Chapter 4 Force System Resultants

Moment of a Force Scalar Definition

A force produces a turning effect or moment about a point O that
does not lie on its line of action. In scalar form, the moment
magnitude is:
M O = Fd
where d is the perpendicular distance from point O to the line of
action of the force F, so called moment arm as shown in Fig. 4-1.
The direction of the moment is defined using the right-hand-rule as
shown in Fig. 4-1: curl the figures towards the palm following the
direction of rotation, then the thumb points to the direction of the
moment vector. MO always acts along an axis perpendicular to the
plane containing F and d, and passes through the point O. Fig. 4-1
In 2-D case, the direction of the moment is either clockwise
or counterclockwise. The sign convention is that the
counterclockwise moment is positive.
Rather than finding d, it is usually easier to resolve the
force into its x and y components, determine the moment of
each component about the point, and then sum the results.
This is called the principle of moments. As shown in
Fig. 4-2,
M O = - Fd = - Fx y + Fy x Fig. 4-2
in which the above sign convention has been followed.

Moment of a Force Vector Definition

r
For 3-D problems, it is more convenient to determine the moment of a given force F about an
arbitrary point O using the vector cross product as:
r r r
MO = r F,
r r
where r is a position vector that extends from point O to any point on the line of action of F .
r r
The above cross product can be evaluated as a determinant by expressing r and F in Cartesian
vectors:
r r r
i j k
r r r
M O = r F = rx ry rz .
Fx Fy Fz

A force can be applied at any point along its line of action and still create the same moment
about O. This property is called principle of transmissibility of a force.

1
Moment of a Force about an Given Axis
r
By scalar analysis, the moment of a force F about a
specified axis a is:
M a = Fd a
where da is the perpendicular distance from axis a to the Fig. 4-3
line of action of the force as shown in Fig. 4-3.
r
Ifr the line of action of F intersects the axis or is parallel to the axis, then the moment of
F about the axis is zero.
By vector analysis in the case of 3-D problems, the moment of a force
r
F about an arbitrarily given axis a can be determined using the scalar
triple product as below:
u a x u a y ua z
(
r r r
)
M a = ua r F = rx ry rz
Fx Fy Fz
r
where ua is the unit vector along the axis that specifies the direction of
r
the axis, and r is a position vector that is directed from any point on
the axis to any point on the line of action of the force, as shown in
r
Fig. 4-4. If Ma is negative, then the sense of direction of M a is
r
opposite to ua with
r r Fig. 4-4
M a = M a ua .

Couple Moment
A couple consists of two equal but opposite forces that act a perpendicular distance d apart as
shown in Fig. 4-5. The resultant force of a couple is zero. The net effect of a couple is a
resultant moment, called couple moment. Couples tend to produce a rotation without
translation.
The direction of the couple moment follows the right-hand-
rule, and the magnitude of the couple moment is
M = Fd .
The couple moment vector can also be determined by vector
cross product as
r r r
M = r F.
r
As shown in Fig. 4-5, r extends from any point on the line of
r
action rof - F to any point on the line of action of the other
force F that is used in the cross product. Fig. 4-5

2
 Couple moment vectors obey the law of addition of vectors,
r r r r
M R = M 1 + M 2 + ... = M
Couple moment vector is a free vector, which is free to move.

Simplification of a Force and Couple System

Unlike the couple moment vector, a force F
vector is NOT a free vector. Any force
r F
F acting on a rigid body can be moved to an A A
arbitrary point O which is not on its line of
action provided that a couple is added
r whose
r
=
moment is equal to the moment of F about O, O MO O
r r r
M O = r F , as shown in Fig. 4-6.
Any system of forces and couples can be Fig. 4-6
reduced to a single resultant force and resultant couple moment acting at a point. The resultant
force is the sum of all the forces in the system, and the resultant couple moment is equal to the
sum of all the moments of the forces about the point and all the couple moments, i.e.,
r r
resultant force vector : FR = F
( ) ( )
r r r r r r
resultant couple moment vector : M R O = M O + M C = r F + M C

In 2-D case, the above two vector equations reduce to:

(FR )x = Fx

(FR ) y = Fy

(M R )O = M O + M C

where (MR)O is perpendicular to the 2-D plane in the z direction.

