Course Material

AU-IRTT-FDP-ME1201ET-MAY2005
INSTITUTE OF ROAD AND TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY ERODE-638 316

AND
ANNA UNIVERSITY
CHENNAI -600 025
FACULTY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

ON
ME-1201 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
2nd 7th MAY, 2005
COURSE MATERIALS
COORDINATOR
Dr.G.RAMADOSS
Professor & Head
Organized by
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
INSTITUTE OF ROAD AND TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY
ERODE-638 316
1
FACILITATORS
1. Dr. G. RAMADOSS
Professor & Head
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Institute of Road and Transport Technology
Erode-638 316
2. Dr. K. MAYILSAMY
Assistant Professor
Erode-638 316
3. Dr. C. PERIASAMY
Assistant Professor
Erode-638 316
4. Dr.R.VELRAJ
Assistant Professor
College of Engineering , Guindy
Anna University,
Chennai 600 025
5. Dr. P.S.S. SRINIVASAN
Professor & Head
Kongu Engineering College
Erode 638 052
2
MESSSAGE
The Faculty Development Programme on ME 1201
ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS which is going to be a
subject for the third semester B.E Mechanical Engineering students is
organized to improve the teaching skills of the faculty of various
Engineering Colleges, so that the teaching, learning process will be
effective and the students can easily understand the basic concepts of
Engineering Thermodynamics. The training given to the faculties in
this programme will be really useful for teachers to give better
exposure to the students in solving problems on Thermodynamics, in
industrial applications and exposure to the research and technical
challenges. The coordinator places on record his sincere gratitude to
the Anna University for sponsoring the programme, the principal
Institute of Road and Transport Technology for providing the facilities
and all the other Engineering College Principals for deputing their
staff members to participate in this programme.
COORDINATOR
3
INSTITUTE OF ROAD AND TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY ERODE-638 316
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
FACULTY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME ON
ME-1201 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
COLLEGE
S.No NAME/ E-MAIL-ID &
DESIGNATION/DEPT.
PHONE NUMBER
VELLALAR COLLEGE OF sctrajann@yahoo.co.in
S.C.THIYAGARAJANN ENGINEERING AND 04294-224068
1. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR TECHNOLOGY,
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG. THINDAL (PO),
ERODE-638 009
HINDUSTAN COLLEGE OF Jayachandran_Cbe@yahoo.com
J.AMOS ROBERT
ENGINEERING AND 98431-16569
2. JAYACHANDRAN TECHNOLOGY, OTHAKKAL
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR MANDAPAM (PO),
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG. COIMBATORE-641 032
K.S.R COLLEGE OF V_SEN11@REDIFF.COM
ENGINEERING, 0427-2217658
V.SENTHIL MURUGAN THOKKAVADI (PO),
3. LECTURER K.S.R KALVI NAGAR,
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG. TIRUCHENGODE,
PIN: 637 209.
K.S.R COLLEGE OF SENT_EEM@REDIFF.COM
ENGINEERING, 04268-252298
C.SENTHIL KUMAR THOKKAVADI (PO),
4. LECTURER K.S.R KALVI NAGAR,
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG. TIRUCHENGODE,
PIN 637 209.
M.P.N.M.J. ENGINEERING Muthusamy_me@rediffmail.com
C.MUTHU SAMY COLLEGE, 04567-232507
5. LECTURER CHENNIMALAI,
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG. ERODE-638 112
TRICHY ENGINEERING Erganesh@rediffmail.com
R.GANESH COLLEGE, 94436-45243
6. LECTURER SOMU NAGAR, KONALAI,
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG. TRICHY
P.SIVA KUMAR KURINJI COLLEGE OF Siva_energy@yahoo.co.in
LECTURER ENGINEERING AND 94439-27815
7. TECHNOLOGY,
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG.
MANAPPARAI 621 307.
BHARATHIYAR COLLEGE tbwingbcet@yahoo.co.in
OF ENGINEERING AND 94434-11714
T.RAJA TECHNOLOGY, (O)04368-266317
8. SENIOR LECTURER TIRUVETTAKUDY,
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG KARAIKAL,
PONDICHERY (U.T)
PIN: 609 609.
COLLEGE
S.No NAME/ E-MAIL-ID
DESIGNATION/DEPT.
PHONE NUMBER
BANNARI AMMAN pkbbit@rediffmail.com
P.KUMAR BABU INSTITUTE OF 04259-221289
9. SENIOR LECTURER TECHNOLOGY,
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG SATHYAMANGALAM
PIN: 638 401.
K.S.RANGASAMY Murugasanhema2000@yahoo.co.in
A.MURUGESAN COLLEGE OF (0) 94430 90331
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG TIRUCHENGODE-637 209
P.P.SHANTHARAMAN MOOKAMBIGAI COLLEGE shantharaman@rediffmail.com
11. LECTURER OF ENGINEERING 94437-86173
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG KALAMAVUR-622 502.
T.JAWAHARLAL MOOKAMBIGAI COLLEGE Pdk_mcl@sanchar.in.com
12. LECTURER OF ENGINEERING- 04362-246165
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG KALAMAVUR-622 502
S.S.M.COLLEGE OF S_ananda@yahoo.co.in
S.ANANDAMOORTHI ENGINEERING , 94435-46622
13. LECTURER S.S.M NAGAR,
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG KOMARARAPALAYAM
PIN: 638 183.
ERODE SENGUNTHAR P_esecsenthil@rediff.com
P.SENTHILKUMAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE, 04294-221884
14. SENIOR LECTURER THUDUPATHI,
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG ERODE-638 057
M.P.N.M.J. ENGINEERING
15 P.PONNUSAMY COLLEGE,
SENIOR LECTURER CHENNIMALAI,
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG ERODE-638 112
K.S.RANGASAMY
D.SUBRAMANIAM COLLEGE OF
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG TIRUCHENGODE-637 209
R.VENKATACHALAM INSTIUTE OF ROAD AND
SENIOR LECTURER TRANSPORT
17. DEPT.OFAUTO.ENGG. TECHNOLOGY,
ERODE -638 316.
INSTIUTE OF ROAD AND
V.PERIYASAMY TRANSPORT
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG ERODE -638 316.
A.SENDHIL KUMAR TRANSPORT
DEPT.OF.MECH.ENGG. ERODE -638 316.
C.LOGANATHAN TRANSPORT
20 SENIOR LECTURER TECHNOLOGY,
DEPT.OF.AUTO.ENGG. ERODE -638 316.
A.THANGAVEL
SENIOR LECTURER
21 DEPT.OFAUTO.ENGG.
TRANSPORT
TECHNOLOGY,
ERODE -638 316.
FACULTY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
ME 1201 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
TIMETABLE
Day
09.00 to 11.00 AM 11.15 to 01.15 PM 01.45 to 02.45 PM 03.00 to 05.00 PM
Time
TEA BREAK
LUNCH
TEA BREAK
First law of
Basic Concepts- concept of Concept of Ideal and Real Thermodynamics to open
continuous Macroscopic gases & First law of system & Steady flow
Tutorial Problems from
02-05-05 Approaches, Thermodynamics Thermodynamics to closed process with reference to
basic concept and first law.
Monday Systems, Quasistatic Process, systems, Non- various Thermal
Zeroth law of Thermodynamics. flow processes. equipments.
Second law of Thermodynamics Tutorial Problems from

Principle of increase of
03-05-05 Thermodynamics reversibility Temperature scale, Clausis second law, entropy and
entropy,Carnot Theorem
Tuesday and irreversibility and Carnot inequality and concept of availability.
& availability
cycle. entropy.
Properties of pure substances-
Calculation of work done Tutorial Problems from
04-05-05 Thermodynamic properties, P- Standard Rankine
and Heat transfer in non- properties, work done and
Wednes V, P-T, T-V, T-S and H-S Cycle& Re-heat and Re-
flow and flow processes. heat transfer in flow and non
day diagrams. generative cycles.
flow processes.
Gas mixtures Properties of Avogadros Law,
05-05-05 Tutorial Problems from Tutorial Problems from
Ideal & Real gases. Vanderwaals equations of
Thurs day Rankine cycles. Ideal & Real gases.
states & compressibility.
06-05-05 Daltons Law of Partial Maxwell Relations, Tutorial Problems using Presentation by Participants.
Friday Pressure, exact differential T- Q Clausius Clapeyron Thermodynamics
relations. equations and Joule relations.
Thomson Co-Efficient.
Tutorial Problems using
07-05-05 Psychrometry-Properties of air- Psychrometric Chart &
Psychrometric processes. Presentation by Participants.
Saturday Vapour mixtures. from Psychrometric
processes.
AET
ME 1201 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
SYLLABUS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO TOPICS PAGE NO

1 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 09
2 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 26
3 STEAM AND ITS PROPERTIES 38
4 IDEAL AND REAL GASES 51
5 PSYCHROMETRY 67
6 LECTURES BY PARTICIPANTS 77
7 TUTORIAL PROBLEMS 87
8 SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 102
9 DESCRIPTIVE PROBLEMS 104
10 DATA BOOK 107
UNIT I - FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
1.1 THERMODYNAMICS:
It can be defined as the science which deals with the relation between
heat, work and properties of the system.
P, V, T,
W
Q
(i). Use of Thermodynamics:
Designing work producing machine Heat engine, Steam engine, Gas turbine
Designing work Absorbing machine Refrigerator,Air compressor
No work transfer systems - boiler, condenser,furnace.
Where no work is transferred, the Thermodynamic problem involve the use of heat to
produce the change in state or the transfer of mass with a chemical reaction, as in the
combustion of a fuel.
(ii). System:
It can be defined as a definite quantity of matter, which is bounded by a closed

surface.
Boundary
system
Surrounding
(iii). Surroundings :
Anything other than a system are called surroundings
(iv). Closed system:

It is a system in which energy alone be transferred and not mass.
Q W
(v). Open system:

It is a system in which both energy and mas s transfer takes place.
m
W
Q
m
State of the system may be identified by the properties of the system such as pressure,
temperature and volume.
1.2 PROPERTY:
The parameter which gives the quality or condition of the system is knmown as
property.
Properties are classified as intensive and extensive properties
(i). Intensive property:
Property which does not depend upon mass of the system is Intensive
property
E.g. Pressure, Temperature, Thermal conductivity etc..,
(ii). Extensive Properties
Property which depends upon mass of the system is Extensive Properties

.
E.g. volume, mass, energy etc..,
1.3 ENERGY:
It can be defined as the ability to do work or the ability to produce an effect.
Energy
In storage In transition
Conduction
Mech energy Internal energy Work Heat Convection
Radiation
P.E K.E P.E K.E Shaft work Flow work Process work
(i). Mechanical Energy: M E
It is the energy in stored form, relative to other bodies.
Potential energy is the gravitational energy possessed by a body, with respect to

elevation above a reference plane.
P.E = mgz Nm
Kinetic energy is due to the motion of the body with respect to the earth surface.
K.E = mV2 Nm
M.E = mgz + mV2 (M.E stored within the system consisting of a body
some reference body)
(ii). Internal Energy:

It represents the energy associated with relative molecular translation, molecular
rotation, vibration, binding energy etc..,
U- total internal energy u = internal energy/unit mass
(iii). Potential Energy:

Potential Energy is the energy of storage required to maintain the molecules in their
position with respect to one another against the forces of mutual attraction and repletion.
Latent heat:
One form of potential energy (internal energy)

.Whenever a liquid is heated above its boiling point,
phase change takes place with out raise in temperature.
Here the heat added is stored as the internal potential
energy, by increasing the distance between the molecules.
This heat added during vapourisation is known as latent heat.
(iv). Kinetic Energy:
Kinetic Energy is the energy contained within the molecular system due to their
random motion. It varies with absolute temperature and is termed as sensible heat. Internal
energy is actually stored within the single body.
Sensible heat:
It is the energy required to raise the temperature.
1.4 ENERGY IN TRANSITION:
Work and Heat are two forms of energy that can be transmitted.
They are two mechanisms, transferring energy across boundaries of a system. They
are energy, done on the system or The energy done by the system.
(i). Work:
Work is said to be done if the system, undergoes a displacement due to the application
of a force.
W= FxL
The work is equal to the product of the force and the distance moved by the system in
the direction of the force.
1 Nm It is defined as the work done or energy transfered on the application of a

force of 1 N, over a distance 1 m.
Shaft work:
It is a measure of flow of energy through a rotating shaft of a machine
e.g. compressor, turbines, rotary pumps, fans etc.,
Flow work:
Flow work is meant for open system:
Flow work is the energy required to move
certain mass of fluid either in to or out of an
open system.
The movement of the piston is opposed by a force F.

F = p.A
where A is the area of the piston

L is displacement
Flow work W= F.L = p.A.L = pV [AL=V]
[Fluid enters work is done by the fluid, fluid leaves work is done on the fluid]
Work is not a property. But flow work is a property since p and V are properties
Process work:
Fluid expands work is done by the system
Fluid compresses work is done on the system
Work done by the fluid

12PdV
W =
Let the expansion follows a law pvn = c

P = c / pvn
Substituting for P and integrating
W = p1v1-p2v2/(n-1) x 1000
(ii). Heat :
It is defined as the energy transferred from one body to another by virtue of

temperature difference between the two bodies. The heat will flow from a higher temperature
region to a lower temperature region.
Heat transfer occurs in three ways:

(a). Conduction by molecular communications
(b). Convection molecular rotation of fluid particles.
(c). Radiation electromagnetic waves
Temperature difference is a measure of heat transfer.
1 K.J:
1 KJ is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water through 1 K at

standard atmospheric pressure.
1.5 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM:
(i) Thermal Equilibrium: There is no change in Temperature

(ii) Mechanical Equilibrium: There is no change in Pressure
(iii) Chemical Equilibrium: There is no change in chemical composition.
1.6. LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS:

(i). Zeroth Law of thermodynamics:
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium and a third body is in thermal equilibrium
with any one of the first two bodies, then it can be inferred that all the three bodies are in
thermal equilibrium.
(ii). First Law of Thermodynamics:

If any system is carried through a cycle then the summation of the work
delivered to the surroundings is proportional to the summation of the heat taken from the
surroundings.

dW

dQ

dW = J

dQ J is th proportionality constant known as the
mechanical
equivalent of heat = 1 KJ / KNm

dQ -

dW / J = 0

[ [dQ - dW / J] = 0
Path:
If a system passes through a series of state point then it is said to describe a path.
Process:
Whenever a state change occurs then the system is said to undergo a process
Cycle:
If a system starts from a particular thermodyanmic coordinate point, under goes
different process and once again comes back to its initial state points it is said to undergo a
cycle or thermodyanmic cycle
Corollary:
(a) Internal energy is a property.

