2 Carto Projections PDF

Practical Exercise 2
Cartography and Map Projections
Department of Physical Geography and Ecosystems

Analysis, and GIS Centre at Lund University, Sweden
Introduction to Geographical Information Systems
GISA01
2 Cartography and Map Projections
2.1. Purpose
When working with geographical data it is very common that you use data from several
sources with the data often having different projections, coordinate systems and/or
reference systems. In order to integrate data layers, some of it might have to be
transformed to make all of the data geometrically compatible. Transforming geographical
data often involves complicated mathematical calculations.
Advanced GIS software applications include tools for transformation between different
projections. Much software also include tools to transform between different geodetic
reference systems where empirical parameters are either defined by the user or
predefined.
The aim of this exercise is to provide you with an introduction to map projections. More
specifically, you will learn the following:
- What map projections are.
- How the shape and properties of a land surface area on a map changes depending on
the map projection.
- How to choose the most appropriate projection for a certain area or application.
- What parameters that are required for different types of map projections and how they
should be interpreted.
- Projection operations in ArcGIS.
Note: You can find tips and tricks in the manual How to in ArcGIS located in
Course Information on the course homepage. There is for instance a section,
Coordinate Systems in ArcGIS, that might come in handy for this exercise. The
manual was written for ArcGIS 9.2 but it is in almost all cases also valid for
ArcGIS 9.3 as well.
2.2. Data
In Moodle, you can find a zip-file with the name DATA2_Cartography_and_Projections.
Download and save the file to your computer and use WinZip to unzip the files. The
unzipped files contain the following data over Canada:
Canada Shapefile: .shp, .shx, .dbf, .prj. Coordinates in lat, long with reference
system WGS84.
15-01-2010 Copyright 2010. Lund University GIS Centre. All rights reserved. 1
Can_cities Shapefile: .shp, .shx, .dbf .prj. Coordinates in lat, long with reference
system WGS84.
Create a folder in your local working directory with the name 2_Cart_projections (e.g.
C:\GISA01\Practical\2_Cart_projections). It is recommended that you keep an organized
file structure on your computer.
2.3. Background
2.3.1. Coordinate systems

When working with all forms of spatial data, one needs to specify locations of features on
the Earth. This is normally done by giving a certain object or location coordinates using
three-dimensional coordinate systems. There are three different such coordinate systems
in use, namely:
- Longitude () and spherical latitude (), assuming the Earth as a sphere
- Longitude () and geographic latitude (), assuming the Earth is an ellipsoid
- Geocentric three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, and Z).
Longitudes and latitudes form a grid on the Earth, but they are not uniform units of
measure as it is only around the equator that the distance represented by one degree of
longitude is approximately the same as the distance represented by one degree of latitude.
Since these coordinate systems are three-dimensional, a basic geographical problem is
how to transfer a globes meridians (longitudes) and parallels (latitudes) to a flat paper
map or a computer screen. To do this, one needs to use map projections.
2.3.2. Map projections

Map projections are relatively complex mathematical functions that might have no direct
physical interpretation. However, map projections can be classified based on:
- The shape of the projection surface onto which the Earth is projected and its position
or orientation.
- The spatial attributes that are preserved.
A projection surface is the surface onto which the Earth is projected. There are three
basic projection surfaces: azimuthal, conical and cylindrical. There also exists several
other projection surfaces such as pseudoconic, pseudocylindrical, pseudoazimuthal,
retroazimuthal, polyconic etc., however, we will not explain these in this exercise.
Transversal cylindrical
Cylindrical projection Conical Azimuthal
projection
(normal)
Cylinder touches the Cylinder touches a Cone touches a Plane touches one point
Earths equator central meridian standard parallel
Since the Earth is basically round and maps are flat, the process of flattening the Earth
will inevitably cause distortions in some of the metric properties area, distance and angle.
No map projection can preserve all of these metric properties and as a result, all flat maps
are distorted to some degree. Distortions are always at a minimum where the projection
surface tangents the Earth. Fortunately, you can choose from many different map
projections, each distinguished by its suitability for representing a particular part of the
Earth's surface and by its ability to preserve metric properties, mainly area or angles.
Some map projections minimize distortion in one property at the expense of another,
while others strive to balance the overall distortion. As a mapmaker, you can decide
which of the properties that you find most important and choose a projection that suits
your needs.
2.3.2.1. Conformal projections

