Social Network Theory
The basic notion of social network theory is that people tend to
think and behave similarly because they are connected. The theory
examines the set of ties or linkages among a defined set of actors
(individuals, groups, or organizations), with the view that the
system of linkages as a whole can be used to interpret the social
behavior of the actors involved (Mitchell, 1969; Tichy, Tushman,
& Fombrun, 1979). The network linkages can both connect and
divide the actors. The theory enables analysis of a range of orga-
nizational phenomena at both the micro level (leadership, teams,
power, trust, turnover, and so on) and the macro level (interfirm
relations, alliances, network governance, and so on)
Many of the concepts in social network theory were derived
from graph theory. A graph consists of a set of points and a set of
lines or edges connecting the points (Freeman, 1978/1979). In
social network theory, the points are the social actors, or nodes,
and the lines are the ties or linkages among the social actors. A
key concept is “centuality” (Bavelas, 1948, 1950; Leavitt, 1951),
which means that being at the most center point in a social
network is the most advantageous. People gain social capital
through their position in social structures or social networks
(Coleman, 1990; Portes, 1998; Lin, 2002)
Granovetter (1973) examined the strength of ties among indi
viduals in social networks. Prior research had only studied the
importance of strong ties among members within social networks,
but Granovetter examined the strength of weak ties. He proposed
that weak ties might actually be more important and more infl-
ential on member attitudes and behaviors than strong ties,
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The strength of a tie is dependent on the amount of time
spent, emotional intensity, mutual confiding, and reciprocal
exchanges among individuals in a social network. Weak ties may
help individuals make connections among social networks, bridg-
ing them together. Individuals may be able to support a dozen or
so strong ties, but may be able to support an extremely large
number of weak ties. Friedkin (1980) found that all local bridges
among networks were weak ties, and that ties across groups tended
to be weak ties.
Social network analysis focuses on the interactions among
network members and the structure of those interactions
(Wasserman & Faust, 1994), Social network studies have taken
two different approaches when collecting data about networks
(Marsden, 1990). Some studies gather complete and total network
data for all ties that link elements of an entire population. Other
studies gather what are called “egocentric” network data, which are
data only for the set of ties for specifically sampled individuals.
Kilduff and Brass (2010) discussed the four leading inter
related ideas that dominate social network theory research:
(1) relations between actors, (2) embeddedness, (3) structural
patterning, and (4) the social utility of network connections.
From the beginning, social network analysis has focused on the
relations that connect or separate a set of actors (Tichy, Tushman,
& Fombrun, 1979). Moreno (1934) argued that a person's loca-
tion in a social network determined his or her behavior, Other
researchers conducted experimental studies of actors in their
social context (Heider, 1946; Lewin, 1936). Durkheim (1951)
argued that social irregularities were not caused by the intentions
of individuals but because human societies were like biological
systems made up of interrelated components. Comte (1854)
hoped to found a field of “social physies” or what he later called
“sociology.”
The second core assumption of social network theory is
embeddedness, or the tendency to stay involved in a network and
caeate, renew, and extend relationships over time (Baker &
Faulkner, 2002; Granovetter, 1985), “Arm's length” ties are less
powerfull than “embedded” ties for trust, rich transfers of informa-
tion, and problem-solving capabilities (Uzzi, 1996)
The third core idea in social network theory is that there
are long-lasting patterns of clustering, connectivity, and centralSoctat. Networx Tuony 299
ization (Wellman, 1988; White, Boorman, & Breiger, 1976).
Social network analysis simultaneously examines the whole and
the parts of social networks (Moliterno & Mahony, 2011; Wellman,
1988)
The fourth core idea in the theory is the social utility of
network connections, or that the social networks that actors create
provide opportunities and constraints for outcomes that are
important to those actors, Burt (1992, 2000) examined the idea
of structural holes. A structural hole exists between two people in
an individual's network if the two share a tie but are not con-
nected with each other (Obstfeld, 2005). This approach suggests
that unique ties to other individuals and firms can provide supe-
rior access to information and resources, which can result in
greater opportunities to exert control.
Social network theory stresses the power of indirect ties and
pathways. The theory posits that networks are more than just two
people who interact. Instead, the planet is a diverse collection of
indirect ties and pathways that connect all of us. Travers and
Milgram (1969) asked volunteers in Nebraska to send mail to an
unknown person in Boston by sending mail to people who had a
better chance than they did of knowing that person. Results
showed that it took about six intermediaries to reach the target
person, which gave rise to the phrase “six degrees of separation.”
Small-world networks are highly locally clustered, have short path
Iengths among members, and can lead to extremely high levels
of performance, such as collaboration and creativity (Feld, 1981,
Watts, 1999). Performance levels increase in small-world networks
up to a point, then the positive effects tend to reverse (Uzzi &
Spiro, 2005)
As noted earlier, within a social network, a person's centrality,
or position, is important. Centuality describes an actor's position
relative to the entire social network (Freeman, 1978/1979)
Closeness refers to the distance (such as the average distance)
between an actor and all other actors in the network. Possible
measures of centrality inchude degree, closeness, and betweenness
(Stephenson & Zelen, 1989)
Network analysis can be traced back to Moreno (1934), who
argued that a person’s location in a social network determined
his or her behavior. Moreno's concept of “sociometry” typically
examined a single type of tie, namely cliques of tightly clustered
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individuals, and chains of connectivity expressed in diagrams
called “sociograms.”
Older ideas of social network theory have become new again
with the use of information technology. For example, Simmel
(1908/1950) wrote about a stranger as being a member of a group
ina spatial sense, but not a member of a group in a social sense
A stranger may be in a group but not of it, and may be both near
and far and familiar and foreign. These ideas from over a century
ago have become very relevant today due to rapid advances in
communication and network technologies.
