside daylight hours. Evening or night matches may suit
spectators who have work or other commitment earlier in the day. The main motivation for this is
television marketing, especially in sports such as Gridiron which rely on TV rights money to
finance the sport. Some sports grounds which do not have permanent floodlights installed may
make use of portable temporary ones instead. Many larger floodlights (see bottom picture) will
have gantries for bulb changing and maintenance. These will usually be able to accommodate one
or two engineers.
2.6.1 TYPES OF FLOODLIGHT
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The most common type of floodlight is the Metal Halide which emits a bright white light,
however most commonly used for sporting events are high pressure Sodium floodlights which
emit a soft orange light, similar to that of street lights; SON lamps have a very high lumens-to-
watt ratio making them a cost effective choice where certain lux levels have to be met.[citation
needed].
In the recent years there have been new developments and the LED technology has come a long
way and now LED flood lights are bright enough to be used for illumination purposes on large
sport fields.
2.6.2 APPLICATIONS
Cricket
Association football
Rugby League
Racing
Baseball
Tennis
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CHAPTER 3
WORKING OF LEDS
A light emitting diode (LED) is known to be one of the best optoelectronic devices out of the lot.
The device is capable of emitting a fairly narrow bandwidth of visible or invisible light when its
internal diode junction attains a forward electric current or voltage. The visible lights that an
LED emits are usually orange, red, yellow, or green. The invisible light includes the infrared
light. The biggest advantage of this device is its high power to light conversion efficiency. That
is, the efficiency is almost 50 times greater than a simple tungsten lamp. The response time of the
LED is also known to be very fast in the range of 0.1 microseconds when compared with 100
milliseconds for a tungsten lamp. Due to these advantages, the device wide applications as visual
indicators and as dancing light displays.
We know that a P-N junction can connect the absorbed light energy into its proportional electric
current. The same process is reversed here. That is, the P-N junction emits light when energy is
applied on it. This phenomenon is generally called electroluminance, which can be defined as the
emission of light from a semi-conductor under the influence of an electric field. The charge
carriers recombine in a forward P-N junction as the electrons cross from the N-region and
recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. Free electrons are in the conduction band of
energy levels, while holes are in the valence energy band. Thus the energy level of the holes will
be lesser than the energy levels of the electrons. Some part of the energy must be dissipated in
order to recombine the electrons and the holes. This energy is emitted in the form of heat and
light.
The electrons dissipate energy in the form of heat for silicon and germanium diodes. But in
Galium- Arsenide-phosphorous (GaAsP) and Galium-phosphorous (GaP) semiconductors, the
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electrons dissipate energy by emitting photons. If the semiconductor is translucent, the junction
becomes the source of light as it is emitted, thus becoming a light emitting diode (LED). But
when the junction is reverse biased no light will be produced by the LED, and, on the contrary
the device may also get damaged.
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LEDs create light by electroluminescence in a semiconductor material. Electroluminescence is

the phenomenon of a material emitting light when electric current or an electric field is passed
through it - this happens when electrons are sent through the material and fill electron holes. An
electron hole exists where an atom lacks electrons (negatively charged) and therefore has a
positive charge. Semiconductor materials like germanium or silicon can be "doped" to create and
control the number of electron holes. Doping is the adding of other elements to the
semiconductor material to change its properties. By doping a semiconductor you can make two
separate types of semiconductors in the same crystal. The boundary between the two types is
called a p-n junction. The junction only allows current to pass through it one way, this is why
they are used as diodes. LEDs are made using p-n junctions. As electrons pass through one
crystal to the other they fill electron holes. They emit photons (light).
Fig 3.1 A 5 Watt LED, one of the most powerful LEDs available
Phosphors are used to help filter the light output of the LED. They create a more pure "harsh"
color. Engineers had to figure out how to control the angle the light escapes the semiconductor,
this "light cone" is very narrow. They figured out how to make light refract or bounce off all
surfaces of the semiconductor crystal to intensify the light output. This is why LED displays
traditionally have been best viewed from one angle.
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Fig 3.2 A laser also creates light, but through a different construction
Fig 3.3 Phosphors
3.1 LED CHARACTERISTICS