Conformal projections preserve angles or shapes locally. To preserve individual angles it
must show the perpendicular graticule lines (parallels of latitude and meridians of
longitude) intersecting at 90-degree angles on the map. A map projection accomplishes
this by maintaining all angles. The drawback is that areas may be greatly distorted in the
process. No map projection can preserve angles or shapes over larger regions.
2.3.2.2. Equal area projections

Equal area projections preserve areas whereas angles or shapes are distorted. Generally
the graticules do not intersect at 90-degree angles to preserve area. In some instances,
especially maps of smaller regions, shapes may not appear distorted. In this case,
distinguishing an equal area projection from a conformal projection might be difficult
unless documented or measured.
2.3.2.3. Projections with other properties

Equidistant map projections preserve distances between certain points. Scale is not
maintained correctly by any projection throughout an entire map. Most equidistant
projections have one or more lines for which the length of the line on a map is the same
length (at map scale) as the same line on the globe. Such distances are said to be true.
The shortest route between two points on a curved surface, such as the Earth, is along the
spherical equivalent of a straight line on a flat surface, i.e. a great circle. True-direction,
or azimuthal, projections maintain some of the great circle arcs, giving the directions, or
azimuths, to all points on the map correctly with respect to the center. Some true-
direction projections are also conformal, equal area, or equidistant.
2.3.2.4. Map projection parameters

When you have decided on a map projection you will have to decide on map projection
parameters. These differ between projections, but they do all; i) define where the
projection surface tangents the Earth (along one or two meridians, one or two parallels, or
at one point); ii) define where the origin of the plane coordinate system is and; iii) define
if the projection is secant.
2.3.3. Map projections and coordinate systems in ArcGIS

The combination of the three-dimensional coordinate system and the Earth model
(ellipsoid) is in ArcGIS called a geographical coordinate system.
A flat, Cartesian coordinate system is in ArcGIS called a projected coordinate system, i.e.
a map projection has been applied and a Cartesian flat coordinate system has been
defined. Note that for any projected coordinate system it is also necessary to define the
geographical coordinate system.
If your spatial data (the coordinates in your shapefiles) give locations of features in
latitude and longitude (decimal degrees or degrees, minutes and seconds) you can still
display it on your map. ArcMap draws the data by simply treating the latitude/longitude
coordinates as planar X- and Y- coordinates. If you just want to make a quick map, you
might decide to not transform the data to a projected coordinate system. If, however, you
need to do measurements in your map, you should choose a projected coordinate system.
When you add a layer to a map, its appearance and the result of measurements depend
mainly on the projection and coordinate system used. The Metadata tab in ArcCatalog
can be used to see this information.
When data with different projections are added to the same data frame, the features in the
different layers are correctly positioned with respect to each other. This is because
ArcMap uses a projection process called on-the-fly projection that temporally transforms
layers to the coordinate system of the layer added first. On the fly projection is only
temporary and does not affect the original coordinates in the data file.
2.3.4. An example: A Swedish reference system, RT90

RT90 was the national Swedish reference system until it was replaced by SWEREF 99 in
2007. RT90 uses a transverse cylinder, which touches the globe along a central meridian.
In order to minimize distortions in the whole country the central meridian is placed in the
middle of Sweden (blue line in images below). If you look at the pictures below, you
might also notice that this type of projection is rather appropriate for countries that are
long and narrow in a north to south direction, just like Sweden.
Sweden
The central meridian has the longitude coordinate value 15 48 29.8 (15 degrees, 48
minutes, 29.8 which equals approximately 15.81 decimal degrees). The unit of the plane
coordinate system is meters. The rest of the parameters defining RT90 can be found in
the table below.
Parameter RT90
Type of projection: Transverse Mercator
Unit: Meters
Form: Transverse or laying cylinder
Ellipsoid (spheroid): Bessel 1841
Datum: RT90
Central meridian: 15.80827777 degrees east of

Greenwich
Scaling factor at centre meridian: 1.0
Latitude of origin 0 degrees (the Equator)
False easting: 1 500 000 meters (displacement of

X to achieve positive X-coordinates
in all of Sweden)
False northing 0.0 meter
2.4. Answers to be sent to teachers

All students have to send answers for questions 2.1 2.11 by email to the teachers as
indicated in the document Sending Answers to Teachers available in the section Course
Information on the course homepage.
2.5. Method
2.5.1. Exploring the data