Consider a system of two cycles 1 A 2 B 1 and 1 A 2 C 1
Applying first law to cycle I: 1 A 2 B 1
1A 2 [dQ-dW/J] + 2B1 [dQ-dW/J] = 0
1A 2 [dQ-dW/J] = - 2B1 [dQ-dW/J]
1A 2 [dQ-dW/J] = 1B 2 [dQ-dW] ---- (a)
Applying first law to cycle I: 1 A 2 C1

1A 2 [dQ-dW/J] + 2C1 [dQ-dW/J] = 0
1A 2 [dQ-dW/J] = - 2C1 [dQ-dW/J]
1A 2 [dQ-dW/J] = 1C 2 [dQ-dW] ---- (b)
From (a) & (b) we get 1A2 [dQ-dW/J] = 2 [dQ-dW] =

1B 1C 2 [dQ-dW]
The quantity [dQ-dW/J] is independent of the path.
Any quantity, independent of the path is known as property.
[dQ-dW/J] is a property.
But we have taken that [dQ-dW/J]= dU and U is the internal energy for the
given mass m. Therefore internal energy is a property.
(b) Law of conservation of Energy.
Energy can neither be created not destroyed if mass is conserved.
It is defined as the internal energy remains unchanged if the system is completely

isolated.
if Q=0 ; W = 0 then U =0
(c) Perpetual Motion Machine of I kind ( PMM I) is impossible.

It is imposible to construct an engine which produces work without taking heat from
the surrounding.
An engine which can produce work without taking heat from the surrounding is
known as PMM I. This is not possible.
1.7. NON FLOW PROCESSES:
Non flow processes is classified as
(1). Constant volume process Isocharic process

(2). Constant pressure process Isobaric process.
(3) Constant temperature process - Isothermal process
(4). Reversible adiabatic process Isentropic process
(5)). Polytropic process
(i). Constant Volume Process
V = C, dV = 0
dQ = dU+PdV/J
dQ = dU+PdV/J but dV = 0
dQ = dU
Integrating we get
Q12 = (U2-U1)
we know that for constant volume process
Q12 = mCv(T2-T1)
Cv - specific heat at constant volume = 0.713 KJ / Kg.K for air.
Q12 =(U2-U1) = mCv(T2-T1)

For constant volume process Work done = 0,Heat transfer = change in internal
energy.
(ii). Constant pressure Process
P=C
We know that
dQ = dU+PdV/J
Integrating we get
Q12 = U2 U1 + P [ V2 V1] / 1000

= [U2 + P2 V2 / 1000 ] - [ U1 + P1 V1 / 1000 ]
Q12 = H2 H1
H = U + PV / 1000
Enthalpy = Internal energy + Flow energy
But we know that for a constant pressure process

Q12 = m Cp (T2-T1)
Cp is specific heat at constant pressure. Cp =1KJ/Kg.K for air
Q12 = H2 H1 = m Cp (T2-T1)
W = P (V2 V1) / 1000
[U2 U1] = m Cv(T2-T1)
For constant pressure process heat transfer = change in enthalpy.
(iii). Relation between Cp, Cv and R / J
From constant pressure process
Q12 = U2 U1 + P [V2 V1]
m Cp (T2-T1) = m Cv(T2-T1) + m R(T2 T1) / J
Cp = C v + R / J
Cp - C v = R / J
(iv). Isothermal process,
dT = 0 , T2 = T1
we know that
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
P1V1 = P2V2 [ since T2=T1]
PV = C
Hence isothermal process is also called as Hyperbolic process.
We know that
dQ = dU+PdV/J
dQ = m Cv dT2+PdV/J
dQ =PdV/J [ since dT = 0]
Heat transfer = Work done
Work done = 12 P dV / J
PV = C
P=C/V
Substituting and integrating we get
W = P1V1 loge(V2/V1) / 1000
Q12 = W = P1V1 loge(V2/V1) / 1000
(v). Reversible Adiabatic Process
dQ = 0 , PV = C
We know that
dQ = dU+PdV/J
dU = -PdV/J [ since dQ = 0 ]
change in internal energy = - work done
change in internal energy [ U2 U1] = m Cv(T2-T1)
Workdone = 12 P dV / J
We know that PV = C
P = C / V
Substituting and integrating we get
W = P1V1 P2V2 / [ 1 ] x 1000
(vi). Relation between P ,V and T
P2/ P1 = [V1 / V2 ]
T2 / T1 = [ P2/ P1 ] ( -1 / )
T2 / T1 = [V1 / V2 ] -1
(vii). Polytropic Process
PVn = C
We know that
dQ = dU+PdV/J
integrating we get
Q12 = (U2-U1) + P1V1 P2V2 / [n 1 ]
= m Cv(T2-T1) + mR(T1-T2)/ [n 1 ]
= m Cv(T2-T1) - mR(T2-T1)/ [n 1 ]
= m Cv(T2-T1) m Cv ( 1) (T2-T1)/ [n 1]
= [ n- / n 1] m Cv(T2-T1)
Q12 = [ n- / n 1] U
W = P1V1 P2V2 / [n 1 ] x 1000
[ U2 U1] = m Cv(T2-T1)
(viii). Relation between P ,V and T

P2/ P1 = [V1 / V2 ] n
T2 / T1 = [ P2/ P1 ] (n -1 / n)
T2 / T1 = [V1 / V2 ] n-
z%J ehwh kyuida fwJ

czu Jiuah jh
UtSt
1.8 FLOW PROCESSES
Flow Process is meant for open system. It is one in which mass is entering the system.
If the mass entering is equal to the mass leaving then the process is said to be the steady flow
Process. If the mass entering is not equal to the mass leaving then it is said to be a non-
steady flow process.
(i). Steady Flow Energy Equation(SFEE) :
Consider a Control Volume as shown in the Figure. Assume that a steady flow occurs
across the control volume. Let m be the mass of the fliud entering and leaving the system.
Q is the heat supplied and W be the work delivered 1-1 is the inlet section. 2-2 is the
outlet section
u 1,
p1,v1,gz1,V12/2 1 2
u2,p2, v2,gz2,V22/2
2
Q
Section 11
u1 is the internal energy/ unit mass
P1v1 is the flow energy /unit mass
gz1 is the potential energy /unit mass
V12 /2 is the kinetic energy/unit mass
Section 22
u2 is the internal energy/ unit mass
P2v2 Flow energy/unit mass
gz2- Potential energy/unit mass

V22 /2 is the kinetic energy/unit mass
Energy entering =Energy leaving

The equation is
m[u1 + P1V1/J + V12/2J + gZ1/J] + Q = m[u2 + P2V2/J + V22/2J + gZ2/J] + W/J
m[h1 + (V12/2J) + gZ1/J] + Q = m[h2 + (V22/2cJ) + gZ2/J] + W/J
m[(h2-h1) + ( V22-V12)/2J + g(Z2-Z1)/J] = Q - W/J --------(a)
(ii). Application of Steady Flow Energy Equation
Case 1: Let KE = 0 ; PE = 0; W=0
From (a) we get

m(h2-h1) = Q
eg.: Boiler
Case 2: Let KE = 0 ; PE = 0; Q=0

From (a) we get
m(h1-h2) = W/J
eg: Turbine
Case 3: Let PE = 0; Q = 0; W=0

From (a) we get
(h1-h2) = ( V22-V12)/2J
eg: Nozzle
Case 4: Let KE = 0; PE = 0; Q = 0; W=0

From (a) we get
(h1-h2) = 0
h1 = h2
eg: Throttle Volve

Throttling process: It is process in which enthalpy remains constant
1 2
V1
V2 = V1 , h2 = h1 P V2
P1 2
consider a flow of fluid with steady mass of m through a duct as shown in fig.
net work is done as the fluid passes through the duct .Duct is well insulated so, that
there is no heat transfer. The high pressure fluid at pressure p1 pass through porous plug
and comes out at reduced pressure p2 V1= V2 as there is no heat transfer .
Essence of education
lies in drawing out the best in the students
Mahathma Gandhi
UNIT II - SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
2.1 LIMITATIONS OF FIRST LAW:

First Law gives only energy balance.
It does not mention anything about the direction of energy transfer
Thermal equipments can be identified only when the direction of energy transfer is
known
Second Law gives both energy balance and direction of energy transfer.
2.2 KELVIN PLANCK`S STATEMENT:

It is impossible to construct an engine that operating in a cycle will
produce no effect other then the extraction of heat from a single reservoir and performance of an equal
amount of work.
(i). Perpetual Motion Machine of II kind is impossible

A heat engine working in a complete cycle,
taking heat from a single reservoir and converting
it into work is known as a Perpetual Motion Machine
of II kind. This is not possible.
(ii). Heat engine
It is a device operating in a cycle which will deliver work by

transferring heat from a source to sink.
T1
Q1-Q2=W Q1
W
=(Q1-Q2)/ Q1
Q2
T2
T1 >T2
2.3 CLAUSIUS STATEMENT:

It is impossible to construct a device that operating in a cycle will produce no
effect other than the transfer of heat from a body at low temperature to a body at higher temperature.
(i). Refrigerator
It is a device operating in a cycle which will transfer heat from a
cold body to a hot body with some external work done. It is meant for
cooling down a system
T1
Q1=Q2+W
Q
W 1
COPR=Q2/ (Q1- Q2)
Q2
T2
T1 >T2
(ii). Heat pump
It is a device meant for heating a system
COPHP = Q1/ (Q1- Q2)
2.4. KELVIN PLANCK`S STATEMENT AND CLAUSIUS

STATEMENTS ARE ONE AND THE SAME.
Assume that Kelvin Plancks statement is not true. Let us consider an engine E1
working continuously with a single reservoir of temperature T1, transferring Q1 amount of
heat and delivering a work of W
From First law of thermodynamics :
Q1 = W ------------------(a)
Now let E2 be a device Which extracts Q amount of heat from a body at temperature
T2 and delivers heat of Q2 to the body of temperature T1 with a work intake of W.
From the first law of thermodynamics

Q - Q2 = - W
Q2 = Q + W ----------------(b)
Let us assume that the engine E1 and E2 are coupled such that both constitute a single
cyclic device that takes heat Q from the body at T2 and with no other effect carries heat (Q1
Q2) to the body at T1 > T2.
Q2 - Q1 = Q + W - Q1 = Q + Q1 - Q1 = Q ----------------(c)
This Proves that the above device is possible. That is heat Q is taken from a body of
T2 and the same heat Q is delivered to the body of temperature T1 >T2 with out any other
effect. This violates the Clausius statement.
We have assumed that the Kelvin planks statement is not true and proved that it
violates the Clausius statement. Hence both are same .
2.5 REVERSIBLE PROCESS :

A Reversible Processes for a system is defined as a process which once having taken
place, can be reversed and leaves no change in either the system or the surrounding
Quasi static process is a reversible process :

Any process which is not reversible is irreversible .
Any change in the system taking place with out any other external work or any
change in the surrounding is known as the natural process.
All natural or spontaneous processes are reversible processes.
All real and actual process are irreversible processes.
Reversible process can retrace its path in the opposite direction, so that working
medium passes through exactly the same condition as in the direct process.
(i). Reversible Process :

eg. Frictionless motion of solids.
Frictionless and fully resisted adiabatic or
isothermal expansion or compression.
Flow of electric current through zero resistance.
(ii). Irreversible process:

Flow of liquid from a higher level to a lower level,
Motion of solids with friction,
Flow of electric current through non zero resistance,
Heat transfer with a finite temperature diffrernce,
Mixing of two different substances,
Combustion of fuels
(iii).Carrolaries :
(a). Carnot Theorem :
It is impossible to construct an engine working between only two
reservoirs which will have a higher efficiency than a reversible engine operating
between the same two reservoirs.
CARNOT ENGINE :
ab Isothermal Expansion
bc Adiabatic Expansion
cd - Isothermal Compression
da Adiabatic Compression
Most ideal Engine .
(b). All the reversible engine will have same efficiency between the same two reservoirs
(c).Absolute Scale of Temperature
A Scale of Temperature which does not depend on the property of any substances is
known as an absolute scale of temperature
Work developed by each cycle

W = (Q1 - Q2 ) = (Q2 - Q3) = (Q3 - Q4)
1=(Q1-Q2/Q1)=(T1-T2/T1)------------------(a)
2= (Q2 - Q3/Q2) = (T2 - T3/T2)--------------(b)
(Q1 - Q2/ T1 - T2 ) = (Q1/T1),
(Q2 - Q3/ T2 - T3 ) = (Q2/T2)
Q1 /T1 = Q2 /T2 =Q3/ T3 --------------(c)

and (T1 - T2) = (T2 - T3) = (T3 - T4)
(d).Clausius inequality
Whenever a system under goes a cycle
(dQ/T) = 0 if the cycle is reversible and
(dQ/T) is (-ve) if the cycle irreversible.

i.e (dQ/T) 0 This known as Clausius inequality
(e). Entropy is a property:
Consider two reversible Cycles 1A2B1and 1A2C1
We know that for a reversible cycle.
(dQ/T) = 0
for the cycle 1A2B1
2 1
(dQ/T) + (dQ /T) =0

1A 2B
2 1 2
(dQ T) = - (dQ /T) = (dQ /T)-------------(a)

1A 2B 1B
for the cycle 1A2C1
2 1
(dQ /T) + (dQ /T) = 0

1A 2C
2 1
(dQ /T) = - (dQ /T)
1A 2C
2 2
(dQ /T) = (dQ /T) -------- ----(b)
1A 1C
from (a) and (b) we get,

2 2 2
(dQ /T) = (dQ /T) = (dQ /T) --------------(c)

1A 1B 1C
From (c) we find that the quantity (dQ/T) is independent of path. Any quantity,
which is independent of path is a property. Hence (dQ/T) is a property.
Let (dQ /T) = dS where S is entropy