The forward bias Voltage-Current (V-I) curve and the output characteristics curve is shown in the
figure above. The V-I curve is practically applicable in burglar alarms. Forward bias
ofapproximately 1 volt is needed to give significant forward current. The second figure is used to
represent a radiant power-forward current curve. The output power produced is very small and
thus the efficiency in electrical-to-radiant energy conversion is very less.
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Fig 3.4LED Characteristics
The figure below shows a series resistor Rseries connected to the LED. Once the forward bias of
the device exceeds, the current will increase at a greater rate in accordance to a small increase in
voltage. This shows that the forward resistance of the device is very low. This shows the
importance of using an external series current limiting resistor. Series resistance is determined by
the following equation.
Rseries = (Vsupply V)/I

Vsupply Supply Voltage
V LED forward bias voltage
I Current
The commercially used LEDs have a typical voltage drop between 1.5 Volt to 2.5 Volt or current
between 10 to 50 milliamperes. The exact voltage drop depends on the LED current, colour,
tolerance, and so on.
3.2 LED BASICS: HOW TO TELL WHICH LEAD IS POSITIVE OR

NEGATIVE
LED has two leads, one longer than the other,the longer lead is the postive (also known as the
anode) lead. If the LED has two leads with leads that are equal in length, you can look at the
metal plate inside the LED. The smaller plate indicates the positive (anode) lead; the larger plate
belongs to the negative (cathode) lead.
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Fig 3.5 Surface Mount LED Fig 3.6 LED
LED has a flat area (on the plastic housing), the lead adjacent to the flat area is the negative
(cathode) lead. Its a little bit harder to determine the polarity with Surface Mount LEDS. Some
are marked with a(-) to indicate the negative lead, but often, they are not. The single best way to
determine the polarity is through the use a multimeter. Set the multimeter to the diode/continuity
setting. Usually,the multimeter will supply enough current into the LED which will just barely
light it up. The black (common) lead on the multimeter indicates
3.3 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES
Energy efficient source of light for short distances and small areas. The typical LED requires
only 30-60 milliwatts to operate
Durable and shockproof unlike glass bulb lamp types
Directional nature is useful for some applications like reducing stray light pollution on
streetlights
Very low voltage and current are enough to drive the LED.
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Voltage range 1 to 2 volts.

Current 5 to 20 milliamperes.
Total power output will be less than 150 milliwatts.
The response time is very less only about 10 nanoseconds.
The device does not need any heating and warm up time.
Miniature in size and hence light weight.
Have a rugged construction and hence can withstand shock and vibrations.
An LED has a life span of more than 20 years.
DISADVANTAGES
May be unreliable in outside applications with great variations in summer/winter
temperatures, more work is being done now to solve this problem
Semiconductors are sensitive to being damaged by heat, so large heat sinks must be employed
to keep powerful arrays cool, sometimes a fan is required. This adds to cost and a fan greatly
reduces the energy efficient advantage of LEDs, it is also prone to failure which leads to unit
failure
Circuit board solder and thin copper connections crack when flexed and cause sections of
arrays to go out
Rare earth metals used in LEDs are subject to price control monopolies by certain nations
Reduced lumen output over time
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CHAPTER 4
LED MANUFACTURING
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)small colored lights available in any electronics storeare
ubiquitous in modern society. They are the indicator lights on our stereos, automobile
dashboards, and microwave ovens. Numeric displays on clock radios, digital watches, and
calculators are composed of bars of LEDs. LEDs also find applications in telecommunications
for short range optical signal transmission such as TV remote controls. They have even found
their way into jewelry and clothingwitness sun visors with a series of blinking colored lights
adorning the brim. The inventors of the LED had no idea of the revolutionary item they were
creating. They were trying to make lasers, but on the way they discovered a substitute for the
light bulb.
Light bulbs are really just wires attached to a source of energy. They emit light because the wire
heats up and gives off some of its heat energy in the form of light. An LED, on the other hand,
emits light by electronic excitation rather than heat generation. Diodes are electrical valves that
allow electrical current to flow in only one direction, just as a one-way valve might in a water
pipe. When the valve is "on," electrons move from a region of high electronic density to a region
of low electronic density. This movement of electrons is accompanied by the emission of light.
The more electrons that get passed across the boundary between layers, known as a junction, the
brighter the light. This phenomenon, known as electroluminescence, was observed as early as
1907. Before working LEDs could be made, however, cleaner and more efficient materials had to
be developed.
LEDs were developed during the post-World War II era; during the war there was a potent
interest in materials for light and microwave detectors. A variety of semiconductor materials were
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developed during this research effort, and their light interaction properties were investigated in
some detail. During the 1950s, it became clear that the same materials that were used to detect
light could also be used to generate light. Researchers at AT&T Bell Laboratories were the first to
exploit the light-generating properties of these new materials in the 1960s. The LED was a
forerunner, and a fortuitous byproduct, of the laser development effort.
The tiny colored lights held some interest for industry, because they had advantages over light
bulbs of a similar size: LEDs use less power, have longer lifetimes, produce little heat, and emit
colored light.
The first LEDs were not as reliable or as useful as those sold today. Frequently, they could only
operate at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (-104 degrees Fahrenheit or -77 degrees Celsius) or
below, and would burn out in only a few hours. They gobbled power because they were very
inefficient, and they produced very little light. All of these problems can be attributed to a lack of
reliable techniques for producing the appropriate materials in the 1950s and 1960s, and as a result
the devices made from them were poor. When materials were improved, other advances in the
technology followed: methods for connecting the devices electronically, enlarging the diodes,
making them brighter, and generating more colors.
The advantages of the LED over the light bulb for applications requiring a small light source
encouraged manufacturers like Texas Instruments
To make the semiconductor wafers, gallium, arsenic, and/or phosphor are first mixed together in
a chamber and forced into a solution. To keep them from escaping into the pressurized gas in the
chamber, they are often covered with a layer of liquid boron oxide. Next, a rod is dipped into the
solution and pulled out slowly. The solution cools and crystallizes on the end of the rod as it is
lifted out of the chamber, forming a long, cylindrical crystal ingot. The ingot is then sliced into
wafers and Hewlett Packard to pursue the commercial manufacture of LEDs. Sudden widespread
market acceptance in the 1970s was the result of the reduction in production costs and also of
clever marketing, which made products with LED displays (such as watches) seem "high tech"
and, therefore, desirable. Manufacturers were able to produce many LEDs in a row to create a
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variety of displays for use on clocks, scientific instruments, and computer card readers. The
technology is still developing today as manufacturers seek ways to make the devices more
efficiently, less expensively, and in more colors.
Fig 4.1Making semiconductor wafers
4.1 RAW MATERIALS

