Weakness of Liberal Italy: Pre 1914

Foreign policy Humiliating defeat in Adowa in 1896 when it attempted to expand control into Ethiopia
+ Nationalism Gained the colony of Libya in 1912
Irredentism: nationalist movement in the late 19 and early 20 century to promote unification of
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geographic areas with ethnic Italian or Italian speaking persons (Nice, Savoy + other Austria-
Hungary territories)
Nationalists encouraged Giolitti to invade Libya to prevent the French from taking over; socialists
found this to be against the interest of the working class
Libyan war 1911-1917 captured Ottoman provinces; cost + mismanagement discredited existing
regime
Political Limited franchise of only 2 million Italian men prior to 1912
instability Trasformismo: liberal coalition governments maintained by bribery or by government grants +
contracts to transform their membership
Reflected corruption, and the lack of partisan representation in parliament, defining feature of
liberal Italy
Created large political coalitions without structured party; no strong party allegiance
Did little to solve Italys problems: illiteracy, regional differences + economic backwardness
Led to distrust of Giolitti + his policies
New political Italian Socialist Party (PSI): won 32 seats by 1900; published Avanti
movements Syndicalists: believed that workers should seize control by force to take over the state; 100,000
members by 1914; believed in nationalism along with left-wing economic ideas; rallies + slogans
> reasoned arguments
Unions: 250,000 workers in unions by 1902; organised strikes; skilled male workers
Chambers of Labour: ran schools, labour exchanges, shops; inspired by Christian morality
Impacts of War
Economy War expenditure increased debt from 16-85 million lira from 1914-1918
In 1919 the lira lost almost half its value
Inflation rose by 400% from 1913-1918
Switch from war production to free market production resulted in large firms going bankrupt
2 million unemployed workers by the end of 1919, due to the demobilisation of 5 million soldiers
Right-wing Mutilated victory, coined by DAnnunzio, describing Italys failure to obtain territorial demands in
pressure peace treaty
Wilsons self-determination contradicted Italys expansionist goals; nationalists felt they were
betrayed
Was not granted Fiume DAnnunzio led 2000 armed followers, arditi, to occupy Fiume in
September 1919
Nitti did not take action against occupiers = weak + cowardly; Giolitti ended occupation with the
Italian military, adding anger against Giolittis government
Liberal government lost legitimacy; provided an example to fascists
Left-wing After Orlando granted universal male suffrage, the election in 1919 allowed the Socialist Party and
pressure the Catholic Popular Party to be the two dominant parties in the Chamber
Liberal groups reduced in size
Growing instability due to inability to form alliances
By 1920, almost 3.5 million workers were in trade unions Bienno Rosso 1919-1920
Strikes were not revolutionary, only defence of their standard of living in post-war economic climate
Inflation wiped out debts for peasants; many became prosperous for the first time in their lives
Consequence of the social and economic crisis was a collapse in confidence in the political system
Labour unrest, food riots and perceived government leniency with the unions upset the middle
classes
Nittis government failed to back the police and assert rule of law
Wealthier citizens had to look elsewhere for help in response to the socialist unrest the government
 failed to protect the middle classes

Origins of Fascism
Establishment March 1919 formation of the First Combat Group
Mussolini was the main speaker, presenting a radical left-wing political programme
Replacing the monarchy with a republic; confiscating Church property
Worker management of industry; peasant ownership of land
Rising taxation; national minimum wage
Vecchi organised an attack on Avanti, the socialist newspaper Mussolini took no part but
defended it
Organised a private army of several hundred Arditi, but the fascist party was overshadowed by
DAnnunzios organisation
The fascist Social confusion and political drift in post-war Italy gave Mussolini his chance
appeal Movement offered direct solutions to complex grievances in Italy
Fascism stressed national identity, appealing to those who fought in the war + betrayed by
mutilated victory
Left-wing ideology appealed to disillusioned socialists
Rural fascism Rural Labour Leagues, a form of rural trade union, took control of local governments in Tuscany
and Emilia
Squadristi, young fascists, attacked socialist Leagues, encouraged by landowners and large
farmers
Police did not interfere; army showed indifference
Gave fascists a higher profile + nature of fascism
By late 1920, rural landlords and urban industrialists began paying for their help, tolerating right-
wing violence
Some liberals saw them as defenders of the country against the Red Threat
Mussolini had no direct control over the squadristi, led by the ras
Pact of Ras controlled their men + had own local power base; generally more radical than Mussolini
Pacifiation, In August 1921, Mussolini signed the Peace of Pacification, a deal between socialist trade unions
1921 and the fascists, an attempt to make the movement more respectable + legal
Challenged the ras who were committed to destroying its enemies by confrontation
Some ras went so far as to urge DAnnunzio to replace Mussolini, who then abandoned the pact