Hence entropy is a property.
(f). Entropy:
It is thermodynamic property of working substance which increases with
addition of heat and decreases with reduction of heat.
2.6. CHANGE IN ENTROPY IN NON FLOW PROCESS:
(i). Constant volume process:

dV = 0, V = C
We know that for a constant volume process.
dQ = dU + dW/J
dQ = dU +PdV/J
dQ = dU [ dV= 0, W = 0]
dQ = m Cv dT
dQ /T = m Cv dT/T
dS = m Cv dT/T
Integrating we get ,
s2 s1 = mcv loge (T2/T1)
= mcv loge (p2/p1)
(ii). Constant pressure process.
For a constant pressure process
dQ = m Cp dT
dividing throught by T,
dQ/T = m Cp dT/T
dS = m Cp (dT/T)
[ S2 - S1 ] = m Cp log e (T2/T1)
= m Cp loge(V2/V1)
(iii). Isothermal process:

dT = 0, T2 = T1
we know that
dQ = dU +PdV/J
dQ = m Cv dT +PdV/J
dQ =PdV/J = m R TdV/JV
[ dT= 0, PV = m RT ]
dQ/T = m R dV / JV
dS = m R dV / JV
(S2 - S1 ) = m R log e (V2/V1)
= m R log e (P1/P2)
(iv). Reversible adiabatic process:
dQ = 0.
dQ/T = 0
dS = 0
S2 = S1
Entropy remains constant
Hence this process is also called as isentropic process
(v).Polytropic process:
PVn = C
We know that
dQ = dU + PdV/J
dQ = m Cv dT + PdV/J
dQ /T = m Cv dT/T +PdV/JT
dQ /T = m Cv dT/T +m R T dV/JTV
dS = m Cv dT/T +m R dV/JV
(S2 S1) = m Cv log e (T2 / T1) + m R log e ( V2/V1
2.7 CHANGE IN ENTROPY AS A FUNCTION OF P,V AND T

(S2 S1) = m Cv loge(T2/T1) + R log e( V2/V1) = f (T , V)
(S2 S1)) = m Cp loge(T2/T1) + R loge( P1/P2) = f (P , T)
(S2 S1) = m Cv loge (p2/p1) + m Cp loge V2/V1 = f (P , V)

Different Non Flow Process
iuJ bjhnfF Phy uJ

brhYj tyh bg
UtSt
2.8. AVAILABILITY :
Conversion of work to heat is possible. Conversion of heat to work fully is
impossible.
Energy of different forms or at different state may be quantitatively same. But
they may not be qualitatively same.
Example: Heat of 1 kg at 500 c ( high temp) and at 50c (low temp) are quantitatively
equal. But the work given by 1 kg of heat at 500 c will be more than the work given by 1
kg of heat at 50 c . hence they are not qualitatively equal.
Hence the grade or quality of the energy is determine by the portion of that
energy can be converted into useful work through ideal processes by reducing the system to
the state of equilibrium with the earth and atmosphere .(dead state P0,T0)
The state of equilibrium with the earth and atmosphere is called as dead state . at dead
state Pr= P0,Temp=T0.
(i). Grade of Energies :

a. Work top grade
b. Potential energy.
c. Kinetic energy
d. Electrical energy.
e. Heat energy- high temp..
1. low temp.
Losses due to friction and irreversibility may also occur during process.
(ii). Available Energy :

That part of an energy which can be converted into useful work by bringing the
system to dead state (P0,T0) is called as the available energy.
c =( Qs-QR)/ QS = (T1-T0)/T1
c= 1- QR/ Qs =1- T0/T1
The portion of the energy which is rejected to the surrounding

is called as the unavailable energy.
(iii). Heat withdrawn from infinite source :

Let Q amount of heat is supplied to a reversible engine from an infinite source
of temp T1. And the engine rejects a part of heat to the atmosphere at temp T0. [T1 is
constant since source is infinite.]
we know that for a reversible engine
= w/Q = T1 - T0/T1
W = Q [T1- T0/T1
= Q [1- T0/T1]
= Q Q (T0/T1)
=Q - S T0
=Q- T0[ S2 - S1]
W is the maximum work that can be extracted from Q amount of
heat energy at T1 by reducing it to dead state T0.
W = Q - T0 (S2 - S1) = available energy
Q - W = T0 (S2 - S1) = unavailable energy
(iv). Heat drawn from a finite source:

Let Q amount of heat is supplied to an engine
from a finite source of temperature T1. If heat is extracted
from a finite source its temperature will be going on
decreasing. Therefore T1 is not constant . Hence T-S diagram
is as shown in the figure.
Available energy W = Q - T0 (S2-S1)
W = 12 dQ - T0 (S2-S1)
Unavailable energy = T0 (S2-S1)
UNIT : III STEAM AND ITS PROPERTIES
3.1 FORMATION OF STEAM
Steam is a vapour of water, which acts as a perfect gas. Steam is used as working fluid
in steam engines and steam turbines.
If one kg of ice is heated at constant

pressure and the temperature of ice is less
than 0c, the temperature of the ice increased
to 0c from its initial temperature. Hence the heat
added is used to raise the temperature of ice
from lower value to 0c. This is denoted d
the line ab in the TH diagram. At the point b
there is no increase in temperature but heat
added during this region is utilized to melt
the ice to water. That is between b and c
phase change takespalce without
raise in temperature (that is solid phase
to liquid phase). Heat added in the region bc is known as heat of fusion or enthalpy
of fusion. From once again the temperature increase from 0c to a higher value.
That is temperature of water increase up to boiling point temperature. That is 100c (1 bar)
heat added during cd is known as sensible heat of water. During this time heat energy in
stored in the water in the kinetic energy form of internal energy. From d to e there is no raise
in temperature. Temperature remains constant. But water is converted into steam. That is
change of liquid phase to vapour phase takes place. Heat added during de is known as latent
heat of vapourisation or enthalpy of vapourisation. Latent heat of vapourisation is the heat
required to convert one kg water to steam at the constant pressure. The temperature at which
the vapourisation at which the vapourisation takespalce is known as the saturation
temperature. (100c at atmospheric pressure). At e whole of the water is evaporated to steam
and heat added beyond e increases the temperature of steam. The steam beyond the e is
known as super heated steam.
3.2 ENTAHALPY OF STEAM
Sensible heat- ab
Latent heat bc
Superheat cd
If the pressure is increased, step by step, the saturation temperature TS also increases
and hence the latent heat decreases. At the point c the latent heat is equal to zero. i.e., at c the
water is directly converted into superheated steam. At CP the density of water is equal to
density of steam. CP is known as the critical point .The pressure and temperature at CP are
known as critical pressure(PC=225.65 bar) and critical temperature (TC=374.15C)
respectively. acp is known as saturated liquid line and cpe is known as the dry saturated
vapour line .Region before the liquid line is known as liquid region .Region beyond the
saturated vapour line is superheated region. Region between the liquid and vapour line is
known the wet steam region. bc is wet steam region .In this region the steam is generated
but it contains both vapour molecules and liquid molecules at saturated temperature.
The heat in water at saturation temperature is known as enthalpy of water. Heat of
evaporation is known as latent heart . Heat of superheating is known as enthalpy of super heat
hf - enthalpy of water at saturation temperature per kg .

hfg - latent heat at saturation temperature per kg ( hf g =2257 kJ/kg. at 1 bar)
hg - enthalpy of dry saturated steam at saturation temperature per Kg..
From the figure:

The heat at the point c = ab + bc = hf + hf g
hg = hf + hf g . (3.1)
Between c and d superheating takes place. Superheated steam is produced. The superheated
steam will act as a perfect gas.
Heat in the region cd = m cps (Td TC)
= cps (Td TC ) / unit mass = cps ( TSUP-TS )
Where cps is the specific heat of steam at a constant pressure. cps = 2.25 KJ / kg
Heat at d = ab + bc + cd
= hf + hf g + cps ( TSUP-TS )
hsup = hg + cps ( TSUP-TS )..(3.2)
The wet steam consists of hot steam particles as well as water molecules at saturation
temperature. Therefore, the quality of wet steam is defined as the dryness fraction of the
steam and is denoted by x .
Dryness fraction is defined as the ratio of mass of dry vapour to the total mass of mixture.
`
X = mg / (mf + mg)
mf mass of the water molecules

mg - mass of vapour molecules
Enthalpy of wet steam h = (1-x) hf + x hg
h = hf -x hf + (hf +hf g) x
h = hf + x hf g (3.3)
3.3 STEAM TABLES:
P - absolute pressure in bar

T - Saturation temperature in c
vf - specific volume of saturated water in m/kg
vg - specific volume of saturated steam in m/kg
hf - sp.enthalpy of saturated liquid KJ/kg
hf g - latent heat of vapourisation in KJ/kg
hg sp. Enthalpy of saturated steam in kJ / kg
sf entropy of saturated liquid KJ/ kg k
sg- entropy of saturated steam KJ / kg k
P T Specific.volume Enthalpy Entropy

bar C m3 / Kg KJ / Kg KJ / Kg.K
vf vg hf hf g hg Sf Sg
3.4 PROPERTIES OF STEAM:

(a).SPECIFIC VOLUME
vg Specific volume of saturated steam
g =1/ vg
(i) Specific volume of wet staem
v = (1x) vf +x vg
X dryness fraction of steam,
Where vf - is the Specific volume of saturated liquid in m/kg
But vf is very very small when compared with Vg at low pressure.
Therefore vf is neglected.
v = x vg
=1 / v = 1/ x Vg
(ii) Specific volume of super heated steam: ( vsup)
We know that superheated steam act as perfect gas.
( P sup v sup / T sup ) = ( P sv s / T s )
v sup = ( T sup / Ts ) vg [ P s u p = Ps constant pressure process ]

[vs = vg = Specific volume of dry steam]
SUP = 1/ v sup
(b) INTERNAL ENERGY:
We know that H = U + PV/ J

h = u +pv /J / unit mass
u = [ h - pv / J ] = [ h - pv ] [ J = 1Nm/ J ]
(i) Internal energy of wet steam:

u = [ h pv / J ]
u = [ (hf + xhfg ) p x vg / J ]
(ii) Internal energy of dry steam :

u g = [ hg pvg / J ]
u g = [( h f + h fg ) pv g/J ]
(iii) Internal energy of superheated steam:
u sup = [ h sup p v sup / J]
u sup = { [ hg + c ps (T sup-Ts) pv sup / J ] } where v sup = (T sup /T s) v g
(c) Entropy:
s = Cpw loge (T2/T1) = Cpw loge (Ts/273)
[ 0C Datum and Saturated Temperature is maximum]
Entropy of Saturated Water s f = Cpw log e (Ts /273) Cpw = 4.18 KJ / Kg.K
Entropy of Evaporation s fg = hfg/Ts
(i) Entropy of Wet Steam
s = s f +x X Sfg
s= [Cp Loge (Ts/273) +xhfg /Ts)
w
(ii) Entropy of Dry Steam:

s g = [Cpw loge(Ts/273)+(hfg /Ts)
(iii) Entropy of Super Heated Steam:
Ssu p= [Sg +Cps loge (Tsup/Ts)]
3.5 STEAM PROCESS:
(i) Constant Volume Process:
v1=v2
Wet Steam at Pressure P1 and Dryness
Fraction X1 is heated at constant volume
to get superheated steam at pressure P2
X1Vg1 = X2Vg2 if X2< 1 Wet Steam
X2 = (X1Vg1 /Vg2) X2 = 1 Dry Steam
X2 > 1 Super Heated Steam
Condition 1: Dryness fraction X1
h1 = hf1 + x1 hfg1
u1 = h1 p1v1 = (h 1 p1x1v g1 )
s1= [Cw1loge(Ts1/273)+(x1hfg1/Ts1)
Condition 2: Superheated Steam:
h2 = hsup = (hg2 + Cps ( TSUP-Ts2 )
X1Vg1 = Vsup
Vsup = Vg2 (TSUP/Ts2)
u2 = [ h 2 p2 v2] = [ h sup p2 vsup]
S2 = [ sg2 + cs loge(TSUP/Ts)]
u = (u2-u1)
h = (h2-h1)
s = (s2-s1)
W=0
(ii) Constant Pressure Process:

P1=P2 = P
Wet steam at pressure P1 and dryness fraction X1
is heated at constant pressure to get superheated
steam at condition -2
Condition 1: Wet Steam

h1 = hf1 +x1 hfg1
u1 = [ h 1 p1 x1vg1 ]
s1 = Sf1 + x1 Sfg1
u = (u2-u1) ; h = (h2-h1)
s = (s2-s1)
Condition 2: Superheated Steam:
h2 = hsup = hg2+Cps(Tsup-Ts2)
u2 = h2 p2v sup
s2= sg2+Cps log e (Tsup/Ts2)
Work done :
W = [p2v2-p1v1]
W = p(v2-v1)= p(vsup-x1vg1)
u = (u2-u1)
h = ( h2-h1 )
s = ( s2-s1 )
(iii) Isothermal process :

T1=T2=T pv=c p1x1vg1= p2x2vg2
Wet steam at pressure p1 and dryness
fraction x1 is heated at constant temperature to get super heated steam at pressure p2.
In the wet region constant pressure line and
constant temperature line coincides. i.e In the
wet region isothermal processes is same as
the constant pressure process. In the super
heated region the curve follows the law pv=c
and during this region the process is known
as hyperbolic process.
Condition 1: Wet steam: x1 Condition 2: Super heated steam

h1 = hf1+x1hfg1 h2 = hsup= hg2+Cps(Tsup-Ts2)
u1= h1-p1x1vg1 u2 = [h2 - p2vsup]
s1= [sf1+x1hfg1/Ts1] s2 = [sg2 + Cps log e Tsup/Ts2]
h= (h2-h1)
u = (u2-u1)
s = (s2-s1)
Work done W = W10 + W 02
= P1 ( v0 v1 ) + P0 v0loge ( v2 / v0 )
(iv) Reversible Adiabatic Process (or) Isentropic process
dQ= 0 ; dS=0 ; pv = c
Super heated steam at pressure p1 is expanded

isentropically to a pressure p2 . let the steam be
at wet condition with dryness fraction x2 after
expansion. Let T1 is the temperature of the steam at initial
condition.
s1=ssup= [sg1+Cps log e (Tsup/Ts1)] [ T1=Tsup]
s2= [sf2+x2hfg2/Ts2]
But s1=s2 [isentropic process]
[sg1+Cps log e (Tsup/Ts1)] = [sf2+x2hfg2/Ts2]
we know that
p1v1 = p2v2
(v2/v1) = (p1/p2)
v2/v1 = (p1/p2) 1/
x2vg2 / vsup = (p1/p2) 1/
X2 Can be calculated
condition 1: Super heated steam:
h1=[hg1+cps(Tsup-Ts1)]
u1=[h1-p1vsup] for super heated steam
s1= [sg1+cpsloge Tsup/Ts1] = 1.33
cps = 2.25 kJ/kg K
Condition 2: Wet steam:
h2 = [ hf2 + x2 hfg2]
u2 = [ h2 - p2x2vg2]
s2 = [sf2 + x2hfg2 /Ts2]
u= (u1-u2) ;
h = (h1-h2)
Work done: W = (p1v1-p2v2) / (-1) ( = 1.33 for super heated steam)