Diodes, in general, are made of very thin layers of semiconductor material; one layer will have an
excess of electrons, while the next will have a deficit of electrons. This difference causes
electrons to move from one layer to another, thereby generating light. Manufacturers can now
make these layers as thin as .5 micron or less (1 micron = 1 ten-thousandth of an inch).
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Fig 4.2Adding Epitaxial Layers

Impurities within the semiconductor are used to create the required electron density. A
semiconductor is a crystalline material that conducts electricity only when there is a high density
of impurities in it. The slice, or wafer, of semiconductor is a single uniform crystal, and the
impurities are introduced later during the manufacturing process. Think of the wafer as a cake
that is mixed and baked in a prescribed manner, and impurities as nuts suspended in the cake.
The particular semiconductors used for LED manufacture are gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium
phosphide (GaP), or gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP). The different semiconductor materials
(called substrates) and different impurities result in different colors of light from the LED.
Impurities, the nuts in the cake, are introduced later in the manufacturing process; unlike
imperfections, they are introduced deliberately to make the LED function correctly. This process
is called doping. The impurities commonly added are zinc or nitrogen, but silicon, germanium,
and tellurium have also been used. As mentioned previously, they will cause the semiconductor
to conduct electricity and will make the LED function as an electronic device. It is through the
impurities that a layer with an excess or a deficit of electrons can be created.
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To complete the device, it is necessary to bring electricity to it and from it. Thus, wires must be
attached onto the substrate. These wires must stick well to the semiconductor and be strong
enough to withstand subsequent
One way to add the necessary impurities to the semiconductor crystal is to grow additional layers
of crystal onto the wafer surface. In this process, known as "Liquid Phase Epitaxy," the wafer is
put on a graphite slide and passed underneath reservoirs of molten GaAsP.
Contact patterns are exposed on the wafer's surface using photoresist, after which the wafers are
put into a heated vacuum chamber. Here, molten metal is evaporated onto the contact pattern on
the wafer surface. Processing such as soldering and heating. Gold and silver compounds are most
commonly used for this purpose, because they form a chemical bond with the gallium at the
surface of the wafer.
LEDs are encased in transparent plastic, rather like the lucite paperweights that have objects
suspended in them. The plastic can be any of a number of varieties, and its exact optical
properties will determine what the output of the LED looks like. Some plastics are diffusive,
which means the light will scatter in many directions.
Some are transparent, and can be shaped into lenses that will direct the light straight out from the
LED in a narrow beam. The plastics can be tinted, which will change the color of the LED by
allowing more or less of light of a particular color to pass through.
4.2 DESIGN
Several features of the LED need to be considered in its design, since it is both an electronic and
an optic device. Desirable optical properties such as color, brightness, and efficiency must be
optimized without an unreasonable electrical or physical design. These properties are affected by
the size of the diode, the exact semiconductor materials used to make it, the thickness of the
diode layers, and the type and amount of impurities used to "dope" the semiconductor.
4.3 THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