- Start ArcCatalog and navigate to or create a folder connection to the folder
containing the data for this exercise. Check the information about coordinate
system and projection in the metadata for all of the data layers.
- Select one of the data layers in the Catalog tree.
- Switch to the Metadata tab.
- In the Stylesheet drop down menu make sure that the default stylesheet FGDC
ESRI is selected, then click on Spatial in metadata.
Here you find information regarding the layers coordinates and what projection that is
used. You also find information on which Earth model that is used for the layer. In this
case the Earth model is called WGS 84 with coordinates as latitude and longitude
(geographical coordinates stored in decimal degrees).
2.5.2. Reading coordinates and changing the scale

- Start ArcMap and open A new empty map.
Tip: You can launch ArcMap in ArcCatalog by clicking in the Standard

toolbar.
- Add the two layers Canada and Can_cities.

- Make sure that the drawing order in the Table of Contents (TOC) is Can_cities
layer on top and Canada at the bottom.
The coordinates are shown at the bottom-right in ArcMap, whereas the scale is defined in
the drop down menu in the Standard toolbar. If you move the cursor over the map, you
can see how the coordinates change. It is often possible to obtain more exact coordinates
of a specific object if the map is zoomed in on it.
Scale
Coordinates
It is possible to change units of the displayed coordinates in the bottom right corner.
- Open the data frame properties dialog box by right clicking the data frame
. The Data Frame Properties dialog window appears.
- Click the General tab and choose a different Display unit and then click OK to
apply.
Notice the change in units at the bottom right when moving the cursor over the map
display window.
- Change display units back to Decimal Degrees.
Both Canada and Can_cities are located under the same data frame, which means that
these two layers have a common coordinate system (projection). ArcMap sets coordinate
system (projection) of the data frame to be the same as that of the first added layer. Other
layers added afterwards will be transformed on-the-fly to the current coordinate system of
the data frame if necessary. If the first layer does not have a coordinate system, ArcMap
sets the coordinate system of data frame to Unknown.
Question 2.1: Why are Decimal Degrees set as map units in the Data Frame
Properties?
- Save a map document in your working folder by clicking File > Save as in the
main menu. Give it the name Projections.mxd and make sure to double-check
that you really saved it at the right place.
In the scale drop down menu you can either choose one of the options in the drop down
menu or you can specify a custom scale by typing and pressing Enter. This is basically
yet another way to zoom in or out in the map display window.
- At scale, type 1:500000000 and press Enter. Also try 1:50000000000 and
notice the changed extent in the display window.
Now lets locate the cities or towns Whitehorse and Schefferville and find out what their
latitude and longitude coordinates are. We will use the attribute table to locate the cities.
- Right click on Can_cities in the TOC and choose to Open Attribute Table.
- Select one of the two cities in the attribute table and zoom in on them in the
display window.
Tip: When one or several features are selected you can zoom in on them by
clicking Selection > Zoom to Selected Features in the main menu.
- Now click the Identify tool and click on the city you zoomed in on. View the
details of the city in the Identify results window.
Notice that the Identify Results window also shows you the coordinates of the selected
object. There is also an option to show coordinates in different units by clicking the tiny
arrow button to the right of Location coordinates box.
- Change units in the Identify results window to Degrees Decimal Minutes and
answer the question below.
Question 2.2: What are the approximate coordinates of Whitehorse and

Schefferville in Degrees Decimal Minutes?
2.5.3. Data view and layout view

You will now study how Canada looks like in six different projections. ArcMap lets you
view maps in two different ways through either the Data View or the Layout View. Up till
now, you have only been viewing data using the Data View. The Layout View can be
used to prepare a maps layout or it can be used to arrange several maps at once for
comparison.
Switching between the Data View and the Layout View is easy. You can either click View
> Data View or Layout View in the main menu or you can click the tiny buttons found in
the lower-left part of the map display window. for Data View and for Layout View.
- Zoom to Full Extent and switch over to Layout view.
- Click File > Page and Print Setup in the main menu and change the page
Orientation to Landscape.
- Click on the map in the Layout View to activate it.
When activated, small boxes should appear around the map indicating that the data frame
named Layers in the TOC is selected.
When you place your cursor over one of the boxes, the cursors symbol changes to a
double-headed arrow. When this happens it is possible to change the size of the map.
Placing the cursor inside the map allows you to move it.
- Change the size of the data frame by dragging the small boxes. Make the data
frame square, about the 1/6 the size of the whole page and move it to the upper-
left corner.
- Save your map document (File > Save).
2.5.4. Create a coordinate grid