W = (p1vsup - p2x2vg2) / (-1)
(v) Polytropic process: pv n = C

P1v1n = p2v2n
Super heated steam at pressure P1 and temperature.
T1 is expanded polytropically to pressure P2 and
temperature T2.
P1(x1vg1)n = p2(x2vg2)n
P1vsupn = p2(x2vg2)n
(x2vg2)n/vsupn = (p1/p2)
x2vg2/vsup = (p1/p2)1/n
x2 = (vsup/vg2)(p1/p2)1/n
Condition :1 superheated: Condition2 : wet steam:
h1 = hg1+cs(Tsup-Ts1) h2 = hf2+x2hfg2
u1 = (h1-p1vsup) u2 = (h2-p2x2vg2)
s1 = [sg1+csloge(tsup-ts1) S2 = [sf2+x2hfg2/ts2]
u = (u1-u2)
h = h1-h2)
s = s1-s2
Workdone:
W = p1v1-p2v2 /(n-1)
W = (p1vsup p2x2vg2)/(n-1)
dQ = du+pdv
Heat transferred Q = (u1-u2) +W
= (h1-p1vsup) - (h2-p2x2vg2) + (p1vsup-p2x2vg2) / (n-1)
3.6 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES

(i) RANKINE CYCLE
Rankine cycle is used in steam power plants
B - Boiler
T Steam turbine
C Condenser
P Pump
1 2: Isentropic Expansion
2 3: Condensation
3 4: Pumping
4 5: Sensible Heating
5 1: Evaporation and Super heating.
R = [( h1 h2 ) wp ] / [( h1 h f 3 ) wp ]
wp = pump work v f 3 x ( P1 P2)

h1 = enthalpy of steam entering the turbine.
h2 = enthalpy of steam leaving the turbine.
H f 3 = enthalpy of water corresponding to condenser pressure P2.
V f 3 = specific volume of water corresponding to condenser pressure P2.
P1 = Boiler pressure in N / m2.
P2 = Condenser pressure in N / m2.
Pump work wp is very very small when compared with turbine wT. Therefore
wP can be neglected for all practical purposes.
Therefore R = ( h1 h2 ) / ( h1 h f 3 )
(ii). REHEAT CYCLE

Reheat cycle is used to improve the dryness fraction of the steam at the later stages of
expansion in turbine so that the condensation of the steam in the turbine can be prevented and
the corrosion problem is solved.
Heating this steam in between the stages using waste heat available in the outgoing flue
gas is known as reheating. Reheating also improves the cycle efficiency
The efficiency of the reheat cycle is given by,
RH = ( ( h1 h2 ) + ( h3 h4 ) ) / ( ( h1 h f 5 ) + ( h3 h2) )
h1 = enthalpy of steam entering LPT

h2 = enthalpy of the steam leaving the LPT
h3 = Enthalpy of steam entering HPT
h4 = Enthalpy of steam leaving HPT
h f 5 = Enthalpy of water corresponding to condenser pressure P4
UNIT IV- IDEAL AND REAL GASES
4.1 EQUATION OF STATE
Any equation that relates the pressure, Temperature and specific volume of a
substance is called an equation of state.
Pv = RT (or) Pv = mRT ----------------------------------- 4.1
Where the constant of proportionality R is called the gas constant.

Equation 4.1 is called the ideal- equation of state, and a gas that obeys the relation is called an
ideal gas. In this equation P is the absolute pressure T is the absolute Temperature and v is the
specific volume.
The gas constant R is different for each gas and is determined from
R= Ru/M [KJ/ (Kg .K) or KPa.m3 / (Kg.K)] ----------4.2
Where Ru is the Universal gas constant and M is the molar mass or molecular weight of the
gas. The constant Ru is the same for all substances, and its value is
Ru=8.314 KJ / (K mol.K) --------------------------------4.3
The molecular weight or molar mass M can simply be defined as the mass of one K.Mol in
Kg. When the molar mass of Nitrogen is 28, it simply means the mass of one K.mol of
Nitrogen is 28 Kg. i.e. M = 28 Kg/K.mol. The mass of a system is equal to the product of its
molar mass M and the mole number N:
m = MN (Kg) ------------------------------------------------4.4
An ideal gas is an imaginary substance that obeys the relation Pv=RT.

In the range of practical interest, many familiar gases such as air, Nitrogen, oxygen,
Hydrogen, Helium, argon, Neon, Krypton and even heavier gases such as Carbon di oxide
can be treated as ideal gases. Dense gases such as water vapour in steam power plants and
refrigerant vapour in refrigerator should not be treated as ideal gases.
4.1.2 COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR & CHART
The ideal gas equation is very very simple and thus very convenient to use. This
deviation from ideal gas behavior at a given temp and pressure can accurately be accounted
for by the introduction of a correction factor called the compressibility factor Z. It is defined
as
Pv = ZRT----------------------------------------------------------4.5
It can also be expressed as
Z= V actual / V ideal--------------------------------------------4.6
Where V ideal = RT / P. obviously, Z= 1 for ideal gases. For real gases Z can be greater than
or less than unity.
Gases follow the ideal gas equation closely at low pressures and high temperatures. But
what exactly constitutes low pressure or high temperature Is 100C at low temperature? it
definitely is for most substances, but not for air. Air ( or Nitrogen ) can be treated as an ideal
gas at this temperature and atmospheric pressure with an error under 1 %.This is because
Nitrogen is well over its critical temperature ( - 147C) and away from the saturation region.
But at this temperature & pressure, most substances would exist in the solid phase. Therefore
the pressure or temp of a substance is high or low relative to its critical temperature or
pressure.
Gas behave differently at a given temperature and pressure, but they behave very much the
same at temperatures and pressures normalized with respect to their critical temperatures and
pressures. The normalization is done as
Pr = P/P.cr and Tr = T / T cr. --------------------------------4.7

Here Pr is called the reduced the pressure and Tr the reduced temperature. The Z factor for all
gases is approximately the same at the same reduced pressure and Temperature. In fig 4.2 the
experimentally determined Z values are plotted against Pr and Tr for several gases.
The following observations can be made from the compressibility chart:
At very low pressures (Pr < 1), the gases behave as an ideal gas regardless of
temperature.
At high temperature ( Tr > 2) , ideal gas behavior can be assumed with good accuracy
regardless of pressure ( except when Pr > 1)
The deviation of a gas from ideal gas behavior is greatest in the vicinity of the critical
point.
4.1.3 VANDER WAALLS EQUATION OF STATE
The Vander Waals equation of state has two constant that are determined from the
behavior of a substance at the critical point. The vander waalls equations of state is given by
(P + a/v2) x (v-b) = RT----------------------------4.8
Vander Waalls intended to improve the ideal gas equation of state by including two of the
effects not considered in the ideal gas model the inter molecular attraction forces and the
volume occupied by the molecules themselves.the term a / v2 accounts for the inter molecular
attraction forces , and b accounts for the volume occupied by the gas molecules. In a room at
atmospheric pressure and Temperature, the volume actually occupied by molecules is only
about one thousandth of the volume of the room. As the pressure increases, the volume
occupied by the molecules becomes and increasingly significant part of the total volume.
Vander Waalls proposed to correct this by replacing v in the ideal gas relation with the
quantity v b, where b represents the volume occupied by the gas molecules per unit mass.
a=27xR2 x Tcr2 / (64x Pcr) and b= R x Tcr/ (8 x Pcr) -------4.9
The constants a and b can be determined for any substance from the critical point data alone.
4.2 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY RELATIONS
Some properties such as Temperature, pressure, volume and mass can be measured
directly. other properties such as density and specific volume can be determined from these
using some simple relations but properties such as internal energy, enthalpy and entropy are
not so easy to determine because they cannot be measured directly or related to easily
measurable properties through some simple relations between commonly encountered
thermodynamic properties and express the properties that cannot be measured directly in
terms of easily measurable properties.
Maxwell relations, which form the basis for many thermodynamic relations are developed
next the Clapeyron equation, which enables us to determine the enthalpy of vaporization from
P, v and T measurements alone. The Joule Thomson co efficient, which is a measure of the
Temperature change with pressure during a throttling process, is discussed.
4.2.1 THE MAX WELL RELATIONS
The equations that relate the partial derivatives of properties p, v, T & s of a simple
compressible system to each other are called the Max well relations. They are obtained from
the four Gibbs equations by exploiting the exactness of the differentials of thermodynamic
properties.
Two of the Gibbs relations are expressed as
du = T ds P dv--------------------------4.9
dh = T ds + v dP--------------------------4.10
The other two Gibbs relations are based on two new combination properties the Helm Holtz
function a and the Gibbs function g, defined as
a = u Ts-------------4.11
g = h Ts--------------4.12
differentiating, we get
da = du T ds s dT
dg = dh T ds s dT
Simplifying the above relations by using equations 4.9 & 4.10 the other two Gibbs
relations for simple compressible system are obtained
da = - s dT pdv ----------------4.13
dg = - s dT + v dP ---------------4.14
A careful examination of the four Gibbs relations reveals that they are of the form
dz = M dx + N dy--------------4.15
Wi th (M / y) x = (N /x) y -------------4.16
Since u, h, a and g are properties and thus have exact differentials. Applying the relation
(M / y) x = ( N /x) y to each of them,
(T/ v)s = -( P /s)v------------4.17

(T / P)s= ( v /s)P-------------4.18
(s / v)T = ( P /T)v------------4.19
(s / P)T = ( v /T)P------------4.20
These are called the Max well relations. they are extremely valuable in
thermodynamics because they provide a means of determining the change in entropy, which
cannot be measured directly, by simply measuring the changes in properties P, v and T.Note
that the Maxwell relations given above are limited to simple compressible systems.How ever
other similar relations can be written just as easily for non simple systems such as those
involving electrical, magnetic, and other effects.
4.2.2 THE CLAPEYRON EQUATION
The Maxwell relations have far- reaching implications in thermodynamics and are
frequently used to derive useful thermodynamic relations. The Clapeyron equation is one
such relation, and it enables us to determine the enthalpy change associated with a phase
change (such as the enthalpy of vaporization hfg) from knowledge of P, v and T data alone.
Consider the third Maxwell relation 4.19
(P/ T)v = ( s /v)T

During a phase change process, the pressure is the saturation pressure which depends on the
temperature only and is independent of the specific volume. i.e. Psat = f (T sat). Therefore the
partial derivative (P/ T) v can be expressed as a total derivative (dP/ dT) sat, which
is the slope of the saturation curve on a P-T diagram at a specified saturation state. This slope
is independent of the specific volume and thus it can be treated as a constant during the
integration of equation 4.19 between two saturation states at the same temperature. For an iso
thermal liquid vapour phase- change process, for eg.the integration yields.
Sg Sf = (dP / dT) sat (Vg Vf) -----------4.21

or
dP / dT sat = S f g / V f g ------------4.22
During this process the pressure also remains constant. Therefore from the previous eqns
g g
dh= T ds + v dP -------------> dh = T ds ----------------> h f g = T S f g
f f
Substituting this result into equation 4.22
(dP / dT)sat= h f g / T Vf g--------------------------4.23
Which is called the Clapeyron equation. This is an important thermodynamic relation since it
enables us to determine the enthalpy of vaporization hfg at a given temperature by simply
measuring the slope of the saturation curve on a P T diagram and the specific volume of
saturated liquid and saturated vapour at the given temperature.
4.3.1 THE JOULE THOMSON COEFFICIENT
When a fluid passes through a restriction such as a porous plug, a capillary tube, or an
ordinary valve, its pressure decrease. The enthalpy of the fluid remains approximately
constant during such a throttling process. A fluid may experience a large drop in its
temperature as a result of throttling, which forms the basis of operation for refrigerators and
air conditioners. This is not always the case, however. The temperature of the fluid may
remain unchanged, or it may even increase during a throttling
The temperature behavior of a fluid during a throttling (h= constant) process is described by
the Joule- Thomson co.eff. defined as
= (T/ P) h
Thus the Joule- Thomson co.eff. is a measure of the change in temperature with pressure
during a constant - enthalpy processes. Notice that if
< 0 temperature increases.
JT = 0 temperature remains constant
> 0 temperature decreases.
during a throttling process.
A careful look at its defining equation reveals that the Joule- Thomson co.eff
represents the slope of h = constant lines on a T P diagram. Such diagrams can be easily
constructed from temperature and pressure measurements alone during throttling processes. A
fluid at a fixed temperature and pressure T1 and P1 is forced to flow through a porous plug,
and its temperature and pressure down stream (T2 & P2) are measured. the experiment is
repeated for different sizes of porous plugs, each giving a difference set of T 2 & P2.plotting
the temperatures against the pressures gives as an h = constant line on a T P diagram as
shown in fig 4.5. Repeating the experiments for different sets of inlet pressure and
temperature and plotting the results, we can construct a T-P diagram for a substance with
several h = constant line.
Some constant enthalpy lines on the T P diagram pass through a point of 0 slope
or zero Joule- Thomson co.eff. The line that passes through these points is called the
inversion line and the temperature at a point where a constant - enthalpy line intersects the
inversion line is called the inversion temperature. The temperature at the intersection of the P
= 0 line (ordinate) and the upper part of the inversion line is called the maximum inversion
temperature notice that the slopes of the h = constant lines are negative ( JT < 0) at states to
the right of the inversion line and positive (JT > 0) to the left of inversion line.
At a throttling process proceeds along a constant enthalpy line in the direction of decreasing
pressure, that is from right to left. Therefore, the temperature of a fluid will increase during
throttling processes that takes place on the right - hand side of the inversion line. However
the fluid temperature will decrease during a throttling process that takes place on the left hand
side is the inversion line. It is clear from this diagram that a cooling effect cannot be achieved
by throttling unless the fluid is below its maximum inversion temperature. This presents a
problem for substances whose maximum inversion temperature is well below room
temperature. For hydrogen, for e.g. the maximum inversion temperature is -68C. Thus
hydrogen must be cooled below this temperature if any further cooling is to be achieved by
throttling. A general relation for the Joule- Thomson co.eff .interms of the specific heats,
pressure, specific volume and temperature developed. This is easily accomplished by
modifying the generalized relation for enthalpy change.
dh = (h/ T)p x dT + ( h /p)T x dp

= Cp dT + (h /p) T x dp
dh = Cp dT + [v-T- x ( v /T) ] x dp
For a h = constant process we have dh = 0.then this equation can be re-arranged to give
1/Cp [v Tx(v/ T)p] = (T/ P) = JT-----------------4.25

which is the desired relation. Thus the Joule- Thomson coefficient can be determined from
knowledge of the constant pressure specific heat and the P V T behavior of the
substance.
JOULE- THOMSON CO.EFF OF AN IDEAL GAS:
Show that the Joule- Thomson coefficient of an ideal gas is zero.