Further simplification to a single resultant force is possible provided the force system is
concurrent, coplanar, or parallel. To find the location of the resultant force from a point, it is
necessary to equate the moment of the resultant force about the point to the moment of the
forces and couples in the system about the same point.

Coplanar Distributed Loading

A simple distributed loading can be
represented by its resultant force,
which is equivalent to area under the
loading curve. This resultant has a line
of action that passes through the
=
centroid of the area under the loading
curve, as shown in Fig. 4-7.

Fig. 4-7

3
 Chapter 5 Equilibrium of a Rigid Body

In the study of the equilibrium of rigid bodies, i.e. the situation when the external forces acting
on a rigid body form a system equivalent to zero, we have:
( )
r r r r
F = 0 & M o = r F =0 .
Resolving each force and each moment into its rectangular components, the necessary and
sufficient conditions for the equilibrium of a rigid body are expressed by six scalar equations:
F x =0 M x =0
F y =0 & M y =0 .
F z =0 M z =0
These equations can be used to determine unknown forces applied to the rigid body or unknown
reactions exerted by its supports.

When solving a problem involving the equilibrium of a rigid body, it is essential to consider all
of the forces acting on the body. Therefore, the first step in the solution of the problem should
be to draw a free-body diagram showing the body under consideration and all of the unknown
as well as known forces acting on it.

In the case of the equilibrium of two-dimensional structures, each of the reactions exerted on
the structure by its supports could involve one, two, or three unknowns, depending upon the
type of support. (Refer to Table 5-1)

In the case of a two-dimensional structure, three equilibrium equations are used, namely:
Fx = 0 , Fy = 0 , M A = 0 ,
where A is an arbitrary point in the plane of the structure. These equations can be used to solve
for three unknowns. While these three equilibrium equations cannot be augmented with
additional equations, any one of them can be replaced by another equation. Therefore, we can
write alternative sets of equilibrium equations, such as:
F x = 0, M A = 0, M B = 0,
where point B is chosen in such a way that the line AB is not parallel to the y axis, or:
M A = 0, M B = 0, M C = 0,
where points A, B, and C do not lie in a straight line.

4
 r r
A two-force body is a rigid body subjected to forces at only two points. The resultants F1 and F2
of these two forces must have the same magnitude, the same line of action, and opposite sense.

F2
B

F1
r
A three-force body is a rigid body subjected to forces at only three points, and the resultants F1 ,
r r
F2 , and F3 of these forces must be either concurrent or parallel. This property provides an
alternative approach to the solution of problems involving a three-force body graphical
method.

F2
F3
B

F1

When considering the equilibrium of a three-dimensional body, each of the reactions exerted
on the body by its supports can involve between one up to six unknowns, depending upon the
type of support. (Refer to Table 5-2)

In the general case of the equilibrium of a three-dimensional body, the six scalar equilibrium
equations listed at the beginning of this review should be used and solved for six unknowns. In
most cases these equations are more conveniently obtained if we first write:
( )
r r r r
F =r0 , M o = r F =0 ,
r
and express the forces F and position vectors r in terms of scalar components and unit
vectors. The vector product can then be computed either directly or by means of determinants,
and the desired scalar equations obtained by equating to zero the coefficients of the unit vectors.
As many as three unknown reaction components can be eliminated from the computation of
( )
r r r
o F =0 through a judicious choice of point O.
M = r

5
 Chapter 6 Structural Analysis

A truss is a structure consisting of straight members connected at their extremities only.

The members being slender and unable to support lateral loads, all the loads must be applied
at the joints; a truss may thus be assumed to consist of pins and two-force members.

A truss is said to be rigid if it is designed in such a way that it will not greatly deform or
collapse under a small load. A triangular truss consisting of three members connected at
three joints is clearly a rigid truss.

D
B
B

A C A C

A truss obtained by adding two new members to the first one and connecting them to a new
joint (D ) will also be rigid. Trusses obtained by repeating this procedure are called simple
trusses. We may check that in a simple truss the total number of members is m = 2n - 3,
where n is the total number of joints.