4.3.1 MAKING SEMICONDUCTOR WAFERS
First, a semiconductor wafer is made. The particular material compositionGaAs, GaP, or
something in betweenis determined by the color of LED being fabricated. The crystalline
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semiconductor is grown in a high temperature, high pressure chamber. Gallium, arsenic,

and/or phosphor are purified and mixed together in the chamber. The heat and pressure
liquify and press the components together so that they are forced into a solution. To keep
them from escaping into the pressurized gas in the chamber, they are often covered with a
layer of liquid boron oxide, which seals them off so that they must "stick together." This is
known as liquid encapsulation, or the Czochralski crystal growth method. After the elements
are mixed in a uniform solution, a rod is dipped into the solution and pulled out slowly. The
solution cools and crystallizes on the end of the rod as it is lifted out of the chamber, forming
a long, cylindrical crystal ingot (or boule) of GaAs, GaP, or GaAsP. Think of this as baking
the cake.
The boule is then sliced into very thin wafers of semiconductor, approximately 10 mils thick,
or about as thick as a garbage bag. The wafers are polished until the surfaces are very smooth,
so that they will readily accept more layers of semiconductor on their surface. The principle
is similar to sanding a table before painting it. Each wafer should be a single crystal of
material of uniform composition. Unfortunately, there will sometimes be imperfections in the
crystals that make the LED function poorly. Think of imperfections as unmixed bits of
flower or sugar suspended in the cake during baking. Imperfections can also result from the
polishing process; such imperfections also degrade device performance. The more
imperfections, the less the wafer behaves like a single crystal; without a regular crystalline
structure, the material will not function as a semiconductor.
Next, the wafers are cleaned through a rigorous chemical and ultrasonic process using various
solvents. This process removes dirt, dust, or organic matter that may have settled on the
polished wafer surface. The cleaner the processing, the better the resulting LED will be.
4.3.2 ADDING EPITAXIAL LAYERS

Additional layers of semiconductor crystal are grown on the surface of the wafer, like adding
more layers to the cake. This is one way to add impurities, or dopants, to the crystal. The
crystal layers are grown this time by a process called Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE). In this
technique, epitaxial layerssemiconductor layers that have the same crystalline orientation
as the substrate beloware deposited on a wafer while it is drawn under reservoirs of molten
GaAsP. The reservoirs have appropriate dopants mixed through them. The wafer rests on a
graphite slide, which is pushed through a channel under a container holding the molten liquid
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(or melt, as it is called). Different dopants can be added in sequential melts, or several in the
same melt, creating layers of material with different electronic densities. The deposited layers
will become a continuation of the wafer's crystal structure.
LPE creates an exceptionally uniform layer of material, which makes it a preferred growth
and doping technique. The layers formed are several microns thick.
After depositing epitaxial layers, it may be necessary to add additional dopants to alter the
characteristics of the diode for color or efficiency. If additional doping is done, the wafer is
again placed in a high temperature furnace tube, where it is immersed in a gaseous
atmosphere containing the dopantsnitrogen or zinc ammonium are the most common.
Nitrogen is often added to the top layer of the diode to make the light more yellow or green.
4.3.3 ADDING METAL CONTACTS