Solution: for an ideal gas v = RT/P, and thus
( v /T) p = R / P
Substituting this into eqns 4.25 yields
JT = -1/C [v T x (v/ T) ] = 1 / C [v T x R /P] = 0

p p p
This result is not surprising since the enthalpy of an ideal gas is a function of temperature
only, h=h (T), which requires that the temperature remains constant when the enthalpy
remains constant. Therefore a throttling process cannot be used to lower the temperature of an
ideal gas.
NOMENCLATURE
Pi ---- Component pressure

mi---- mass of Component
mm---- mass of mixture
mfi ---- mi/mm ---------- mass fraction of component
Ni---- mole number of component
Nm---- mole number of mixture
Yi---- Ni/Nm----- mole fraction
Suffix
m----- Gas mixture
i------ Single component of the mixture
Ru----- universal gas constant
m----- Molar mass
pi----- component pressure
vi----- Component volume
pm---- mixture pressure

Tm---- mixture temperature
4.3. GAS MIXTURE
In many thermodynamic systems that involve a single pure substance such as water,
refrigerant-134a, or Nitrogen. Many important thermodynamic applications, however,
involve mixtures of several pure substances rather than a single pure substance. Therefore, it
is important to develop an understanding of mixtures and learn how to handle them.
In this chapter we deal with no reacting gas mixtures. A no reacting gas mixture can be
treated as a pure substance since it is usually a homogeneous mixture of different gases. The
properties of a gas mixture obviously will depend on the properties of the individual gases
(called components or constituents) as well as on the amount of each gas in the mixture.
4.3.1 MASS AND MOLE FRACTION
The properties of a gas mixture, is determined from the composition of the mixture as
well as the properties of the individual components. There are two ways to describe the
composition of a mixture; either by specifying the number of moles of each component,
called molar analysis, or by specifying the mass of each component, called gravimetric
analysis.
Consider a gas mixture composed of k components. The mass of the mixture m m is the
sum of the masses of the individual components, and the mole number of the mixture Nm is
the sum of the mole numbers of the individual components.
mm =
k
m f and Nm = k Ni-----------4.26
i=1 i=1
The ratio of the mass of a component to the mass of the mixture is called the mass
fraction (mf), and the ratio of the mole number of a component to the mole number of a
component to the mole number of the mixture is called the mole fraction y:
m =m /mfi i m and yi = Ni / Nm --------4.27
Dividing eqn 4.26 by m m or eqn 4.27 by N m which gives the sum of the mass fraction or
mole fractions for a mixture is equal to 1
K k
mfi =1 and Yi =1 --------4.28

i=1 i=1
The mass of the substance can be expressed in terms of the mole number N and molar mass
M of the substance as
m = NM [Kg]
Then the average molar mass of a mixture can be expressed as
Mm = m / Nm = m / N
m i m =( Ni Mi) / Nm = i=1 k
Yi,M f i-------4.29
Then the average gas constant of the mixture can be determined from
Rm = R u / M m ------ 4.30
4.3.2 P V T BEHAVIOUR OF GAS MIXTURES
IDEAL AND REAL GASES
The P- T behavior of an ideal gas is expressed by the simple relation Pv = RT, which is
called the ideal gas equation of state. The P V T behavior of real gases is expressed by
more complex equations of state or by P V = ZRT, where z is the compressibility factor.
The prediction of the P v - T behavior of gas mixture is usually based on two models:
Daltons law of additive pressures and Amagats law of additive volumes. Both models are
described and discussed below.
Daltons law of additive pressures: the pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the
pressures each gas would exert if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and volume. (fig
4.6)
Amagats law of additive volumes: the volume of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the
volumes each gas would occupy if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and pressure.
[Fig 4.7]
Daltons law and Amagats law be expressed as follows:

Daltons law:
k
P m = P (Ti m. V m) -----------------------------4.31
i=1
Amagats law:
k
V m = V
i (Tm.Pm) ------------------------------4.32
i=1
In these relations, P i is called the component pressure and V i is called the component
volume. Note that Vi is the volume a component would occupy if it existed alone at T m and
Pm, no the actual volume occupied by the component in the mixture (In a vessel that holds a
gas mixture, each component fills the entire volume of the vessel ). Also, the ratio P i/Pm is
called the pressure fraction and the ratio Vi/Vm is called the volume fraction of component i.
For ideal gases, P i and Vi can be related to Yi by using the ideal-gas relation for both the
components and the gas mixtures:
P (T .V ) /P
i m m m = ((Ni x Ru x Tm)/Vm)/ (NmRuTm/Vm) = Ni/Nm= Yi
Vi(Tm, Pm)/Vm = (NiRuTm/Pm)/ (NmRuTm/Pm) = Ni/Nm = Yi
Therefore,
Pi/Pm = Vi/Vm = Ni / Nm=Yi---------------------------------4.3.3
Eqns 4.3.3 is strictly valid for ideal gas mixtures since it is derived by assuming ideal- gas
behavior for the gas mixture and each of its components. The quantity y, P m is called the
partial pressure and the quantity Yi, Vm is called the partial volume. Note that for an ideal gas
mixture the mole fraction, the pressure fraction and the volume fraction of a component are
identical.
The composition of an ideal gas mixture is frequently determined by a volumetric

analysis .A sample gas at a known volume, pressure and temperature is passed into a vessel
containing reagents that absorb one of the gases. The volume of the remaining gas is then
measured at the original pressure and temperature. The ratio of the reduction in volume to the
original volume represents the mole fraction of that particular gas.
REAL GAS MIXTURES

Daltons law of additives pressure and Amagats law of additive volumes can also be
used for real gases, often with reasonable accuracy. This time, however, the component
pressure or component volume should be evaluated from relations that take into account the
deviation of each component from ideal-gas behavior. One way of doing that is to use more
exact equations of state instead of the ideal-gas equations of state. Another way is to use the
compressibility factor.
PV=ZNRuT------------------------4.34
The compressibility factor of the mixture Zm can be expressed in terms of the
compressibility factor of the individual gases Zi by applying eqn 4.34 to both sides of
Daltons law or Amagats law expression and simplifying. We obtain
Zm = Yi Zi ---------------------------------------------4.35
i=1
Where Zi is determined either at Tm and Vm (Daltons law) or at Tm and Pm (Amagats

law) for each individual gas.
4.3.3 ENERGY PROPERTIES OF GAS MIXTURES
The extensive properties of gas mixtures: just add the contribution of each component of the
mixture. The total internal energy, enthalpy and entropy of a gas mixture can be expressed as
k k
Um = Ui = miui
i=1 i=1
k k
Hm = Hi = mihi
i=1 i=1
k k
Sm = Si = miSi
i=1 i=1
By following a similar logic, the changes in internal energy enthalpy and entropy of a gas
mixture can be expressed as
k k
Um = Ui = miui
i=1 i=1
k k
Hm = Hi = mihi
i=1 i=1
k k
SM = Si = miSi [ KJ/Kg]
i=1 i=1
The internal energy, enthalpy and entropy of a gas mixture per unit mass or per unit mole of
the mixture can be determined by dividing the equations above by the mass or the mole
number of the mixture [mm or Nm]
k
um = mfi Ui
i=1
k
hm = mfi hi
i=1
k
Sm = mfi Si
i=1
Similarly, the specific heats of a gas mixture can be expressed as
k
Cv,m = mfi Cv,i
i=1
k
Cp,m = mfiCp,i
i=1
Notice that properties per unit mass involve mass fractions (mfi) and properties per
unit mole involve mole fractions (Yi) The entropy change of individual gases in an
ideal gas mixture during a process can be determined from
Si = Cp,i x ln Ti.2/Ti,1 Ri x ln Pi,2/Pi,1
Where Pi, 2 = Y i, 2 Pm, 2 and Pi, 1 = Yi, 1 P m, 1
Rm is an apparent gas constant for the gas mixture on a mass basis and is defined as
Rm = Ru / Mm
Where Ru is Universal gas constant,
Mm is apparent molar mass.
UNIT: V- PSYCHROMETRY
5.1 PSYCHROMETRY AND AIR COMPOSITION
It deals with the state of atmosphere with respect to moisture content. On the other
hand psychometrics deals with the thermal properties of air and the control and measurement
s of the moisture content in air in addition to study the effects of atmospheric moisture on
commodities and the human comforts.
5.2 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
(i). Dry bulb temperature,Tdb: The actual temperature of gas or mixture of gases indicated
by an error-free temperature measuring device.
(ii). Wet bulb temperature, Twb: It is the temperature obtained by an accurate thermometer
having a wick moistened with distilled water and the air stream across the wet bulb flows
with a velocity of 270m/min, (4.5 m/s)
(iii). Dew point temperature, Tdp : It is the temperature at which the liquid droplets just
appear when the moist air is cooled continuously.
(iv). Absolute humidity: It is the amount of water vapour per unit volume of the gas.
(v). Humidity Ratio: It is also called the specific humidity. It is defined as the amount of
water vapour in the moist air per unit mass of the dry air in a given volume V of the moist air,
it is written as:
mv =pv V/ (Rv T)
And the mass of the air is
ma =(p-pv)V /(RaT)
Where p is the total pressure of the moist air.
Then as per definition:
W =mv/ma
(vi). Relative humidity, : It is the ratio of the actual partial pressure of water vapour in the
moist air to the saturation pressure of water vapour corresponding to the dry-bulb
temperature, i.e.,
Existing partial pressure of water vapour, Pv

= -----------------------------------------------------
The saturation pressure of pure water vapour at the same
temperature, Pvs
(vii). Saturated air:
A mixture of dry air and water vapour in which the patial pressure of the vapour is
equal to saturation pressure of water at temperature of the mixture, is called saturated air.
(viii). Degree of saturation, :

It is defined as a ratio of the mass of the water vapour at a given temperature
associated with the unit mass of dry air to the mass of the water vapour associated with the
unit weight of saturated air at same temperature.
=mv/mvs
5.3 PSYCHROMETERS
Psychrometers are used to measure the dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature,
specific humidity, relative humidity, dew point temperature, etc.,
(i). Ordinary psychrometer:

It contains of dry and wet bulb thermometers. They contain either mercury or alcohol
having red colour. Both of them are mounted on a suitable plate having arrangement for the
continuous supply of distilled water to keep the wick wet bulb thermometer. The
psychrometer is hung over the locality where the dry and wet bulb temperatures are to be
obtained. The results are found to be approximate and are not suitable for accurate
predictions. The accuracy of the wet bulb temperatures depends upon the air speed across the
wet bulb and the accuracy of the thermometer.futher, the dry and wet bulb thermometers
should be separated from each other to prevent heat exchange. Whatever care is taken, in
absence of approximate air velocity control over the wet bulb, errors are bound to be
incurred. Better results can be obtained by using a sling psychrometer.
(ii). Modified psychrometers:

The modified psychrometers are provided with some sort of blower to create air
velocity of around 270m/min across the wet bulb. In this instrument the air velocity across
the wick is controlled by varying the speed of the blower. The depression in wet bulb
thermometer and the monometric reading for the determination of air velocity are obtained.
thus ,it is seen that the wet bulb temperature reaches a minimum value at about 270m/min
.after that its value remains almost conatant.this device can also be used to measure the wet
bulb temperature inside a duct, i.e., the duct air has to be sucked and passed over the dry and
wet bulb thermometers. The instrument was fabricated at IIT Kanpur to measure the wet and
dry bulb temperatures at four points inside a duct. It has also been used by the undergraduate
students to demonstrate the minimum velocity of air across the wick should be around
270m/min.another but much simpler psychrometer was fabricated using cromelalumel
thermocouple. It consists of a glass tube with an arrangement of measure the air velocity
across the wick. The rest parts are self explanatory.
(iii). Relative humidity sensor:

It is an electronic instrument. It consists of resistances which are very sensitive to
humidity. The instrument is calibrated in terms of the relative humidity for a wide range of
working condition. For known value of relative humidity and dry bulb temperature the other
psychometric properties of moist air can be evaluated appropriately.
(iv). Dew point instrument

It is capable of measuring dew point from the room temperature to as low as 210.15K.
The sample of air is pumped into the observation chamber of the instrument. The pressure is
adjusted on the pressure ration gauge. Thereafter a valve is manipulated in order to exhaust
the gas rapidly. For can be observed on the lighted signal if dew point is reached. The
pressure ratio determines the dew point. The results obtained by such instrument have been
found to be very accurate since the fog condition is very sensitive.
(v). Hydrograph recorder:
There are various types of hydrograph recorders available in the market. One type of
recorders is available for a fixed range operation such as one day recorder, two day recorder,
seven day recorder, etc. the other type of recorders is for the continuous recording. The
former is providing with a disk type graph while the latter employs a roll of graph paper. The
dry and wet bulb temperatures are recorded simultaneously. The humidity sensing element
may be human hair or certain vegetable fibers. They are very sensitive to humidity. Their
length changes according to the amount of moisture content in the air flowing past the
sensing elements. These instruments are calibrated for different humidity conditions using
standard instruments. Sometimes for the sake of convenience the relative humidity is
presented in the tabular form for given Tab and Tdb-Twb values.
5.4 PSYCHROMETRIC CHARTS
The psychrometric charts are plotted with dry bulb and specific humidity coordinates.
The lines of constant wet bulb temperature, relative humidity, specific volume, etc are
plotted. In some charts other details are also available to help boost the various calculations.
The accurate empherical relations are employed to evaluate various quantities to a greater
accuracy.
Unless the chart is made on the large sheets, it is not possible to show the constant
enthalpy and wet bulb temperature lines separately. Hence, on those charts which represent
both the constant wet bulb temperature and enthalpy by a single line give the slight error.
Therefore the enthalpy deviation lines are provided.
Psychrometric charts are also available which can be used to solve problems
involving atmospheric pressures other than standard value. For this saturation lines for other
atmospheric pressures are plotted on the standard chart. The following figure shows the lines
of constant Twb for different pressures. The chart also gives the relation among Tdb, w, relative
humidity, dew point temperature, enthalpy and atmospheric pressure Tdp
h
3
1, 2- saturation pressure line
Twb
3- Enthalpy deviation line
4
1
4 Relative humidity W
2
5 Constant volume line 5
5.5 PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES:
(i). Sensible Cooling and Heating