The forces in the various members of a truss can be determined by the method of joints.
First, the reactions at the supports can be obtained by considering the entire truss as a free
body. The free-body diagram of each pin is then drawn, showing the forces exerted on the
pin by the members or supports that it connects. Since the members are straight two-force
members, the force exerted by a member on the pin is directed along that member, and only
the magnitude of the force is unknown. It is always possible in the case of a simple truss to
draw the free-body diagrams of the pins in such an order that only two unknown forces are
included in each diagram. These forces can be obtained from the corresponding two
equilibrium equations or - if only three forces are involved - the corresponding force
triangle.

If the force exerted by a member on a pin is directed toward that pin, the member is in
compression; if it is directed away from the pin, the member is in tension.

T Tension (T) T

Compression (C)

C C

6
 The analysis of truss by the method of joints can be simplified by directly identifying whether
there is any zero-force member is involved in the truss structure.

The method of sections is usually preferred to the method of joints when the force in only one
member - or very few members - of a truss is desired.

Example: To determine the force in member BC of the truss shown, we pass a section through

members BC, CG, and GF, and use the left portion ABG of the truss as a free body.
Writing M G = 0 , we determine the magnitude of FBC, which represents the force in
member BC. Based on the assumed sense of FBC as shown in the figure, a positive sign
indicates that the member is in tension; a negative sign indicates that it is in
compression.
When setting up equations of equilibrium for Method of Sections, sometime it is convenient to
apply the Principle of Transmissibility and then properly select a point to take moment.
Example is as shown above as how the force FBC is determined by taking resultant moment
about point G.
When applying the Method of Sections, need to pass a section through no more than 3
unknown members including the one of interest, since conditions of equilibrium of the section
obtained can provide 3 equations to solve 3 unknowns.

7
 Frames and machines are structures which contain multiforce members, i.e., members acted
upon by three or more forces. Frames are designed to support loads and are usually stationary,
fully constrained structures. Machines are designed to transmit or modify forces and always
contain moving parts.
To analyze a frame, need to dismember the frame and identify the members as either two-force
members or multiforce members. Then draw the free-body diagram of each of
the members, noting that when two multiforce members are connected to the
same two-force member, they are acted upon by that member with equal and opposite forces of
unknown magnitude but known direction. When two multiforce members are connected by a
pin, they exert on each other equal and opposite forces of unknown direction, which should be
represented by two unknown components.
Sometime it is necessary to treat the entire frame structure as a rigid body at equilibrium to find
the reactions at supports, i.e., external forces to facilitate solving forces acting on a member of
interest.
Example of frame:

(a) (b)

- In this frame example, member BE is a two-force member

and members ABCD and CEF are multiforce members.
- As dismembering the frame, the force at point B on ABCD is
along BE, and the force at E on CEF is also along BE. These
two forces are equal and opposite (Fig. (b)).
- As dismembering at point C, the direction of the force at this
point is unknown since two multiforce members are
connected there. Therefore two unknown components Cx
and Cy are used to represent forces at point C. Note these
two unknown components are equal and opposite on ABCD
and CEF following Newtons Third Law.
- To find forces acting on member ABCD, can first treat the
(c) entire frame as a rigid body at equilibrium to find the
external forces T, Ax, and Ay (Fig. (c)), then find Cx, Cy, and
FBE (Fig. (b)).

8
 Chapter 7 Internal Forces

Consider a straight two-force member AB subjected at A and B to equal and opposite forces F
and -F directed along AB. Cutting the member AB at C, and drawing the free-body diagram of
portion AC, we conclude that the internal forces which existed at C in member AB are
equivalent to an axial force -F equal and opposite to F.
-F
B

C -F
C
A
A
F
F

For a two-force member which is not straight, the internal forces reduce to a force-couple
system and not to a single force.

Considering multiforce member ABCD, cutting it at J, and drawing the free-body diagram of
portion JD, we conclude that the internal forces at J are equivalent to a force couple system
consisting of the normal force N, the shearing force V, and a bending-moment M.