To make it easier to see how the geometry changes with different map projections you
want a grid of latitudes and longitudes to be drawn on your map. This grid is applied to
the whole map, not only to one layer, and is therefore a property of the whole data frame.
- Open the Data Frame Properties dialog window by right clicking the data
frame Layers.
- Select the tab Grids and click New Grid. The Grids and Graticules Wizard will
appear.
- Choose to create a Graticule (divides map by meridians and parallels) and click
Next.
- Choose an interval of 30 between both parallels and meridians and click Next
again.
- At Text style under Labeling press the button with the alphabetical letters on it
and change the font size from 6 to 8 points. Click OK and Next.
- Click Finish and finally OK in the Data Frame Properties dialog window.
2.5.5. Copy and paste a data frame

As previously mentioned ArcMap uses a process called on the fly that makes it possible
to visualize data together although they might have different projections. The projection
change is only temporary and does not affect the original coordinate values of the data.
Now, lets get 6 identical maps on the layout page in Layout View so we can compare
different map projections.
- Set the scale for your Canada map to 1:150000000.
- Select the data frame name Layers in the TOC and click Edit > Copy in the
main menu.
- Click somewhere outside the outlined data frame Layers in Layout View and
click Edit > Paste. You should now have two Canada maps in your Layout
View. Move it so it is placed to the right of your first Canada map.
Notice that when you copy a data frame in Layout View, a second data frame appears in
the TOC. At the moment, they both have the same name Layers.
- Repeat the procedure until you have six identical maps distributed on your
layout page in Layout View (and six data frames named Layers in the TOC).
- Save your map document (File > Save).
When you activate or select a map or data frame by clicking on it in the Layout View (the
small boxes around it becomes visible), the corresponding data frame is also activated or
selected in the TOC (indicated with bold letters). You can also activate a data frame in
the TOC by right clicking the data frame name and selecting Activate from the context
menu.
As opposed to Layout View, you can only view one data frame at a time in Data View.
However, you can toggle between different data frames in Data View by activating them.
Note: You can sometimes encounter graphical glitches in Layout View that
cause map elements to not be properly displayed. If this happens, switching
over to Data View and then back to Layout View again normally solves the
problem.
If by clicking, dragging or moving action your maps get different sizes you can change
them to the same size by following the steps below.
- Click first on the map which size you want to change to select it. Press SHIFT
and then click on the map to which size you want the first one to change to.
This procedure selects both maps but they must be selected in this order.
- When both maps are selected, right click on one of them and select Distribute >
Make Same Size.
2.5.6. Projecting the layers

Now you are ready to display all your six maps in different map projections.
- Activate or select the upper middle map.
- Right click on it and from the context menu choose Properties. Alternatively,
you can right click on its name in the TOC and choose Properties. In any case
the Data Frame Properties dialog window should appear.
- Click the tab General and change the name of the data frame to Albers Equal-
Area Conic (this gives the data frame another name than Layers).
- Click the tab Coordinate System. In the Select a coordinate system box click
Predefined > Projected Coordinate System > Continental > North America >
Canada Albers Equal Area Conic.
- Click Apply and OK.
When clicking Apply you might get a warning message telling you that the coordinate
system has a geographic coordinate system that differs from one or more data sources in
the map. Simply ignore this message by clicking Yes.
Notice how the shape of Canada changed dramatically. Also note that the data frame has
a new name in the TOC.
- Open the Data Frame Properties dialog window again and take a more
thorough look at the information in the Coordinate System tab.
Take a look at the info in the upper part of the dialog box in Current coordinate system.
These are parameter settings for the chosen map projection. Lets try to interpret them.
Also, look at the map window and try to locate the central meridian and standard parallels
by using your cursor.
- Canada_Albers_Equal_Area_Conic. The name of the projection in ArcGIS. Equal