Twb Tdb
The energy transfer in these processes occurs with change in temperature only, the
specific humidity remainingTdbconstant. The respective processes of cooling and heating are
shown by 1-2 and 2-1 on the psychrometric chart. The heat transfer for this process can be
obtained by the energy balance for the control volume for the known enthalpies, h1 and h2
and for the steady mass flow rate
Q = m (h2 h1)
The magnitude of h2 is less than h1 during cooling. Hence there is heat transfer from
the air flowing over the coil to the cooling fluid. On the other hand during heating the energy
is transferred to the air flowing over the coil.
4
S W4
h1 W3
3
h2
T4 T3
Tdb
(ii). Adiabatic Saturation:

Adiabatic saturation is an important application which is usually encountered in
practice such as desert cooler, air conditioning, cold storages; etc.The wet bulb temperature
remains constant, i.e., a constant wet bulb line process 3-4 as shown in the above figure. For
this process it is seen that the dry- bulb temperature has decreased from T 3 to T4 and moisture
has been added by:
mV= m (w4 w3)
Where mw is the amount of water and w stands for specific humidity. Since the
temperature decreases during adiabatic saturation, this principle is utilized for the production
of cooling of the hot and less humid environment using desert cooler for common man.
Desert coolers are suitable for the places where the humidity is quite low and temperature
quite high. These conditions are in conformity with desert areas. Hence the coolers are called
desert coolers.
(iii). Heating and Humidification
In case of winter air conditioning heating and humidification are very common. The
system consists of a coil for sensible heating of air from state1 to state 3 then along the wet
bulb temperature line through state2. Thereafter the humidification occurs along the wet bulb
line until the required moisture is added to reach state2. The amount of moisture addition can
again be calculated by mw = m (w2-w1). if the ignores the internal functioning during heating
and humidification, one can reach state 1 to 2 by adding appropriate amount of moisture and
heat as shown by process 1-2, dotted lines
Saturation
S 2 w
Tdb
(iv). Cooling and Dehumidification;
There are many industrial application such as air conditioning, cold storages, paper
industry,photography,etc ., where cooling and dehumidification are sought simultaneously.
This process consists of two processes: lowering the temperature and reducing the moisture
content in air. It depends on the type of equipment used but in general it can be indicated by
dotted line as shown in figure. This process is used in summer air conditioning in which air
passes over cooling coil or through cold water spray. Also the above state2 can be achieved
by cooling at constant specific humidity up to point 3 and cooling along saturation line to
condition 4 which corresponds to the specific humidity of state2. Finally heating is done to
achieve state2. The same can be reached by particular equipment along 1-2 dotted lines.
It is seen that the cooling coil has to transfer more heat than the actually desired and
extra heating arrangement has to be provided. Both these effects are going to increase the
running cost as well as initial investment for the equipment
QA = Actual cooling needed = m1(h1-h2)
QEC = Extra amount cooling =m1(h2-h4) = Extra heating
(v). Mixing of air streams:

It is another important process where more than one stream of air are mixed such as
the mixing of fresh and return air in the air conditioning, cold storage, etc. The following
figure indicates the two streams air being mixed together. The states points are represented on
the psychrometric chart. Using fundamental equations, it is written as:
m1 + m2 =m3 (total mass converted)
m1w1 + m2 w2 = m3 w3 (mass of water conserved)
And, the energy equation,
m1 h1 +m2 h2 = m3 h3
Where m, w and h are the mass of dry air, specific humidity and enthalpy both per
unit mass of dry air. Elimination of m3 gives
m1/ m2 = ( w3 w2)/( w1 w3) = ( h3 h2)/(h1 - h3 ) =( 2 3 )/(1 3 )
Therefore the resulting state of the mixture lies on a straight line on the psychrometric
chart. In some cases the state of mixture of air lies outside the saturation point i.e., 3 on the
line 12. It is often referred to as fog condition. This state is not desirable for an air
conditioning system
5.6. AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES

It is usual practice to return the major part of the air supplied by the air conditioning
system to the room. The extra outdoor air is supplied for ventilation purposes. The return air
from the conditioned space at state 2 is mixed with the ambient air (state 1) either (i) before
or (ii) after cooling coil. In case (i) the mixture air at the state 3 is then passed through a
cooling coil on order to obtain the supply condition, state 4. Thereafter the air enters the
conditioned space. The room heat load causes the rise in air temperature and humidity until
state 2 is reached (process 4-2), completing the cycle.
5.7 COOLING TOWERS:
(i). Description:
The water cooled condensers demand a constant supply of cool water in order to
condense the compressed refrigerant vapour. It may be tapped from city water supply to a
limited extent depending upon the city codes. If the cooling water requirement is very large, it
is pumped from a river, a canal, a pond, or a lake. The warm water is then disposed off. If
there is scarcity of water source and the requirement is very large, it is cooled again and again
for its reuse by evaporative cooling. This method of cooling requires only one percent of
water to evaporate to cool 99% of the rest water by about 5.5K .therefore the makeup water
should be supplied in order to maintain constant water is much more than the theoretical
requirement.
(ii). Effectiveness of the Cooling Tower:
The effectiveness of the cooling tower depends upon,
(a) The wet bulb temperature of air and the water droplet temperature,
(b) Availability of water surface such as surface of water in the basin, wetted surface in the
tower and water surface, of droplets
(c) The time of exposure
(d) Velocity of air stream
(e) Direction of air flow with respect to exposed water surface like parallel, counter or cross
flow
The performance of a cooling tower is commonly expressed in terms of range,
approach, wet-bulb temperature, water circulation rate, etc.
(iii). Classification of Cooling Towers:
Atmospheric towers (a).spray filled type

(b).deck-filled type
Natural draft towers (hyperbolic towers)
Mechanical draft towers
LECTURES BY PARTICIPANTS
TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Date: 02-05-2005
1)2 Kg of nitrogen is heated at constant volume until the pressure is doubled. Calculate the
heat transferred. Draw the PV Diagram. Initial temperature is 227 0C. R=226 J/KgK and Cv
=779 J/KgK
2) Air of 0.5 m3 at a pressure of 10bar and 200 0C is expanded to 1.2 m3 at constant pressure.
Calculate the work done and heat transferred during the process.
3)1Kg of air is compressed reversibly and isothermally from 1.01 bar 20 0C to

4.2 bar. Calculate the work done and the heat flow during the process.
4) Air in a cylinder and piston arrangement expands reversibly and

Adiabatically from an initial condition 0.07m3, 500KPa and 27 0C to a final pressure of
200KPa. Calculate the work done and change in internal energy.
5) Air in a cylinder and piston arrangement expands according tom the law
PV1.5 =C from an initial condition of 0.07 m3 500kPa and 27 0C to the final
Pressure of 200 kPa. Calculate the work done and heat transferred.
6) The pressure is maintained at 2 bar and volume changes from 1m3 to

1.8 m3 and temperature changes from 500C to 4500C.Determine
(i) Heat added
(ii) Workdone
(iii) Change in internal energy
(iv) change in enthalpy
7) A steam turbine receives a flow of 2270kg/hr of steam while the power

Output is 500KW. The inlet and outlet velocities are 75 m/sec and 300m/sec
respectively. The inlet pipe is 3m above the exhaust pipe. Neglecting the
heat loss from the turbine find the change in enthalpy per kg of steam
FLOW PROCESS
Date:03-05-2005
1. One Kg of air is compressed iso thermally and iso quasi statically in a cylinder- piston
apparatus from 101K Pa and 300K to 505K Pa and 300K. Assuming ideal gas
behavior determine the amount of heat transfer and work transfer
2. A fluid flows through a steady flow system at the rate of 5 Kg/s. The enthalpy,
velocity and height of the system at an entrance are 4000KJ/Kg, 50 m/s and 40m
respectively. At the exit these quantities are 4100 KJ/Kg, 20 m/s and 0 m the heat
transferred to the system is 200KJ/s.Detemine the power capacity of the system.
3. A steam turbine receives a flow of 1Kg / s of steam from the boiler at a velocity of
4000 m /min, specific enthalpy of 700KJ/Kg and an elevation of 5 m. The steam
leaves the turbine at a velocity of 8000 m /min, specific enthalpy of 500 KJ/Kg and an
elevation of 2 m.Heat losses from the turbine is 31.67 KJ/min.What is the power
developed by the turbine.
4. A reversible heat engine operates between a source at 800.C and a sink at 30.C what
is the least rate of heat rejection per KW net work out put of the engine.
5. A closed system consists of 1 Kg of air which is initially at 1.5 bars and 67.C. The
volume doubles as the system undergoes a process according to the law PV^1.2. = C
Find the work done, heat transfer and change in the entropy
6. Air flows steadily at the rate of 0.5 Kg/S. through an air compressor entering at
7 m/s velocity, 100 K pa pressure and 0.95m^3/Kg specific volume and leaving at
5 m /s, 700 Kpa and 0.19 m^3/Kg.The internal energy of air leaving is 90KJ/Kg.
greater than that of the air entering. Cooling water in the compressor jacket absorbs
heat at the rate of 58KW.calculate the rate of shaft work input to the compressor.
7. A steam receives 200kJof energy as heat, at constant volume. Then it is cooled at

constant pressure when 50Kj of work was done on the system while it rejects 70kj of
heat. Supposing the system is restored to the initial state by an adiabatic process, how
much work will be done by the system?
8. In a non-flow process there is a heat transfer of loss of 1055kj and an internal energy
increase 210kj. Determine the work transfer and state whether the process is an
expansion or compression?
9. In a steady flow system a fluid substance flows at the rate of 4kg/s. It enters the
system at a pressure of 600KPa, a velocity of 220m/sec, internal energy 2200kj/kg
and specific volume 0.42m3 /kg. It leaves the system at a pressure of 150KPa, a
velocity of 145m/s, internal energy 1650kj/kg and specific volume 1.5m 3 /kg. during
its passage through the system, the substance has a loss by heat transfer of 40kj/kg to
the surroundings. Determine the power of the system stating whether it is from or to
the system. Neglect any change of gravitational potential energy.
10. 0.3kg of air at a pressure of 350KN/m 2 and a temperature of 35 0C receives heat

energy at constant volume until its pressure becomes 70KN/m2 . It is then receives
heat energy at constant pressure until its volume becomes 0.2289m 3. Determine the
change of entropy during each process.
11. A perfect gas is compressed according to the law PV1.25=C from an initial pressure of
1 bar and volume of 0.9m3 to a final volume of 0.6m 3. Determine the final pressure
and change of entropy per kg of gas during the process.
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Date:03-05-2005
1. 2Kg of nitrogen is heated at constant volume until the pressure is doubled. Calculate
the heat transferred and change in entropy. Draw the PV and T-S Diagram. Initial
temperature is 300 0C. R=300 J/KgK and Cv =800 J/KgK.
2. A system executes a cyclic process during which there are four heat transfers as given
below. Q12 =800KJ Q23 = -100Kj Q34 = -720kJ Q41 =200kJ
Workdone during the three processes are given as W12 = 60kJ W23 = - 40kJ
W34 = 80kJ Find the workdone during the process 41.
3. A heat engine is supplied with 278 kJ/sec of heat at a constant fixed temperature of
2830C and the heat rejection takes place at 50C. The following results were reported:
(1) 208 kJ/sec of heat are rejected
(2) 139 kJ/sec of heat are rejected
(3) 70 kJ/sec of heat rejected
Classify which of these results report a reversible cycle or impossible result.
4. 5 kg of Nitrogen are heated in a reversible non-flow constant volume process from a

temperature of
600C until the pressure is doubled. Determine (i) Final temperature
(ii)Workdone (iii) Change in internal energy (iv) Heat transferred
(v) Change in enthalpy (vi) Change in entropy. Assume Cv =0.653 KJ/kgK
and CP =0.913 KJ/kgK.
5. Certain volume of gas at 57 0C is expanded to three times its original volume

according to PV1.25 =C. Determine the temperature at the end and change in
entropy per kg of gas. Cp =0.99 KJ/kgK; Cv =0.7 KJ/kgK
6. An engine is to operate between temperature limits of 14000C and 3270C. It

is claimed that its power output is 4.0Kw, fuel consumption is 0.45kg/hour.
Calorific value of fuel is 42,000Kj/kg. State whether the claim is justified by
comparing with Carnot cycle.
7. Air undergoes a cyclic process in a cylinder and piston arrangement. First

the atmospheric air at 1bar 270C is compressed adiabatically to 10bar, then
expanded isothermally upto initial pressure, then brought to initial
conditions under constant pressure, find out
(i) Change in internal energy
(ii) Change in enthalpy
(iii) Heat transfer
(iv) Work transfer for each process and also for the cycle
STEAM
Date:04-05-2005
1. A closed vessel 0.2 m3 contains steam at 10bar and temperature 250 0C. If the vessel
is cooled so that the pressure falls to 3.5 bars determine the final temperature of the
steam, Heat transfer and change in entropy.
2. A cylinder fitted with a piston contains 0.5 kg of steam at 4 bars. Initial volume of the
steam is 0.1 m3. Heat is transferred to the steam until the temperature becomes 300 0C
determine the heat transferred and the work done during the process. State what type
of process is taking place?
3. Saturated steam at 6 bar pressure undergoes a reversible isothermal process in a

cylinder until the pressure reaches 4 kPa. Calculate the work done and heat transfer
per kg of steam during the process.
4. A cylinder fitted with piston is filled with steam at 600 kPa and 260 0C. Steam
expands isentropicaly until the pressure falls to 150 kPa. If the initial volume is 0.04
m3 , determine the work done during the process and the change in enthalpy.
5. Steam is expanded according to the law PV1.15 =C from a condition of 10 bar and 200
0
C to 1 bar. Find the final specific volume, temperature, heat transfer, change in
enthalpy and change in entropy during the process per kg of the steam.
6. Boiler steam at 8 bar 2500C reaches an engine control valve through a pipe at 7 bar
2000C. It is throttled to 5 bars and then expanded to 0.1bar and 0.9 dry in the engine.
Find per kg of steam (i) Heat loss in the pipe (ii) Temperature drop through the pipe
(iii) Work done in the engine (iv) Change in entropy during the throttling (v) Change
in entropy during expansion in the engine.
7. Steam at 10bar and 0.95 dry flows at 130m/sec in a pipe. It is throttled to 8bar and the
flow rate is 12kg/sec. Assuming velocity in the pipe on the down stream side of the
valve is 160m/sec. Find the final condition of steam and the pipe diameters before and
after the valve.
8. Steam at 20bar and 3000C passes through a pipe with a velocity of 120m/sec. If steam
flows at the rate of 500kg/hr find the diameter of the pipe.
9. Dry saturated steam at 15bar is supplied to an engine in which it expands

isentropically to 1.5 bar and then at constant volume to 0.5bar. Calculate the work
done during the isentropic expansion and the final condition of the steam.
10. Steam engine operates between the pressure limits 50 bars and 1 bar. Initial
temperature of the steam is 300 0C. Find the Rankine cycle efficiency of the engine
(a) With pump work (b) with out pump work
11. Steam at 20 bars, 360 C is expanded in a steam turbine to 0.08 bars. Then enters a
condenser, where it is condensed to saturated water. The pump feeds back the water
into the boiler. Assuming ideal process, find the network per Kg of steam and the
cycle efficiency.
12. A steam power station uses the following cycle: Steam at boiler outlet is 150 bars and
550C.The steam is reheated at 40 bars to 550C.Then the steam is expanded till the
condenser pressure of 0.1 bars. Using the mollier chart and assuming ideal processes,
find the A] quality of exhaust steam B] Cycle efficiency C] steam rate
13. Find the ideal cycle efficiency and specific steam consumption of a reheat cycle
operating between pressures of 30 and 0.04 bar, with a superheat temperature of
450C assume that the first expansion is carried out to the point where the steam is
dry saturated and that the steam is reheated to the original super heat temperature. The
feed pump term may be neglected.
14. Calculate the ideal cycle efficiency and specific steam consumption of a regenerative
cycle using three closed heaters. The steam leaves the boiler at 30 bar super heated to
450C, and the condenser pressure is 0.04 bars. Choose the bleed pressures so that the
temperature difference [T2-T9] is divided in to approximately equal steps.
IDEAL AND REAL GASES