Fascisms Changing Programme

Vested By 1921 the fascist programme became more conservative through its violent opposition to socialism
interest Middle-class, property owners + better-off peasantry found their appeal; felt the Liberal State no
longer protected their interests
Opposed divorce to calm the fears of the Church
Remained diverse move to the right attracted conservative support
1921 In May 1921, Giolitti accepted Mussolinis offer of an electoral pact, allowing the Fascists into national
election politics
Ensured the respectability of the fascist candidates recognised that violence alone could not provide
a route to government
Won 7% of the votes
Fascist PNF, the Fascist Party was established in October 1921
Party Characterised by effective anti-socialism
Patriotism contrasted liberal failures to protect Italian interests
Emphasised Mussolinis leadership

March on Rome
Fascist Fascist violence increased in 1922, seizing control of towns and provinces in May, 40000, led
advancement by Balbo, seized Ferrara and Bologna
Facta resigned in July, being unable to deal with violence in Cremona
Italy had no government for 12 days until Facta returned to power
The squadristi took over essential public services during a general strike in August 1922
 heroes against the Red Threat, seen has having saved democracy

Mussolini Mussolini threatened to organise a fascist march on Rome to take control, in order to save
threatens the Italy from anarchy and communism
March The speech of fascist intentions given in September reassured that he was not going to
challenge the king and the army, and to preserve the Italian state
March on Rome Mussolini demanded that Facta take leading fascists into the cabinet
On the 24 October, Mussolini held a rally attended by over 40000, declaring either they will
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give us government or we will take it by marching on Rome

On the 27 October, 26000 Fascists advanced to Rome. Victor Emmanuel refused to sign the
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decree calling for the introduction of martial law

Historian Dennis Mack: the king was drawn to Mussolinis strength
Facta offered his resignation, promptly accepted by the king
The king requested Salandra to form a government, but insisted that the fascists be included
in the cabinet
Mussolini rejected the offer until he was offered the post of Prime Minister
Summary Political breakdown:
Liberal state was inherently weak, made more acute by growth of new political parties and
changes in franchise, undermining coalition politics
War and its aftermath created new problems; ruling elite divided between support +
opposition; could not stand against a common enemy
Post-war extremist parties + political violence were normalised

Political miscalculation:
Mussolini became prime minister almost entirely by constitutional means, appointed by the
king in order to preserve law and order
Old political class chose to ignore fascist violence, believing that a minority would conform to
trasformismo politics
Consolidating the fascist regime
Fascist Militia Created in January 1923, made up of 300,000 blackshirts
(MVSN) Encouraged to have a high public profile
Sign of italy as a fascist state, despite no political power
Reassured non-fascists; strengthened the control of the fascist movement
Blackshirts - would force castor oil down throats of victims who opposed Mussolini
Revised The Acerbo Law of 1923 proposed that the party list that gained the most votes would receive
electoral of seats in the chamber, as long as it had 25% of the total votes
system Some prominent liberals believed that this would end political instability
In the election of 1924, the Fascists won a majority
In 1926, all other parties were made illegal
Matteoti Crisis The socialist leader Matteoti spoke about the way the election had been conducted with intimation
of candidates and voters, thus the results had no validity
10th June 1924, Matteoti was kidnapped and beaten to death; his body was found in August
150 of Mussolinis opponents participated in the Aventine Secession by walkout from the Chamber
of Deputies
Public was uninterested in the scandal - there were few public meetings and poorly supported
strikes
Mussolini gave a speech on the 23rd January that stated that he would not tolerate attacks from
disloyal politicians, and accepted responsibility for fascism
Deputies who wakled out were prevented from returning
The Popolari disintegrated in 1925 without support by the Vatican
By October 1926, opposition parties were banned and the OVRA was formed
The Corporate State
The Central theory - economy would be organised by corporations in which both employers and workers
Corporate were represented
State Firms would remain private, but regulated by corporations
Rocco Law in April 1926 outlawed workers strikes and employers lockouts
Workers syndicates were legally recognised, but were deliberately fragmented; did not defend the
interests of their members
Employers retained independence + power
Final structure of 22 corporations only emerged in 1934
Middle Way between communism and unregulated capitalism
Flaws Ministry of Economics worked to limit the power of corporations - many economic decisions
remained outside the control of the corporations
Subsidies and directives took on greater economic significance when autarky became the priority;
corporations were ignored
Corporate system became a vast bureaucracy where large numbers of middle-class Italians found
routine jobs, issuing licenses and permits - brake on economic development
Only served to provide employers with a docile labour force whose standards of living and,
consequently, labour costs were forced down
Significance Useful propaganda device - a middle way between communist oppression and the anarchy of
capitalism
A mirage that only centralised fascist state to control working classes
Economic policy
Currency Artificially inflated the value of the lira - proved Italys strength
Revaluation Free market abandoned, state intervened to regulate the economy
Heavy industry e.g. steel + chemicals benefitted as imports were made cheaper as they relied on
raw materials - these are the industries that would allow for the expansion of the re- armament
industry
Increased fascist propaganda to encourage workers to accept wage-cuts
In practice, wages fell more than prices so living standards of workers fell