Metal contacts are then defined on the wafer. The contact pattern is determined in the design
stage and depends on whether the diodes are to be used singly or in combination. Contact
patterns are reproduced in photoresist, a light-sensitive compound; the liquid resist is deposited in
drops while the wafer spins, distributing it over the surface. The resist is hardened by a brief, low
temperature baking (about 215 degrees Fahrenheit or 100 degrees Celsius). Next, the master
pattern, or mask, is duplicated on the photoresist by placing it over the wafer and exposing the
resist with ultraviolet light (the same way a photograph is made from a negative). Exposed areas
of the resist are washed away with developer, and unexposed areas remain, covering the
semiconductor layers.
Contact metal is now evaporated onto the pattern, filling in the exposed areas. Evaporation takes
place in another high temperature chamber, this time vacuum sealed. A chunk of metal is heated
to temperatures that cause it to vaporize. It condenses and sticks to the exposed semiconductor
wafer, much like steam will fog a cold window. The photoresist can then be washed away with
acetone, leaving only the metal contacts behind. Depending on the final mounting scheme for the
LED, an additional layer of metal may be evaporated on the back side of the wafer. Any
deposited metal must undergo an annealing process, in which the wafer is heated to several
hundred degrees and allowed to remain in a furnace (with an inert atmosphere of hydrogen or
nitrogen flowing through it) for periods up to several hours. During this time, the metal and the
semiconductor bond together chemically so the contacts don't flake off.
AIET/ECE/PTS/28
A single 2 inch-diameter wafer produced in this manner will have the same pattern repeated up to
6000 times on it; this gives an indication of the size of the finished diodes. The diodes are cut
apart either by cleaving (snapping the wafer along a crystal plane) or by sawing with a diamond
saw. Each small segment cut from the wafer is called a die. A difficult and error prone process,
cutting results in far less than 6000 total useable LEDs and is one of the biggest challenges in
limiting production costs of semiconductor devices.
4.3.4 MOUNTING AND PACKAGING
Fig 4.3 Mounting and Packaging of LED
AIET/ECE/PTS/29
Individual dies are mounted on the appropriate package. If the diode will be used by itself as
an indicator light or for jewelry, for example, it is mounted on two metal leads about two
inches long. Usually, in this case, the back of the wafer is coated with metal and forms an
electrical contact with the lead it rests on. A tiny gold wire is soldered to the other lead and
wire-bonded to the patterned contacts on the surface of the die. In wire bonding, the end of
the wire is pressed down on the contact metal with a very fine needle. The gold is soft enough
to deform and stick to a like metal surface.
Finally, the entire assembly is sealed in plastic. The wires and die are suspended inside a
mold that is shaped according
A typical LED indicator light shows how small the actual LED is. Although the average
lifetime of a small light bulb is 5-10 years, a modern LED should last 100 years or more
before it fails
Optical requirements of the package (with a lens or connector at the end), and the mold is
filled with liquid plastic or epoxy. The epoxy is cured, and the package is complete.
CHAPTER 5
ASSEMBLING OF LED LIGHTS
5.1 DRIVER ASSEMBLY
AIET/ECE/PTS/30
Fig 5.1 Driver Assembly
Driver assembly is the department where the LEDs are mounted on PCBs using Surface Mount
Technology. The complete work in done by machine.
5.1.1 SURFACE MOUNT TECHNOLOGY

Surface-mount technology (SMT) is a method for producing electronic circuits in which the
components are mounted or placed directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards (PCBs). The
Assembly line with SMT placement machine is shown in the fig 5.2 and 5.3 show the LED strips
which are mounted on the PCBs. An electronic device so made is called a surface-mount device
(SMD). In the industry it has largely replaced the through-hole technology construction method
of fitting components with wire leads into holes in the circuit board.
AIET/ECE/PTS/31
Fig 5.2 Assembly line with SMT placement machine
Fig 5.3 LED Strips

Both technologies can be used on the same board for components not suited to surface mounting
such as large transformers and heat-sinked power semiconductors. An SMT component is usually
smaller than its through-hole counterpart because it has either smaller leads or no leads at all. It
may have short pins or leads of various styles, flat contacts, a matrix of solder balls (BGAs), or
terminations on the body of the component. Because "surface-mount" refers to a methodology of
manufacturing, there are different terms used when referring to the different aspect of the
method, which distinguishes for example the components, technique, and machines used in
manufacturing.
These terms are listed in the following table

SMp term Expanded form
SMD Surface-mount devices (active, passive and electromechanical components)
SMT Surface-mount technology (assembling and mounting technology)
SMA Surface-mount assembly (module assembled with SMT)
SMC Surface-mount components (components for SMT)
SMP Surface-mount packages (SMD case forms)
SME Surface-mount equipment (SMT assembling machines)
AIET/ECE/PTS/32
Fig 5.4 Removal of surface-mount device using soldering tweezers
5.2 ADVANTAGES
The main advantages of SMT over the older through-hole technique are:
Smaller components. As of 2012 smallest was 0.4 0.2 mm (0.016 0.008 in: 01005).
Expected to sample in 2013 are 0.25 0.125 mm (0.010 0.005 in, size not yet standardized)
Much higher component density (components per unit area) and many more connections per
component.
Lower initial cost and time of setting up for production.
Fewer holes need to be drilled.
Simpler and faster automated assembly. Some placement machines are capable of placing
more than 136,000 components per hour.
Small errors in component placement are corrected automatically as the surface tension of
molten solder pulls components into alignment with solder pads.
Components can be placed on both sides of the circuit board.
Lower resistance and inductance at the connection; consequently, fewer unwanted RF signal
effects and better and more predictable high-frequency performance.
Better mechanical performance under shake and vibration conditions.
AIET/ECE/PTS/33
Many SMT parts cost less than equivalent through-hole parts.