Date: 05-05-2005
1. A gas mixture has the following composition on a mole basis: 60 percent N2 and 40
percent Co2.determine the gravimetric analysis of the mixtures, its molar mass and gas
constant.
2. A gas mixture consists of 5kg of O2, 8kg of N2, and 10 kg of co2. Determine (a) the mass
fraction of each component, (b) the mole fraction of each component, and (c) the average
molar mass and gas constant of the mixture.
3. Determine the mole fractions of a gas mixture that consists of 75% CH 4 and 25 % CO2 by
mass. Also, determine the gas constant of the mixture.
4. A gas mixture consists of 8 Kmol of H2 and 2Kmol of N2. Determine the mass of each gas
and the apparent gas constant of the mixture.
5.A rigid tank contains 4Kmol of O2 and 5Kmol CO2 GASSES AT 290 K and 150 Kpa.
Estimate the volume of the tank.
6.A rigid tank contains 0.5 kmol of Ar and 2Kmol of N2 at 250Kpa and 280K .the mixture is
now heated to 400K .Determine the volume of the tank and final pressure of the mixture.
7. A gas mixture at 400K and 150Kpa consists of 1kg of CO2 and 3kg of CH4 . Determine the
partial pressure of each gas and the apparent molar mass of the gas mixture.
8.A 0.3m3 of rigid tank contains 0.6 kg of N2, 0.4 kg of O2 at 300K. Determine the partial
pressure of each gas and the total pressure of the mixture.
9.A gas mixture at 290K and 250 Kpa has the following volumetric analysis: 65% N2, 20%O2
and 15% CO2 . Determine the mass fraction and partial pressure of the each gas.
10. A rigid tank that contains 2 kg of N2 at 25C and 200Kpa is connected to another rigid
tank that contains 3kg of O2 at 25C and 500Kpa .The valve connecting two tanks opened
,and the two gases are allowed to mix. If the final mixture temperature is 25 C, determine
the volume of each tank and the final mixture pressure.
11.A volume of 0.3m3 of O2 at 200K and 8Mpa is mixed with 0.5m3 of N2 at the same
temperature and pressure, forming a mixture at 200K and 8Mpa. Determine the volume of the
mixture using (a) the ideal gas equation of state and (b) the compressibility chart and
Amagats law.
12.The pressure in an auto mobile tyre depends on the temperature of the air in tyre in the
tyre.When the air temperature is 25C the pressure gauge reads 210Kpa .If the volume of the
tyre is 0.025m3, determine the pressure rise in the tyre when the air temperature rises to 50C.
Also determine the amount of air that must be bled off to restore the pressure to its original
value at this temperature. Assume the atmospheric pressure to be 100Kpa.
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY RELATIONS
1.Using the maxwell relations, determine the relations for (s / P) T for a gas whose equation
of state is P (v-b) = RT.
2. Using the maxwell relations, determine the relations for (s / V) T for a gas whose
equation of state is (P-a / v2) (v-b) = RT.
3. Using the maxwell relations and ideal gas equation of state, determine the relations for
(s / v) T for an ideal gas.
4. Using the clapeyron equation, estimate the enthalpy of vapourisation of steam at 200Kpa.
5.Calculate the hf g and s f g at 150C from the clapeyron equation.

PSYCHROMETRY
Date: 07-05-2005
1. The atmospheric conditions are: 20C and =0.0095 kg/kg of dry air. Calculate the
following:
(i). Partial pressure of vapour
(ii).Relative humidity
(iii). Dew point temperature.
2. The air supplied to a row of building in winter is to be at 17C and have RH of 60%. If
the barometer pressure is 1.01325 bar find (i). The Specific humidity (ii). The dew point
under these conditions.
3. Air at Tdb = 30C and = 40% undergoes a constant humidity process until the final state
is 20C. Find (a). enthalpy of the air at final state, (b). Cooling produced by the coil. The air
flow rate is 2 m3/s.
4. A 2 ton cooling unit is used to dehumidify 0.2 m3/s from Tdb= 28C and Twb= 25C to
specific humidity level of W2 = 0.08 kg/kg of air. Determine
(i). Tdb2 and Tdp2 of air at exit condition &
(ii). Amount of dehumidification.
5. 90 m3 of air per minute at 20C and 75 % RH is heated until its temperature becomes
30C. Determine (i). RH of the heated air. (ii). Heat added to air per minute.
6. 120 m3 of air per minute at 35C Tdb and 50 % RH is cooled to 20 C Tdb by passing
through a cooling coil. Determine (i). RH of out coming air and its Twb (ii). Capacity of
cooling coil (iii). Amount of water vapour removed per hour.
7. One kg of air at 35 C Tdb and 60 % RH is mixed with 2 kg of air at 20 C Tdb and 13C
Tdp. Calculate the specific humidity of the mixture.
8. It is required to design an air condition plant for a small office room for following winter
condition:
Outdoor condition : 14 C Tdb and 10 C Twb

Required condition : 20C Tdb and 60 % RH
Amount of air circulation : 0.3 m3/min/person
Seating capacity of office : 60
The required condition is achieved first by heating and then adiabatic humidifying.
Determine the following
(i). Heating capacity of the coil in kW and the surface temperature required, if the by pass
factor of coil is 0.4
(ii). The capacity of the humidifier (solve using psychrometric chart)
APTITUDE TEST-I
Time:25Min. Date:03-05-2005 Max.Marks:25
1) A closed system is one in which neither heat and work nor the mass of the working
substances crosses the boundary o the system.
a) Yes b) No
2) The behavior of super heated vapour is similar to that of

a) perfect gas b) air
c) Steam d) ordinary gas
e) None of the above
3) The variable which control the physical properties of a perfect gas are
a) pressure exerted by the gas b) volume occupied by the gas
c) Temp of the gas d) All of the above
4) The universal gas constant ( or molar constant ) of a gas is the product of

a) Molecular weight of the gas and the gas constant
b) Stomic weight of the gas and the gas constant
c) Molecular weight of the gas and the specific heat at constant pressure
d) Molecular weight of the gas and the specific heat at constant volume.
5) In SI units , the value of the universal gas constant is

a) 0.8314 J/Kg mole /K b) 8.314 J/Kg mole /K
c) 83.14 J/Kg mole /K d) 831.4 J/Kg mole /K
e) 8314 J/Kg mole /K
6) The amount of heat required to rise the temperature of the unit mass of the gas through
gas 1 deg.cent at constant volume , is called
a) Specific heat at constant volume
b) Specific heat at constant pressure
c) Kilo calories
d) None of the above
7) The value of specific heat at constant pressure is --------that of at constant volume

a) less than b) Equal to
c) More than
8) The heat supplied to the gas at constant volume is

a) mR(T2-T1) b) mCv(T2-T1)
c) mCp(T2-T1) e) mCv(T2+T1)
where m = mass of the gas, Cv = specific heat at constant volume
Cp = specific heat at constant pressure, T2-T2= rise in Temp.& R= gas constant
9) Realtion between Cv and Cp is given by

a) Cv / Cp = R b) Cp - Cv = R/J
c) Cv = R/(J*(Y-1)) d) Both a & b e) both b & c
10) A process , in which the gas is heated or expanded in such a way that the product of its
pressure and volume remains constant, is called
a) iso thermal process b) hyperbolic process
c) adiabatic process d) polytropic process
11) In an iso thermal process.

a) internal energy increases b) internal energy decreases
c) there is no change in internal energy d) none ofthe above
12) In a throttling process

a) W = 0 b) H = 0
c) E = 0 d) All of the above
13) In a reversible adibatic process the ratio of the T1 / T2 is equal to

a) (P2 / P1) ^ ( (-1) / ) b) (P1 / P2 ) ^ ( (-1) / )
c) V2 / V1 ^ ( (-1) / ) d) (V1 / V2) ^ ( (-1) / )
14) If the value of n = 0 in the equation PV=0, then the process is called
a) Constant volume process b) Adiabatic process
c) Constant Pressure process d) Isothermal process
e) Constant Temperature Process
15) The general law of expansion or compression is PVn = C. The processes is said to be
hyperbolic, if n is equal to
a) 0 b) 1 c) Y d) X
16) The change of entropy when heat is removed from the gas, is positive
a) Yes b) No
17) The property of a working substance which increases or decreases as the heat is
supplied or removed in a reversible manner, is known as
a) Enthalpy b) Internal Energy c) Entropy d) External Energy
18) The heat absorbed or rejected by the working substance is given by

a) dH=T dS b) dH=T/dS c) dH=dS/T
Where dS=increase or decrease of entropy
T=Absolute temperature and dH=Heat absorbed or rejected
19) A series of operations, which takes place in a certain order and restore the initial
condition, is known as
a) Reversible cycle b) Irreversible cycle
c) Thermodynamic cycle d)None of the above
20) The efficiency of the Carnot Cycle is

a) ( T1 / T2 ) -1 b) 1- ( T1 / T2 ) c) ( T1 / T2 ) d) 1+ ( T1 / T2 )
21) It is ---------------to make an engine working on a Carnot cycle.

a) possible b) Impossible
22) Otto cycle is also known as

a) constant pressure cycle
b) constant volume cycle
c) constant temperature cycle
d) constant temperature and pressure cycle
23) The air standard efficiency of an Otto Cycle is given by

a) 1-r (-1) b) 1+ r (-1) c) 1- (1 / r (-1) )d) 1+ (1 / r (-1) )
24) A cycle consisting of two isothermal and two adiabatic processes, is known as
a) Carnot cycle b) Stirling cycle c) Ericson cycle d) Joule cycle
e) Otto cycle f) Diesel cycle
25) The amount of heat generated per kg of fuel is known as

a) Calorific value b) Heat energy
c) Lower calorific value d)Higher calorific value
APTITUDE TEST-II
Time:25Min. Date:03-05-2005 Max.Marks:25
1. Kelvin-Planks Law deals with.

a) Conservation of work into heat
b) Conservation of heat in to work
c) Conservation of energy into heat
d) Conservation of potential energy into work
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics Defines

a) Work b) Internal Energy c) Entropy d) Enthalpy
3. It is impossible to transfer heat from a body at lower temperature to a body at higher

temperature without the aid of an external work. (True /False).
4. The behaviour of super heated vapour is similar to that of

a) Perfect Gas b) Air c) Steam d) Ordinary Gas.
5. According to James joule.

a) Q= J/W b) W= Q/J c) J=W/Q d) W= J/Q
6. The absolute pressure is the sum of the gauge pressure and the atmospheric pressure.
(True/False)
7. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas through 10k at
constant pressure is
a) Specific heat at constant volume.
b) Sensible heat
c) Latent heat
d) Specific heat at constant Pressure
8. When the gas is heat at constant volume the heat supplied.

a) Increases the internal energy of the gas
b) Increases the temperature
c) Does some work during expansion.
d) Both (a) & (b)
9. When a gas is heat at constant pressure.

a) Its temperature will increase
b) Its volume will increase
c) Both temperature & volume will increase
d) Neither temperature nor volume will increase
10. A process in which Enthalpy remains constant is.

a) Isothermal Process
b) Hyperbolic process
c) Adiabatic process
d) Throttling process
11. A process in which the working substance neither receive nor gives out heat to its
surrounding during its expansion or compression is called.
a) Isothermal Process
b) Adiabatic process
c) polytropic process
d) Hyperbolic process
12. A cycle consisting of _________________ And two Adiabatic processes is known as

Carnot cycle
a) Two constant pressure processes
b) Two constant volume processes
c) Two isothermal processes
d) Two polytropic processes
13. Thermal Efficiency of the Carnot cycle is given by.

a) (T1-T2)/T1 b) (T2-T1)/T2 c) T1/(T1-T2 ) d) T2/(T1 T2)
14. Enthalpy of wet steam is given by

a) hg+Cps(Tsup-Ts) b) ht+htg
c) hf+xhfg d) hg
15. The temperature of the wet steam is saturation temperature.