Area is the property of the projection. Conic is the type of projection surface used.
- Central Meridian: -96.0. This is the longitude (96 W) where the projection is
centered. In this case it is in the middle of Canada.
- Standard Parallel 1: 50 and Standard Parallel 2: 70. These are the parallels (50 N
and 70 N) where the cone touches or tangents the Earth.
- Latitude of Origin: 40. This is the origin of the plane coordinate system in north/south
direction (40 N).
- False Easting: 0. There are no added or subtracted values to the East/West plane
coordinate values.
- False Northing: 0. There are no added or subtracted values to the North/South plane
coordinates.
A conic projection is appropriate for Canada as the country is located on mid latitudes
and covers a large area extended in east to west direction. Since this is the basic type
where the projection surface gets as close as possible to the globe where Canada is
located. The projection is centered in the middle of the area which is to be mapped. The
cone touches the globe along parallels distributed evenly in North/South direction over
the area to be mapped.
You now have Canada projected in the first projection Albers Equal Area Conic
projection.
- Save your map document. Continue to do this regularly so you dont loose what
you have done so far.
Now, you will repeat the procedure of projecting and naming the other data frames in
your Layout View.
- Open the Data Frame Properties dialog window for the upper right frame.
- Change the name of the data frame to Lambert Conformal Conic in the General
tab.
- In the tab Coordinate System, choose Predefined > Projected Coordinate
System > Continental > North America > Canada Lambert Conformal Conic.
- Click Apply and OK. Ignore the warning message as before by clicking Yes.
Now continue with the other three data frames using the following data frame names and
map projections:
- Data Frame 4:
- Name: Mercator.
- Coordinate system: Predefined > Projected Coordinate System > World >
Mercator (World).
- Data Frame 5:
- Name: UTM.
- Coordinate system: Predefined > Projected Coordinate System > UTM > WGS
1984 > WGS 1984 UTM Zone 15N.
- Data Frame 6:
- Name: Orthographic.
- Coordinate system: Predefined > Projected Coordinate System > World > The
world from space.
You may have to adjust the extent of some of the data frames in order to view the whole
of Canada. Make sure to set the scale to 1:150000000 again afterwards.
If needed you can pan the data using Pan in the Tools toolbar just as you would in
Data View.
If you want you can also change the colour of Canada in the different maps to distinguish
the different projections. To do this, just click on the symbol below Canada in the TOC
for each of the data frames. Your layout should look similar to the figure below.
2.5.7. Comparing the projections

In order to understand how map projections influence the geometry of your map you are
now going to study each map in your layout. While doing so, read about each projection
through using ArcGIS Desktop Help (Help > ArcGIS Desktop Help or press F1). Just
search for List of supported map projections. In this section of ArcGIS Desktop Help you
can read about projections and what parameters they required. For UTM, you may want
to read about Transverse Mercator to get information on properties and parameters.
- Compare the projections as you proceed through the following short summary.
Study the pattern and shape of parallels and meridians and keep the basic type
of projection surface in mind when you try to understand how map projections
work.
In the Mercator projection, a normal (standing) cylinder is used, which tangents the
Earth along the Equator. As you may notice, it gives a very different depiction of Canada
compared to for example UTM. Distortions become greater towards the poles. Along the
equator there are no distortions. The Mercator projection has historically often been used
for world maps and atlases, giving many people in the world a very incorrect view of the
relative size of the Earth landmasses.
UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) is used for national topographical maps in many
countries all over the world. The transverse (laying) cylinder used will give big
distortions if the country projected has a large extension in East/West. Hence, UTM is
divided into 60 zones; all with a specific central meridian (in the centre of each zone).
The zones are depicted in the image on the last page of this exercise.
When depicting larger areas on the mid latitudes, like Canada or Russia, conic
projections are often used. One example of a conic projection is Lamberts Conformal
Conic projection. The cone touches the globe along one or two standard parallels instead
of a central meridian (two standard parallels are created if the cone cuts through the
globe). The conformal projection makes all angles (and thereby shapes) locally correct,
but the areas in the map will not be accurate according to scale.
Finally take a look at Albers Equal-Area Conic projection. This projection gives true
values for areas (according to scale) and is suitable for area calculations. Remember that
a map can never be both conformal and equal-area at the same time.
Question 2.3: For each of the five projections, which metric properties do the
projections have? Combine projections and metric properties correctly. Note that
some of the following alternatives might not be appropriate at all!
A, Albers Equal Area Conic I, Conformal VI, Cylinder
B, Lambert Conformal Conic II, None
C, Mercator III, Equal area
D, UTM IV, Orthographic
E, Orthographic V, True in all aspects
Question 2.4: For each of the five projections, which projection surface does the
projection have? Note that some of the following alternatives might not be
appropriate at all!
A, Albers Equal Area Conic I, Conic VI, Ellipsoidal
B, Lambert Conformal Conic II, Orthographic
C, Mercator III, Cylindrical
D, UTM IV, Azimuthal
E, Orthographic V, Conformal
Question 2.5: At which meridian does UTM zone 15 have its tangent (central
meridian)?
Question 2.6: Which UTM zone should you choose to depict Yukon, the Territory
where the city of Whitehorse is located, as accurate as possible? You can use the
global UTM zone map on the last page to solve this question.
Question 2.7: Give an example of the usage of each of the projections listed in
question 2.3 and 2.4.
Imagine that you are put to the task of inventorying Canadian forests and that you would
have to do some area calculations.
Question 2.8: In which of the projections is Canada biggest?
Question 2.9: In which projection would calculations of areas in Canada be most