Better EMC compatibility (lower radiated emissions) due to the smaller radiation loop area
(because of the smaller package) and the smaller lead inductance.
5.2 DISADVANTAGES
Manual prototype assembly or component-level repair is more difficult and requires skilled
operators and more expensive tools, due to the small sizes and lead spacings of many SMDs.
SMDs cannot be used directly with plug-in breadboards (a quick snap-and-play prototyping
tool), requiring either a custom PCB for every prototype or the mounting of the SMD upon a
pin-leaded carrier. For prototyping around a specific SMD component, a less-expensive
breakout board may be used. Additionally, stripboard style protoboards can be used, some of
which include pads for standard sized SMD components. For prototyping, "dead bug"
breadboarding can be used.
SMDs' solder connections may be damaged by potting compounds going through thermal
cycling.
Solder joint dimensions in SMT quickly become much smaller as advances are made toward
ultra-fine pitch technology. The reliability of solder joints become more of a concern, as less
and less solder is allowed for each joint. Voiding is a fault commonly associated with solder
joints, especially when reflowing a solder paste in the SMT application. The presence of
voids can deteriorate the joint strength and eventually lead to joint failure.[5][6]
SMT is unsuitable for large, high-power, or high-voltage parts, for example in power
circuitry. It is common to combine SMT and through-hole construction, with transformers,
heat-sinked power semiconductors, physically large capacitors, fuses, connectors, and so on
mounted on one side of the PCB through holes.
SMT is unsuitable as the sole attachment method for components that are subject to frequent
mechanical stress, such as connectors that are used to interface with external devices that are
frequently attached and detached.
AIET/ECE/PTS/34
CHAPTER 6
MANUAL ASSEMBLY OF LED LIGHTS
6.1 FRAME MOUNTING