[True /False]
16. When the cross section of the nozzle increase continuously from entrance to exit,
it is called a
a) Divergent nozzle
b) Convergent nozzle
c) Convergent Divergent nozzle
d) None of the above
17. As the pressure increases saturation temperature of water

a)decreases b)remains constant c) increases d) None of the above
18. At critical point

a) Sensible heat is zero b) Latent heat is zero
c) Super heat is zero d) Latent heat is equal to sensible heat
19. Mollier chart is a

a) P-V diagram b) P-H diagram c) T-S diagramd) H-S diagram
20. Specific volume of super heated steam is given by

a) Vg (Tsup / Ts ) b) X Vg c) Vg d) Vf + Vfg
21. Steam is a pure substance (True/ False)
22. Condition of the steam at 10 bar and 0.8 dry is

a) Super heated b) Wet c) Dry saturated d) None of the above
23. Dryness fraction of the wet steam is given by

a) mg / mf b) mf / mf + mg c) mg / mf + mg d) mg / mf
24. Isothermal processes is same as the constant pressure process in the

a) Superheated region b) Critical point
c) Liquid region d) Wet steam region
25. Throttling process is represented by a in H-S diagram

a) Horizontal line b) Vertical line
c) Inclined line d) Curve
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. What is Thermodynamics?
2. Define a system
3. Differentiate between closed and open system
4. What is a path function
5. Define Quesi static process
6. Write down the steady flow energy equation
7. Give the expression for the change in internal energy of a non flow process.
8. Whether the following are closed or open system
(i) Pressure cooker (ii) Compressor
9. State the Zeroth law of Thermodynamics
10. Give the expression for the work done during a polytropic process
11. What is a Nozzle.
12. Define isolated system
13. Differentiate between intensive and extensive property
14. Give the expression for change in enthalpy
15. Whether the following are closed or open system
(i) Pressure cooker (ii) Compressor
16. State the First Law thermodynamics
17. Define latent heat
18. What is Throttling process.
19. Draw the PV diagram for the following processes
(i) Constant pressure heating (ii) Isothermal expansion
20. Write the steady flow energy equation as applicable to a nozzle.
21. Determine the heat transferred during a constant pressure processes if the initial and
final temperature are 60 0C and 200 0C respectively and the mass flow rate of air is
12kg/min.
22. Write the relation between pressure and temperature during an adiabatic process.
23. Distinguish between macroscopic and microscopic analysis.
24. Give the expression for enthalpy and explain.
25. State the carnot theorem
26. Find out the COP of a refrigerator which produces 20tonnes of ice in a day consuming
35Kw power.
27. Determine the entropy of steam at a pressure of 5bar and 0.85 dry.
28. What is super heating?
29. State Avagadros law
30. Define Mole fraction
31. Give the expressions for Molecular weight and Gas constant for a mixture of gases.
32. What is a compressibility chart?
33. Define an ideal gas.
34. Define Specific humidity
35. Give an expression for Degree of Saturation.
36. What is wet bulb depression?
37. State the Maxwells first relationship.
38. What is free energy?
39. Write down the expression for air standard efficiency of Diesel cycle
40. Explain why nozzles are made convergent and divergent.
41. What do you mean by Clausius inequality?
42. State second law of thermodynamics according to Kelvin-Plank and Clausius.
43. If pvn =C represents a general thermodynamic process, name the processes when n has
values of 0,1, and .
44. Sketch the ideal duel cycle on p-v diagram and name all the processes.
45. Sketch the limited pressure cycle on P-V and T-S diagram and name various
processes.
DESCRIPTIVE PROBLEMS
1.
Prove that PVr =C for an adiabatic process.
2.
Air in a cylinder and piston arrangement expands reversibly and adiabatically from an
initial condition 0.07m3 , 500KPa and 27 0C to a final pressure of 200KPa. Calculate
the work done and change in internal energy.
3.
Derive an expression for the work done during an Isothermal process.
4.
1Kg of air is compressed reversibly and isothermally from 1.01 bar 20 0C to 4.2 bar.
Calculate the work done and the heat flow during the process.
5.
Prove that the heat transferred during a polytropic process
a. Q= (r-n )/ (r-1) X Workdone
6.
2Kg of nitrogen is heated at constant volume until the pressure is doubled. Calculate
the heat transferred. Draw the PV Diagram. Initial temperature is 227 0C. R=226
J/KgK and Cv =779 J/KgK.
7.
Prove that (CP - Cv )=R/J
8.
Air of 0.5 m3 at a pressure of 10bar and 200 0C is expanded to 1.2 m3 at constant
pressure. Calculate the workdone and heat transferred during the process.
9.
60Kg of water is delivered by a centrifugal pump per second. The inlet and outlet
pressures are 1bar and 6 bar respectively. The suction is 3m below the centre of the
pump and delivery is 12m above the centre of the pump. Determine the capacity of
the electric motor to run the pump. The suction and delivery pipe diameters are 20cm
and 10cm respectively.
10.
Prove that Internal Energy is a property.
11.
Air in a cylinder and piston arrangement expands according tom the law PV 1.5 =C
from an initial condition of 0.07 m3 500kPa and 27 0C to the final pressure of 200 kPa.
Calculate the workdone and heat transferred.
12.
Derive an expression for the Workdone during a polytropic process.
13.
Air at 5bar 550C is expanded in a nozzle to a pressure of 3bar. Calculate the velocity
of the jet at the exit of the nozzle neglecting the initial velocity.
14.
Derive an expression for the workdone during an Isothermal process.
15.
A steam turbine receives a flow of 2270kg/hr of steam while the power output is
500KW. The inlet and outlet velocities are 75 m/sec and 300m/sec respectively. The
inlet pipe is 3m above the exhaust pipe. Neglecting the heat loss from the turbine find
the change in enthalpy per kg of steam.
16.
0.1 kg of air contained in a cylinder and piston mechanism is at 1.05 bar and 57 0C. It
is heated at constant volume until its pressure is 5.25bar then expanded isothermally
to the original pressure and finally cooled at constant pressure to its original volume.
Represent the cycle on PV Diagram and determine the workdone by the cycle.
17.
Derive the steady flow energy equation for an open system and deduce the equations
for a Boiler, Turbine and Nozzle.
18.
2Kg of nitrogen is heated at constant volume until the pressure is doubled. Calculate
the heat transferred. Draw the PV Diagram. Initial temperature is 300 0C. R=300
J/KgK and Cv =800 J/KgK.
19.
Air of 0.3 m3 at a pressure of 8bar and 150 0C is expanded to 1.2 m3 at constant
pressure. Calculate the workdone and heat transferred during the process.
20.
Air at the rate of 12kg/min flows steadily through a nozzle. The pressure and
temperature of air at the inlet to the nozzle are 25bar and 400K respectively. The
pressure of air at the exit is 8bar. Asuming adiabatic flow with initial velocity
120m/sec, determine the exit velocity, exit area and inlet area.
21.
A system executes a cyclic process during which there are four heat transfers as given
below.Q12 =800KJ Q23 = -100Kj Q34=-720kJ Q41 =200kJ Workdone during the three
processes are given as W12 = 60kJ W23= - 40kJ W34 = 80kJ Find the workdone during
the process 41.
22.
A steam nozzle is supplied with 2400kg/hr of steam at 15 bar(ab). At the inlet V 1 =
1800m/min, US1=0.15m3/kg and U1=2600KJ /kg and the corresponding values at the
exit are P2=1bar (ab), US2=1.7m3/kg and U2=2500KJ /kg. Calculate the exit velocity.
23.
A heat engine is supplied with 278 kJ/sec of heat at a constant fixed temperature of
2830C and the heat rejection takes place at 50C. The following results were reported:
i. 208 kJ/sec of heat are rejected
ii. 139 kJ/sec of heat are rejected
iii. 70 kJ/sec of heat rejected
Classify which of these results report a reversible cycle or impossible result.
24.
5 kg of Nitrogen are heated in a reversible non-flow constant volume process from a
temperature of 600C until the pressure is doubled. Determine (i) Final temperature
(ii) Workdone (iii) Change in internal energy (iv) Heat transferred (v) Change in
enthalpy (vi) Change in entropy. Assume Cv =0.653 KJ/kgK and CP =0.913 KJ/kgK.
25.
Draw p,v T surface for water and explain.
26.
Explain why there is a critical point only but triple line on p,v T surface.
27.
Calculate the internal energy of 0.3m3 of steam at 4bar pressure and 0.85dryness. If
this steam is super heated at constant pressure through 35 0C determine the heat added
and change in internal energy. Take Cps =2.25 KJ/kgK
28.
Write short notes on the following
a. Equation of state
b. Kinetic theory of gases
c. Critical compressibility factor
29.
A gas mixture contains 3kg of N2 and 5kg of CO2 at a pressure of 3 bar and a
temperature of 20 0C.
Find (i) the mole fraction of each element (ii) the molecular weight and the gas
constant of the mixture (iii)the partial pressures and partial volumes of N2 and
CO2 in the mixture (iv) the volume and density of the mixture.
30.
An air-water vapour mixture at 0.1MPa, 28 0C and 70% RH has a volume of 40 m 3.
Calculate the specific humidity,DPT, Degree of saturation, Mass of dry air and Mass
of water vapour.
31.
Derive Clapeyrons equation.
32.
A vapour condenses at 1000K rejecting 3000kJof heat while another vapour
condenses at 500kJrejecting the same amount of heat. Find the difference in available
energy between these two processes. Take sink temperature as 300K.
33.
An all rigid walled leak proof tight container holds a gas at 2.5bar and 127 0C. Heat is
supplied to this gas at constant rate for sometime. At the end of heating it is estimated
that change in internal energy is 450kJVolume of the container is 0.6 m 3. Cp =1.005
KJ/kgK; Cv =0.712 KJ/kgK ; R= 0.287KJ/kgK. Name the process carried on and
sketch it on P-V diagram (i). Find the mass of gas (ii). What is the temperature at
the end of the process (iii). Determine the pressure at the end of the process
(iv).Estimate change in enthalpy.
34.
Certain volume of gas at 57 0C is expanded to three times its original volume
according to PV1.25 =C. Determine the temperature at the end and change in entropy
per kg of gas. Cp =0.99 KJ/kgK; Cv =0.7 KJ/kgK
35.
An engine is to operate between temperature limits of 14000C and 3270C. It is claimed
that its power output is 4.0Kw, fuel consumption is 0.45kg/hour. Calorific value of
fuel is 42,000Kj/kg. State whether the claim is justified by comparing with Carnot
cycle.
36.
In an air standard Otto cycle, compression begins at 1bar and 40 0C, with a
compression ratio of 7.0. The heat added is 2500Kj/kg. Find maximum temperature,
maximum pressure of the cycle, workdone per kg of air, cycle efficiency and mean
effective pressure.
37.
Air undergoes a cyclic process in a cylinder and piston arrangement. First the
atmospheric air at 1bar 270C is compressed adiabatically to 10bar, then expanded
isothermally upto initial pressure, then brought to initial conditions under constant
pressure, find out
a. Change in internal energy
b. Change in enthalpy
c. Heat transfer
d. Work transfer for each process and also for the cycle
38.
Boiler steam at 8 bar 2500C reaches an engine control valve through a pipe at 7 bar
2000C. It is throttled to 5 bar and then expanded to 0.1bar and 0.9 dry in the engine.
Find per kg of steam (i) Heat loss in the pipe (ii) Temperature drop through the pipe
(iii) Workdone in the engine (iv) Change in entropy during the throttling (v) Change
in entropy during expansion in the engine.
39.
Steam at 10bar and 0.95 dry flows at 130m/sec in a pipe. It is throttled to 8bar and the
flow rate is 12kg/sec. Assuming velocity in the pipe on the down stream side of the
valve is 160m/sec. Find the final condition of steam and the pipe diameters before and
after the valve.
40.
Steam at 20bar and 3000C passes through a pipe with a velocity of 120m/sec. If steam
flows at the rate of 500kg/hr find the diameter of the pipe.
41.
Dry saturated steam at 15bar is supplied to an engine in which it expands
isentropicaly to 1.5 bar and then at constant volume to 0.5bar. Calculate the workdone
during the isentropic expansion and the final condition of the steam.
TABLE 2. CONSTANTS OF VANDER WAALS EQUATION

Thank
You

Course Material

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Course Material

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AU-IRTT-FDP-ME1201ET-MAY2005

INSTITUTE OF ROAD AND TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY ERODE-638 316

FACULTY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

The Faculty Development Programme on ME 1201

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS which is going to be a

subject for the third semester B.E Mechanical Engineering students is

organized to improve the teaching skills of the faculty of various

Engineering Colleges, so that the teaching, learning process will be

Engineering Thermodynamics. The training given to the faculties in

this programme will be really useful for teachers to give better

exposure to the students in solving problems on Thermodynamics, in

industrial applications and exposure to the research and technical

challenges. The coordinator places on record his sincere gratitude to

the Anna University for sponsoring the programme, the principal

Institute of Road and Transport Technology for providing the facilities

staff members to participate in this programme.

Second law of Thermodynamics Tutorial Problems from

S.NO TOPICS PAGE NO

(i). Use of Thermodynamics:

It can be defined as a definite quantity of matter, which is bounded by a closed

Anything other than a system are called surroundings

(iv). Closed system:

(v). Open system:

Properties are classified as intensive and extensive properties

(i). Intensive property:

E.g. Pressure, Temperature, Thermal conductivity etc..,

(ii). Extensive Properties

Property which depends upon mass of the system is Extensive Properties

It can be defined as the ability to do work or the ability to produce an effect.

(i). Mechanical Energy: M E

It is the energy in stored form, relative to other bodies.

Potential energy is the gravitational energy possessed by a body, with respect to

some reference body)

(ii). Internal Energy:

U- total internal energy u = internal energy/unit mass

(iii). Potential Energy:

One form of potential energy (internal energy)

(iv). Kinetic Energy:

1.4 ENERGY IN TRANSITION:

1 Nm It is defined as the work done or energy transfered on the application of a

The movement of the piston is opposed by a force F.

where A is the area of the piston

Flow work W= F.L = p.A.L = pV [AL=V]

Fluid compresses work is done on the system

Work done by the fluid

Let the expansion follows a law pvn = c

It is defined as the energy transferred from one body to another by virtue of

Heat transfer occurs in three ways:

1 KJ is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water through 1 K at

1.5 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM:

(i) Thermal Equilibrium: There is no change in Temperature

1.6. LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS:

(ii). First Law of Thermodynamics:

(a) Internal energy is a property.

Applying first law to cycle I: 1 A 2 C1

From (a) & (b) we get 1A2 [dQ-dW/J] = 2 [dQ-dW] =

(b) Law of conservation of Energy.

Energy can neither be created not destroyed if mass is conserved.

It is defined as the internal energy remains unchanged if the system is completely

(c) Perpetual Motion Machine of I kind ( PMM I) is impossible.

1.7. NON FLOW PROCESSES:

Non flow processes is classified as

(1). Constant volume process Isocharic process

(i). Constant Volume Process