D D

T T
J J
M V
C Cx
F
Cy FBE
B

Ax
A
Ay

The magnitude of the shearing force measures the shear at point J, and the moment of the
couple is referred to as the bending moment at J. Since an equal and opposite force-couple
system would have been obtained by considering the free-body diagram of portion JA, it is
necessary to specify which portion of member ABCD was used when recording the answers.

Beams are usually long, straight prismatic members designed to support loads applied at various
points along the member. In general, the loads are perpendicular to the axis of the beam and
produce only shear and bending moment in the beam. The loads may be either concentrated at
specific points, or distributed along the entire length or a portion of the beam. The beam itself
may be supported in various ways.

9
 To obtain the shear V and bending moment M at a given point C of a beam, we first determine
the reactions at the supports by considering the entire beam as a free body. We then cut the
beam at C and use the free-body diagram of one of the two portions obtained in this fashion to
determine V and M.

The sign convention for positive shear force and bending moment is as shown. Once the shear
and bending moment functions are established for each segment between any two
discontinuities of loading, it is possible to draw the shear diagram and bending-moment
diagram for the entire beam.

To draw the shear diagram and bending-moment diagram:

1. Find support reactions (external forces and couple moments) acting on the beam.
2. Determine shear and bending moment functions for each segment of the beam located
between any two discontinuities of loading
1) Set origin at the beams left end, and specify separate coordinates x for each
segment.
2) Section the beam at each distance x, draw FBD of the segment with a positive
sense assumed for both V and M to determine the corresponding V and M as a
function of x.
3. Plot V-x and M-x along the length of the beam to obtain shear diagram and bending-
moment diagram.

10
 Relations between the distributed load, shear, and bending moment. Please refer to class notes
for details.
- For segment that is only under distributed load (w(x) is considered positive if loading is
upward):
dV
= w( x) DV = w( x )dx
dx
dM
=V DM = Vdx
dx
- At point where a concentrated force F is applied: DV = F
Wherever a concentrated force F is applied, change in shear DV is positive and shear
diagram will jump upward if F acts upward on the beam, and vice versa.
- At point where a couple moment M0 is applied: DM = M 0
Wherever a couple moment M0 is applied, the change in bending-moment DM is positive
and moment diagram will jump upward if M0 is clockwise, and vice versa.
Any distributed load can be replaced by a single equivalent resultant with magnitude equals to
the area underneath the load distribution curve and line of action passing through the centroid
of that area.
For a flexible cable with negligible weight supporting concentrated loads, the internal force at
any point is tension along the cable. Using the entire cable AB as a free body, the three
available equations of equilibrium are not sufficient to determine the four unknown reactions at
supports A and B. Knowing the coordinates of point D, an additional equation can be obtained
by constructing the free-body diagram of portions AD or DB of the cable.

Once the reactions are known, the elevation of any point of the cable and the tension in any
section of the cable can be determined. Note that sometimes the tension in each section of the
cable can also be solved by applying equations of equilibrium to points of application of the
loading.
For cable under concentrated load, the maximum tension Tmax occurs at one of the two supports,
whichever has the bigger inclination angle q. The horizontal component of the tension remains
constant at any point along the cable.

11
 Chapter 8 Friction
A horizontal force P applied to a block will not at first cause it to move.
This is because the friction force F balances P as show in Fig. 8-1.
As the magnitude of P increases, the magnitude of F increases until it
reaches a maximum value Fs = msN, where ms is the coefficient of static
friction. In this case, motion between the contacting surfaces is
impending (Fig. 8-2).
If P is increased further, the magnitude of F drops to Fk = mkN and the
block begins to slide. mk is the coefficient of kinetic friction.
Fig. 8-1
motion impending

Fig. 8-2

The above discussed relation between the applied force P and friction force F is plotted in
Fig. 8-2.
It is sometimes convenient to replace the normal force N and
the friction force F by their resultant R. As the friction force
increases and reaches its maximum value Fs = msN, the
angle f that R forms with the normal to the surface increases
and reaches a maximum value fs as shown in Fig. 8-3. The
angle fs is called the angle of static friction,
F m N
fs = tan -1 s = tan -1 s = tan -1 (m s ).
N N
If motion actually takes place, the magnitude of F drops to Fig. 8-3
Fk; similarly the angle f drops to a lower value fk, called the angle of kinetic friction with
F m N
fk = tan -1 k = tan -1 k = tan -1 (mk ).
N N
The magnitude F of the friction force is equal to Fs = msN only if the body is in motion
impending, i.e., about to move. If motion is not impending, F and N should be considered as