Best way to accurately position strip, once you have decided where to mount it, is to draw or
scratch a guide line that you can follow with one edge of the LED strip, this will minimize
handling and over working the delicate flexible PC board.
Attach the LED Strip using the adhesive back to hold it in place before applying the 1 wide
fibreglass ribbon which runs along the length of the LED strip. Prepare surfaces with a solvent
that evaporates quickly but first, make sure it doesn't attack your existing finishes.Leave the end
contacts exposed for final connecting and sealing.
AIET/ECE/PTS/35
Masking off the area where the strip will adhere and then painting or spraying contact cement on
will give an exceptional bond when combined with the strips adhesive. Take care however,
because repositioning will be a problem once it grabs.
When applying the LED strip - first, peel the backing paper back about 2 inches and press the
strip into place, next, put a bit of tension on the LED strip holding it about a foot from the
adhesion point while applying it and peeling back the paper backing, 2-4 inches at a time, apply
good pressure with a finger every 1/2 inch or so. Make sure the adhesive has grabbed, this will
assure an even line of LEDs and provides the best heat transfer, which will help extend their
performance.
Never just peel the LED strip off once it has bonded to a surface, instead use a thin scraper or
dull blade and slide it between the bonded surfaces while lifting the LED strip away and
minimize distorting it.
When applying the fibreglass, the best results can be had by brushing the resin onto the strip/pipe
area before applying the fibreglass then brushing another coat over the ribbon once its been
AIET/ECE/PTS/36
applied. A small 1/2" disposable paint brush works well to dab out any air bubbles and ensure
good fibreglass contact over the LEDs.
6.2 SOLDERING
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
flowing a filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than the
adjoining metal. Soldering differs from welding in that soldering does not involve melting the
work pieces. In brazing, the filler metal melts at a higher temperature, but the work piece metal
does not melt. In the past, nearly all solders contained lead, but environmental concerns have
increasingly dictated use of lead-free alloys for electronics and plumbing purposes.
LED strips have two common features which are important to this Instructable. First, LED strips
are divided into segments. The strips can be cut at any length provided the cut is on the line
usually indicated by a small scissors icon. LED strips that are severed or cut between these lines
will not function to the fullest. Second, LED strips have a positive (+) and a negative (-)
soldering hard point that is on the strip. The convention does matter, since they run from DC
power. There are a pair of these points at the beginning and the end of each segment.
Step 1: Cut the LED strip along an indicated line to give you a length close to the desired length.
If you cut too long, you can always cut again, too short and you may have to do more soldering.
Step 2:Remove the waterproofing or plastic covering, if applicable, so that the soldering hard
points are free.
Step 3:Pre-tin the hard points. Pre-tinning refers to the procedure by which you solder a small
blob of solder onto the object in question. In order for this to work the best, you must heat up the
element so that the solder wicks onto it...not just lays on top and cools. This works best with a
conical soldering tip and a small amount of solder for thermal conductivity. Once the desired
temperature is reached, you will see the solder wick onto the surface. Add more in necessary.
You should have enough to cover the hard point, but not be at risk of melting through the strip or
reaching the other hard point, causing a short.
AIET/ECE/PTS/37
Fig 6.1 Soldering of LEDs
Step 4:Cut and strip the wire a desired length. Again, cut longer than you think you will need.
Strip only a small length of wire, like 1/8" or less. If the wire is stranded, twist the strands
together to keep them from separating. The best wire will be thin enough to move around tightly,
I prefer 22-24 AWG solid core.
A quick word about current. LED strips sink current and depending on the length increase the
amperage of current in the circuit. Wires can extend the reach of your LED strips and do not
count towards the drawn current (measured in amperes, A or milliamperes, mA). Please refer to
the manufacturer's documentation for the specifics. Most segments take somewhere between 20
and 100 mA. For example, my five foot section from the hardware store totals 250mA...which is
1/4 of the total my DC adapter puts out, which is 1A or 1000mA.
Step 5:Pre-tin the end of the wire.
AIET/ECE/PTS/38
Step 6:Using helping hands or a vice, mount the wire and the strip so that it takes minimal or no
effort to get the wire and the hard point to touch.
Step 7: Quickly touch the soldering iron to the wire and the hard point at the same time. If we
pre-tinned our connections, they should quickly form a solid contact. Remove from heat.
6.3 LEAD CUTTINGS
Fig 6.2 LED Components Lead Cutting Machine
6.3.1 LED COMPONENTS LEAD CUTTING MACHINE
AIET/ECE/PTS/39
Size L1100 * W650 * H1050mm
Voltage 220V/50-60Hz
Feeding forms Feeding plane
Weight 145kg
Processing 150(pcs/min)
Efficiency 80-150pcs/min
Feet long 3-20 (mm)
Package Wooden case
Led Components Lead

Type
Cutting Machine
Suit for bulk components cut work, suit for mass production, save manual labour
Special cutting method, blade imported from Japan, long service life and easy adjusted
High cutting accuracy, the shortest cutting length is 3 mm or 2.5 mm (Customer-made)
Feed table adopt imported fiber board
Feed table can be set according to the customer order, can install another counter according to
the customer requirements and the products
In order to guarantee the customers are able fully to operate the machine, if the customer need,
we can help customer training, includes:
Correct operating mode

Correct maintenance way
6.4 TESTING
AIET/ECE/PTS/40
Fig 6.3 Manufacturing and Testing of LEDs
LEDs cannot be manufactured with consistent optical properties as a result of the production
processes involved. Brightness and color can vary substantially from component to component
even in the same production batch. This is why LEDs have to be tested during production and in
their final application. Comprehensive optical characterization is also essential during research
and development of LEDs and for LED-based products.
AIET/ECE/PTS/41
Instrument Systems has developed turnkey solutions for determining luminous intensity,
luminous flux, color, spectrum and spatial radiation pattern of LEDs. The measurement systems
generate very accurate results with reliable reproducibility.
Quality in semiconductor manufacturing takes two forms. The first concern is with the final
produced product, and the second with the manufacturing facility. Every LED is checked when it
is wire bonded for operation characteristics.
Specific levels of current should produce specific brightness.