Agriculture and The Battle for Grain, 1925 was to reduce the volume of foreign wheat imports
the land Benefitted large grain farmers of the Po Valley in the north
In the 1930s, total wheat production was double that of the pre-fascist era, and 40% higher than
the early 1920s; large decrease in wheat import
Much of the new wheat land was in the south, more suited to the production of olives or
pastureland, so wine and olive production declined valuable export trade was lost
Self-sufficiency was pursued at the expense of economic efficiency, and consequently, living
standards

Battle for Land In 1928 the Mussolini Law outlined policies on land reclamation
Drainage project of the Pontine Marsh by 1935 provided land for settlement
The actual reclamation provided work for the unemployed
Fewer than 10000 peasant families were re-settled on reclaimed land, for the drive for wheat
production called for machine-based farming methods, not hand labour

Fascist Encouragement of austerity as an excuse for deteriorating economic conditions

economic A period of economic stagnation
performance Unemployment rose to 1 million by 1933, undermining the work done by De Stefani who had
 reduced unemployment to 122000 by 1925, although this was not as bad as in countries such as
France and Britain
Volpi introduced tariffs after he came to power in 1925
Autarky was pursued for political, not economic reasons Italy could never be self-sufficient in
materials such as iron, coal or oil essential for a strong military
Purchasing power of wages in industry by the end of the 1930s had fallen to pre-1914 levels from
war spendings

Fascist Society
Overview Fascist Italy was totalitarian in theory, but failed because Mussolini compromised fascist radicalism
by deals with conservative interests
Pattern of everyday life was mostly continuous with that before fascist rule
No dramatic economic upheavel; state institutions functioned as they always had
By 1940, nearly half o the population was involved in at least one welfare organisation, which
promoted loyalty to the Duce, but also met social needs
Bodies imposed and organised from above; no upward movement of
ideas

Young People Children pressured to join official clubs of the gvernment after 1931, Church clubs were not
permitted to organise sporting activities
Regime tolerated hostile studen tuinion newspaper, articles and films, believing that these
outbursts were a safety valve

Women Number of women in employment did not fall limited power of the regime to create a fascist
society
As movement grew, the party promoted an increasingly conservative view of the role of women
The Battle for Births laws against contraception and abortion; offered marriage loans while
 bachelors were taxed extra
Birthrate fell under the fascist rule, in trned with other west European countries in the inter-war
period limites of totalitarianism

Catholic Church Catholic church withdrew support for the PPI in favour of the PNF in 1922 after the March on Rome;
undermined a major opposition party; then engineered the resignation of the leader of the PPI in
1923
Gentiles Education Act of 1923 guaranteed religious education in primary schools while keeping
the Church out of a larger role in education
Disbanded the Catholic Boy Scouts in 1927
The Lateran Accords signed in 1929 solved the Roman Question by giving the Pope the Vatican
and a compensation of 750 million lira; Catholicism made the state religion
Appeared as if the Pope endorsed the fascist regime to the rest of the world
Papacy sent a letter of protest to Mussolini in response to the Anti-Jewish Laws of 1938
Blackshirts harrassed the Catholic Action Group in 1931, had to stop after official condemnation

Leisure By 1939, 4 million people were members of the Dopolavoro systematic programmes that aimed
to provide facilities for leisure
Included subsidised day trips, holidays, camps and cheap railway fares

Acceptance Did not seriously commit their lives to fascism and the service of the state
Fascists had no political programme to transform society; no imposition of radical changes so the
majoirty were able to readjust to what became the normal way of life
By the late 1930s, the links with Nazi Germany Rome-Berlin Axis in 1937 were not well received
by the public
Italian anti-fascist volunteers fought in the Spanish Civil war, and their existence reached dissident
groups through foreign radio stations