accurate?
- Save your map document by clicking File > Save and then create a new one by
clicking File > New.
2.5.8. Investigating standard parallels and central meridians

We will now investigate the importance of the placement of standard parallels in conic
projections.
- Add the Canada layer to your new project.
- In the Data Frame Properties dialog window select the Coordinate System tab
and select the coordinate system Canada Albers Equal Area Conic (Predefined
> Projected Coordinate Systems > Continental > North America)
- In the General tab, rename your data frame to A: Canada Albers Equal Area
Conic
Question 2.10: What are the latitudes for the standard parallels in the predefined
Canada Albers Equal Area Conic projection? Why do you think these latitudes are
chosen?
- Make three new data frames through using Copy and Paste. Name them B, C
and D respectively.
- Go to Layout View. Distribute the data frames evenly on the layout page and
give them the same size and scale.
You will now keep the same projection for all of the four data frames, but you will
change the latitudes of standard parallels to see the effect of the shape and scale of
Canada when performing the changes.
- In the Data Frame Properties dialog window for B click the tab Coordinate
Systems and click Modify. Change the value of Standard Parallels 1 and 2 to 8
and 18 respectively. Then click OK twice to confirm the changes.
- Change the Standard Parallels 1 and 2 to 20 and 60 for data frame C and 5
and -42 for data frame D.
- Compare the maps. Change the extent of all of the data frames if necessary, but
make sure they all have the same scale before comparing them.
Now that you have changed values of the standard parallels in the three data frames B, C
and D, you might notice that these data frames are no longer suitable for mapping
Canada, but for other regions.
Question 2.11: View the map of the World showing latitudes and longitudes in the
last page of this document. In what regions do you think the data frames B, C, and
D would be best suited? Choose between the proposals below:
B Hawaii
C South America
D USA
End of Practical Exercise 2
Send your answers to the teacher as instructed

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Practical Exercise 2

Cartography and Map Projections

Department of Physical Geography and Ecosystems

Introduction to Geographical Information Systems

2 Cartography and Map Projections

2.3.1. Coordinate systems

2.3.2. Map projections

2.3.2.1. Conformal projections

2.3.2.2. Equal area projections

2.3.2.3. Projections with other properties

2.3.2.4. Map projection parameters

2.3.3. Map projections and coordinate systems in ArcGIS

2.3.4. An example: A Swedish reference system, RT90

Type of projection: Transverse Mercator

Form: Transverse or laying cylinder

Ellipsoid (spheroid): Bessel 1841

Central meridian: 15.80827777 degrees east of

Scaling factor at centre meridian: 1.0

Latitude of origin 0 degrees (the Equator)

False easting: 1 500 000 meters (displacement of

False northing 0.0 meter

2.4. Answers to be sent to teachers

2.5.1. Exploring the data

2.5.2. Reading coordinates and changing the scale

Tip: You can launch ArcMap in ArcCatalog by clicking in the Standard

- Add the two layers Canada and Can_cities.

Question 2.2: What are the approximate coordinates of Whitehorse and

2.5.3. Data view and layout view

- Save your map document (File > Save).

2.5.4. Create a coordinate grid

2.5.5. Copy and paste a data frame

- Save your map document (File > Save).

2.5.6. Projecting the layers

- Canada_Albers_Equal_Area_Conic. The name of the projection in ArcGIS. Equal

2.5.7. Comparing the projections

B, Lambert Conformal Conic II, None

C, Mercator III, Equal area

D, UTM IV, Orthographic

E, Orthographic V, True in all aspects

B, Lambert Conformal Conic II, Orthographic

C, Mercator III, Cylindrical

D, UTM IV, Azimuthal

Question 2.8: In which of the projections is Canada biggest?

Question 2.9: In which projection would calculations of areas in Canada be most

2.5.8. Investigating standard parallels and central meridians

End of Practical Exercise 2

Send your answers to the teacher as instructed

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