Exact light color is tested for each batch of wafers, and
Some LEDs will be pulled for stress testing, including lifetime tests, heat and power
breakdown, and mechanical damage.
AIET/ECE/PTS/42
LEARNINGS AND OUTCOMES

LED technology is used in Automotive headlamps, signal lamps and for work lamps. The
production is done by Machines and Manual. Reflow oven and Reflow soldering are used for in
the manufacturing process of LEDs. During the training one gets to know amount of hard work
goes behind the making of a product. I got to learn about the working culture of the company and
how punctuality is important in making of a product.
I have learned about the different types of LED lights
According to their rating we learned about the applications of the lights
The manufacturing process of LED lights
I have learned about Surface Mount technology
AIET/ECE/PTS/43
CONCLUSION
Working with Autolite (India) Limited as a summer trainee was a very nice experience. I learnt a
lot about basics of LEDs and LED manufacturing. I also practiced what I learnt in the university
and applied it on field. Working with department enhanced my major understanding. In addition,
I gained a good experience in term of self-confidence, real life working situation, interactions
among people in the same field and working with others with different professional background.
I had an interest in understanding basic engineering work and practicing what has been learnt in
the class. Also, the training was an opportunity for me to increase my human relation both
socially and professionally.
I have learned about the working culture.

During the training we gets to know about amount of hard work goes behind the making of a
products.
During the training one gets to know amount of hard work goes behind the making of a product
This experience gives us a direction and prepares us to get ready before a getting into a proper
job.
AIET/ECE/PTS/44
REFERENCES
Websites
[1.] http://www.circuitstoday.com/how-a-led-works-light-emitting-diode-working
[2.] http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/led4.htm
[3.] http://www.edisontechcenter.org/LED.html
[4.] http://www.westfloridacomponents.com/blog/led-basics-how-to-tell-which-lead-is-positive-
or-negative/
[5.] http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Light-Emitting-Diode-LED.html
AIET/ECE/PTS/45
AIET/ECE/PTS/46

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Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

Fig 1.1 View of AUTOLIT

Fig 1.2 Vision of Autolite (India) Limited

Fig 1.3 Network of Autolite (India) Limited

2.2 LED DOWNLIGHTERS

Fig 2.1 LED Downlighters

2.2.1 TRIM STYLES

2.2.2 LAMP STYLES

2.3 SURFACE LED

Fig 2.2 Surface LED

2.4 LEADED LEDs

Fig 2.3 Leaded LEDs

2.5 ULTRAVOILET LEDs

Fig 2.4 Ultraviolet LED

Fig 2.5 Electromagnetic Spectrum of LED

2.5.3 WARNINGS AND HANDLING INSTRUCTIONS

2.6 FLOOD LIGHT

Fig 2.6 Flood light in Football Stadium

2.6.1 TYPES OF FLOODLIGHT

LEDs create light by electroluminescence in a semiconductor material. Electroluminescence is

Fig 3.3 Phosphors

3.1 LED CHARACTERISTICS

Fig 3.4LED Characteristics

Rseries = (Vsupply V)/I

3.2 LED BASICS: HOW TO TELL WHICH LEAD IS POSITIVE OR

Fig 3.5 Surface Mount LED Fig 3.6 LED

3.3 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

Voltage range 1 to 2 volts.

Fig 4.1Making semiconductor wafers

4.1 RAW MATERIALS

Fig 4.2Adding Epitaxial Layers

4.3 THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

semiconductor is grown in a high temperature, high pressure chamber. Gallium, arsenic,

4.3.2 ADDING EPITAXIAL LAYERS

4.3.3 ADDING METAL CONTACTS

4.3.4 MOUNTING AND PACKAGING

Fig 4.3 Mounting and Packaging of LED

5.1 DRIVER ASSEMBLY

Fig 5.1 Driver Assembly

5.1.1 SURFACE MOUNT TECHNOLOGY

Fig 5.2 Assembly line with SMT placement machine

Fig 5.3 LED Strips

These terms are listed in the following table

Fig 5.4 Removal of surface-mount device using soldering tweezers

Many SMT parts cost less than equivalent through-hole parts.

6.1 FRAME MOUNTING

Fig 6.1 Soldering of LEDs

Step 5:Pre-tin the end of the wire.

6.3 LEAD CUTTINGS

Fig 6.2 LED Components Lead Cutting Machine

6.3.1 LED COMPONENTS LEAD CUTTING MACHINE

Size L1100 * W650 * H1050mm

Feeding forms Feeding plane

Feet long 3-20 (mm)

Package Wooden case

Led Components Lead

Correct operating mode

Fig 6.3 Manufacturing and Testing of LEDs

Specific levels of current should produce specific brightness.

LEARNINGS AND OUTCOMES

I have learned about the different types of LED lights

According to their rating we learned about the applications of the lights

The manufacturing process of LED lights