12
 independent unknowns to be determined from the equations of equilibrium. The value of F
required to maintain equilibrium should be checked to insure that it does not exceed Fs.
In the analysis of wedges, the free-body diagrams of each body involved are generally required,
with each friction force drawn at each contacting surface in a sense opposite to the tendency of
motion as shown in Fig. 8-4. If the coefficients of friction between the surfaces are large
enough, then P can be removed, and the wedge will be self-locking and remain in place.

Fig. 8-4

The analysis of square-threaded screws (frequently used in jacks, presses and other
mechanisms) is reduced to the analysis of a block sliding on an incline by unwrapping the
thread of the screw and showing it as a straight line. In doing this, r denotes the mean radius of
the thread, L is the lead of the screw (the distance through which the screw advances in one
turn), W is the load, and M is the couple moment exerted on the screw. The moment needed to
turn a screw depends upon the coefficient of friction and the screws lead angle q with
l
q = tan -1 .
2pr
- If the impending motion direction is against the load W, M = rW tan(q + fs )
- If the impending motion direction is not against the load W and fs > q (self-locking),
M ' = rW tan(fs - q ).
- If the impending motion direction is not against the load W and fs < q (not self-locking),
M " = rW tan(q - fs ).

13
 Chapter 9 Center of Gravity and Centroid
The center of gravity of a rigid body is the point G where a single force W, called the weight of
the body, can be applied to represent the effect of the earths attraction on the body.
The distance from an axis to this point can be determined
from a balance of moments, which requires that the
moment of the weight of all the particles of the body
about this axis must equal the moment of the entire
weight of the body about the axis as it is concentrated at
point G. The position coordinates of point G, which are
(x , y , z ) , are then determined by:


~
x dW
1 ~
x = x dW =
W

dW

~
y dW
1 ~
y = y dW = Fig. 9-1
W dW

1 ~ ~
z dW
W
z = z dW =
dW
where (~
x, ~ z ) are the position coordinates of the element dW.
y, ~
The center of mass will coincide with the center of gravity provided the gravitational
acceleration is constant. The center of mass Cm locates at ( x , y , z ) with


~
x dm
1 ~
x = x dm =
m

dm

~y dm
1 ~
y = y dm =
m dm

1 ~ ~z dm
z = m z dm =
dm
Again, (~
x, ~ z ) are the position coordinates of the element mass dm.
y, ~
The centroid is the location of the geometric center of the body, which always lies on an axis of
symmetry. It is determined in a similar manner as center of gravity and center of mass.

14
 The centroid of a volume is located at point C (x , y , z ) with
1

~
x dV
x = x dV =
~
V

dV
~y dV = y dV
1 ~
y =
V dV

1 ~ ~z dV
z = z dV =
V dV
Replacing V with A or L, the location of the centroid of an area or a line can be
determined as well.
1

1 ~

~
x dA x dL
x = x dA =
~ x = x dL =
~
A

dA L

dL
1
~y dL
1
~y dA
y = y dL =
~
y = y dA =
~
A dA L dL

1 ~ ~z dA 1 ~ ~z dL
z = z dA = z = z dL =
A dA L dL
The center of mass will coincide with the centroid provided the material is homogeneous, i.e.,
the density of the material is the same throughout.
To find the center of gravity or centoid of a given body or shape by direct integral using the
above listed equations, need to properly choose a differential element.
The center of gravity and centroid for regular shaped bodies can be found by formula given in
the textbook without direct integral.
If the body is a composite of several shapes, each having a known location for its center of
gravity located at (~
x, ~ z ) , then the location of the center of gravity of the body can be
y, ~
determined from a discrete summation using its composite components by
n n n

(~x W )i (~y W )i (~z W ) i

x= i =1
n
, y= i =1
n
, z= i =1
n
.
Wi =1
i Wi =1
i Wi =1
i

The centroid for composite lines, areas, and volumes can be found similarly by replacing Ws
with Ls, As, and Vs in the above formula, respectively.
When finding the center of gravity or centroid for composite bodies, its better to tabulate the
data for each component so as to find the summation term.