Newer roles in social networks are being examined, such as
“brokers” (White, 1993; Burt, 2005). Brokers control access to
resources, bridge gaps to nonredundant contacts, and exploit
links for their own benefit. A tertius iungens (a third who joins)
brings unconnected people together, whereas a tertius gaudens (a
third who enjoys) is a broker who exploits others in the network
for his or her own personal gain (Obstfeld, 2005)
Criticisms and Critiques of the Theory
One of the main criticisms of the theory is that social network
researchers themselves dispute the manner in which important
concepts are defined and operationalized, such as social struc-
ture, network centrality, distance, cohesion, and the term social
network itself (Embirbayer & Goodwin, 1994)
A second criticism has to do with identifying which nodes to
study. Researchers have to decide which nodes to include and
exclude, a choice that can result in important social actors being
left out (Laumann, Marsden, & Prensky, 1983). There is also
considerable debate over what constitutes a tic among social
actors, and to what extent nodes are connected or not (Borgatti
& Halgin, in press)
Another criticism has been made over the use of categorical
or individual differences in the social actors (Wellman, 1983)
Some network analysts follow the “anticategorical imperative” that
rejects all use of actor attributes (such as class, age, gender, social
status, religion, ethnicity, and sexual orientation) to explain
behaviors (Durkheim, 1951; Erickson, 1988) in favor of a network
structural explanation. In contrast, researchers from a psychologi-
cal perspective have focused on individual difference reasonsSoctst. Networx Turon 301
(such as selfmonitoring) to explain why some people maintain
more favorable network positions over others (Kilduff &
Krackhardt, 2008). Critics of this approach argue that it will
require researchers to examine hundreds of individual difference
variables and their influence on actor position and behavior in
social networks (Kilduif & Brass, 2010)
There is also debate over why people join networks. People
may form network ties that are only incidentally useful to them.
However, people may also join networks for more strategic and
instrumental reasons (Kilduff & Brass, 2010)
Measuring Variables in the Theory
Social pressure to use computers, and other scales. Frank, K.A.,
‘Zhao, ¥., & Borman, K. (2004). Social capital and the diffusion of
innovations within organizations: The case of computer technol-
ogy in schools. Sociology of Education, 77, 148-171
Strong ties, weak ties, and other measures, Tindall, D. B. (2002,
November). Social networks, identification and participation in
an environmental movement: Low-medium cost activism within
the British Columbia wilderness preservation movement. Ganadian
Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 39, 413-452.
Convoy structure measure. Levitt, M. J., Guacci-Franco, N., &
Levitt, J. L. (1993). Convoys of social support in childhood and
carly adolescence: Structure and function, Developmental Psychology,
29, 811-818,
Maximum relatedness subnetwork approach. Lee, 8. H1., Kim,
P4., Abn, ¥-¥., & Jeong, H. (2010). Googling social interactions
Web search engine based social network construction. PLoS ONE,
3(7), 1-11
Suggestions for Further Research
1, Compare direct versus indirect managerial influences on
employees’ social networks and behaviors.
2. Examine the similarities and differences among strong and
weak, positive and negative, and symmetrical and asymmetrical
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ties among individuals in social networks, and their impact on
outcomes.
3. Explore the range in the strength of ties among people and
the causes for that range of strength, such as individual
differences.
4, Look at the range in the number of strong and weak ties and
methods used by people to manage and maintain those ties,
and the impact of the number of ties on attitudes and
behaviors.
5. Compare crossnational, cross-cultural versus same-country,
same-culture aspects of social networks.
6, Examine the range of strangers, newcomers, acquaintances,
friends, and intimates as being simultaneously near and far,
familiar and foreign.
Explore network duration, such as how social networks form,
grow, change, adapt, and finally die out over time.
8. Look at competition and cooperation among networks and
how networks support and/or harm cach other,
9, Study the way that people rationalize and maintain their rela-
tionships within competing and opposing networks
10, Explore universal characteristics of random versus nonran-
dom social networks
References to Know
Bames, J. A. (1954). Class and committees in a Norwegian island
parish, Human Relations, 7, 39-58
Brass, D. J, (in press). A social network perspective on industrial/
organizational psychology. In S. Kozlowski (Id.), The Oxford
handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. New York
Oxford University Press.
Burt, R. (2005). Brokerage and social closure. Oxford: Oxford
University Press
Sranovetter, M. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American Journal
of Sociology, 78, 1360-1380.
Kilduff, M., & Brass, D. J. (2010, June). Organizational social
network research: Gore ideas and key debates. Academy of
Management Annals, 4, 317-357.Soctat. Networx Tuony 303
Implications of the Theory for Managers
Social networks are vital for sustaining and improving employee
attitudes, behaviors, and even health and well-being. A primary
focus of social network theory is that social actors (individuals,
groups, and organizations) are connected to others through
strong or weak ties. These ties help shape the attitudes and behav
iors of those in the network and can influence a number of out-
comes that are important to the actors. As a manager, seek to
connect with the powerful social networks in your organization
so that you can benefit from these important connections, which
can help enhance your own performance.
Help foster the creation and maintenance of social networks
that work to improve and sustain important organizational out-
comes, Weak ties can be important for bringing unrelated social
networks together. Work to help build ties and bridges among
important, but unrelated, social networks in your organization
Doing so may help more employees share in information and
resource exchanges that can enable them to work more effectively
than they would without such exchanges.
You can influence social networks either directly or indivectly.
You can directly interact with employees, both face-to-face and
through communication media. However, direct interaction can
take a significant amount of time and energy. You can also use
advocates, willing and able third parties who work on your behalf,
to improve and sustain important social networks.
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