15
 Chapter 10 Moments of Inertia
Topic I: Area Moment of Inertia
Physical meaning: It is a geometric property of cross section of a
beam, indicating the beam's resistance to bending. The higher
the moment of inertia, the greater the resistance to bending, or
the less the beam will be stressed under a given load. It is
important in Mechanics of Materials!
The moments of inertia Ix and Iy of an area are defined as

I x = y 2 dA I x = dI x dI x = y 2 dA

I y = x 2 dA I y = dI y dI y = x 2 dA

The unit of I is m4 , mm4, or ft4, in4.

These computations are reduced to single integration by
choosing dA to be a thin strip parallel to one of the coordinate
axes (Fig. 10-1):
Ix: thin strip is parallel to x axis
Iy: thin strip is parallel to y axis
The polar moment of inertia of an area A with respect to the dA = dxdy
pole O is defined as (Fig. 10-1(c)):
J O = r 2 dA

It can be easily shown that JO = Ix + Iy

The radius of gyration of an area A with respect to the x axis is
defined as the distance kx, where Ix = kx2A. With similar
definitions for the radii of gyration of A with respect to the y axis (c)
and with respect to O, we have Fig. 101
Ix Iy JO
kx = , ky = , kO = ,
A A A
kO = k x + k y .
2 2 2

k has dimension of length with unit of m,

mm, or ft, in.
The parallel-axis theorem states that the c
moment of inertia I of an area with respect to B B
any arbitrary given axis AA is equal to the
moment of inertia I of the area with respect to d
the centroidal axis BB (passing through the
centroid C) that is parallel to AA plus the A A
product of the area A and the square of the Fig. 102

16
 distance d between the two axes (Fig. 10-2):
I = I + Ad 2 .
This expression can also be used to determine I when the moment of inertia with respect to AA
is known:
I = I - Ad 2 .
A similar theorem can be used with the polar moment of inertia. The polar moment of inertia JO
of an area about pole O and the polar moment of inertia JC of the area about its centroid C are
related to the distance d between points C and O by

J O = J C + Ad 2 .

Similar relation exists between radii of gyration:

k2 = k 2 + d 2
kO = kC + d 2
2 2

The moment of inertia of a composite area A about a given axis is obtained by

adding/subtracting the moments of inertia of the component areas A1, A2, A3, ... with respect to
the same axis.
The parallel-axis theorem is used very effectively to compute the moment of inertia of a
composite area with respect to a given axis.
The moments of inertia of regular shaped areas are given in formula in the textbook.

Topic II: Mass Moment of Inertia

Moments of inertia of mass are encountered in dynamics. They involve the
rotation of a rigid body about an axis. The mass moment of inertia of a
body with respect to an axis z is defined as
I = r 2 dm

where r is the perpendicular distance from each element dm to the axis of

rotation as shown in Fig. 10-3. The unit of mass moment of inertia is
kgm2 or slugft2.
Physical meaning: The mass moment of inertia of a rigid body is a
property that measures the resistance of the body to angular acceleration.
The radius of gyration of the body about the axis of rotation is defined as Fig. 103

I
k= .
m
k has dimension of length with unit of m, mm, or ft, in.
The parallel-axis theorem also applies to mass moments of inertia:

I = I G + md 2

17
 where IG is the mass moment of inertia with respect to the A
centroidal BB axis passing through the mass center G,
which is parallel to the AA axis, m is the mass of the body d
and d is the distance between the two parallel axes as
shown in Fig. 10-4. B

For composite bodies, the mass moment of inertia about

any arbitrary axis can be determined by adding
A G
algebraically the mass moment of inertia of all the
composite shapes computed about the same axis.
The parallel-axis theorem is used very effectively to
compute the mass moment of inertia of a composite body B
with respect to a given axis. Fig. 104
The mass moments of inertia of regular shaped bodies are
given in formula in the textbook.

18