Hydraulics PDF

IHC Hytop. B.V.
Training Course
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IHC Hytop 21-8-2008 Training Course
Table of contents
1 Basic principles .......................................................................................................... 4

1.1 An example ................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Simple calculations ....................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Function of pressure and flow in hydraulics:................................................................. 6
1.4 Efficiency ...................................................................................................................... 7
1.5 Overview units: ............................................................................................................. 9
2 Hydraulic diagrams .................................................................................................. 10
3. Components .............................................................................................................. 26
3.1 Pumps......................................................................................................................... 26
3.1.1 Gear pumps ................................................................................................................ 26
3.1.2 Screw pumps .............................................................................................................. 28
3.1.3 Vane pumps................................................................................................................ 29
3.1.4 Piston pumps .............................................................................................................. 30
3.2 Pressure relief valves ................................................................................................. 34
3.2.1 Manually adjustable pressure relief valves. ................................................................ 34
3.2.2 Proportional pressure relief valves. ............................................................................ 35
3.2.3 Accuracy of the proportional pressure relief valve. ..................................................... 36
3.3 Pressure reducing valves ........................................................................................... 38
3.3.1 Ordinary pressure reducing valves ............................................................................. 38
3.3.2 The proportional pressure reducing valve .................................................................. 39
3.4 Directional control valves. ........................................................................................... 40
3.4.1 Swiching directional control valves. ............................................................................ 40
3.4.2 Proportional directional control valves ........................................................................ 42
3.5 Non return valves (check valves) ................................................................................ 45
3.6 Flow control valves ..................................................................................................... 47
3.7 Brake valve ................................................................................................................. 49
3.8 Pump control systems ................................................................................................ 50
3.8.1 Pressure cut-off. ......................................................................................................... 50
3.8.2 Load Sensing control .................................................................................................. 50
3.8.3 Power limiter ............................................................................................................... 51
3.8.4 Hydraulic stroker ......................................................................................................... 52
3.8.5 Electric stroker ............................................................................................................ 52
3.8.6 p-Q Controller ............................................................................................................. 53
3.9 Printcards.................................................................................................................... 54
3.10 Cylinders ..................................................................................................................... 57
3.10.1 Seals ........................................................................................................................... 58
3.11 Hydraulic motors ......................................................................................................... 60
3.12 Accumulators .............................................................................................................. 62
3.13 Filters .......................................................................................................................... 64
3.14 OIl coolers................................................................................................................... 66
3.15 Hydraulic oil ................................................................................................................ 68
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IHC Hytop 21-8-2008 Training Course
4. Systems ..................................................................................................................... 71
4.1 The closed system ...................................................................................................... 71
4.2 Open circuits ............................................................................................................... 73
4.3 Ring line systems........................................................................................................ 73
4.4 Synchronised movement ............................................................................................ 74
4.5 Proportional speed control .......................................................................................... 76
4.6 Speed control.............................................................................................................. 77
5 Maintenance .............................................................................................................. 79
5.1 Some general remarks on maintenance ..................................................................... 79
5.2 Safety instructions for work on hydraulic installations ................................................ 79
5.3 General instructions for installation of equipment ....................................................... 82
5.4 Flushing ...................................................................................................................... 84
5.5 General instructions for commissioning ...................................................................... 86
5.6 General instructions for visual inspection and maintenance....................................... 87
6 Trouble shooting ...................................................................................................... 90

6.1 General guidelines for faults and fault-finding ............................................................ 90
6.2 Fault tables for various components ........................................................................... 96
6.3 Examples of problems .............................................................................................. 102
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IHC Hytop B.V. 21-8-2008 Training Course basic principles
1 Basic principles
1.1 An example
The purpose of a hydraulic system is moving a load by means of a hydraulic system.
By means of a simple example (the hydraulic jack for lifting automobiles) we will demonstrate
how this works in general and furthermore we will give clarification on the most important
hydraulic quantities.
The handpump (1) contains a relatively

small piston (2). When this piston is
operated downward a small amount of oil
is discharged through non-return valve (4)
to the jack with the large piston (5). When
the handpump piston (2) is moved
upwards again oil flows from the reservoir
(9) through non-return valve (3) into the
handpump.
Since the piston in the handpump is

relatively small a small force suffices to
obtain a high pressure. The required force
is directly proportional to the required
pressure and the surface area according
to the formula F=pA.
To obtain a pressure of 200 bar = 20 /mm2
with a piston surface of 10 mm2 only
2010=200 N=20 kgf is required.
The same pressure is applied to the much

larger piston in the jack. If the diameter is
for instance 80 mm (surface area 5026
mm2) then a pressure of 200 bar = 20
N/mm2 will give a force of 205026 100
kN=10 ton!
To lower the load valve 8 must be opened. As a result oil will flow back to the reservoir (9).
This simple example has features that are seen in every hydraulic system:
o An oil reservoir.
o A pump (to transform mechanical energy in hydraulic energy).
o An actuator (to transform hydraulic energy in mechanical energy, in this case a
cylinder).
o Valves which ensure that oil flows in the required direction (in this case 2 non-return
valves and a ball valve).
o Hydraulic piping. In this case a suction line from the reservoir to the handpump, a high
pressure line from handpump to cylinder and from cylinder to ball valve and a return
line from ball valve to reservoir.
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Later we will encounter a number of other components such as:
o Oil conditioning equipment (such as oil coolers, filters etc.).

o Flow control valves (that limit the amount of oil to an actuator and as a result controls
its speed).
In the above example a flow control valve from cylinder to ballvalve would have been
appropriate. Due to the fact that no flow restriction is present the load will fall down at a
high speed.
o Pressure relief valves (that limit the pressure in various locations in the hydraulic
system).
o Hydraulic accumulators (for accumulation of energy).
1.2 Simple calculations
Allthough the ability to perform calculations is not an objective of this course some basic
calculations are given below in order to obtain a feeling for what quantities and orders of
magnitude are involved.
Basic quantities and units
In hydraulic system 2 basic units are used: pressure (indicated by the letter "p") and flow
(indicated by the letter "Q")
In hydraulics the unit for pressure is the "bar". A bar is by definition 100 000 N/m2 and
approximately the same as 1 atmosphere. In some countries, notably the scandinavian
countries the MegaPascal (MPa) is used; 1 MPa =10 bar
Pressures in hydraulic systems typically range from 100 to 400 bar.
For flow Q the unit L/min or dm3/min is used of old.
Computation of force
With the hydraulic jack on the previous page it is possible to explain connection between
pressure and force.
Suppose that the cylinder (5) has a piston diameter of 40 mm. The surface area of the piston
is then 1257 mm2. With a load of 1500 kg the required pressure (in N/m2) is calculated by
first transferring force and surface area to SI units (N en m2) and taking the ratio of both
quantities as follows:
F 1500 9.8
p= = 6
=11.7106 N/m2=117 bar.
A (1257 / 10 )
Suppose that the piston in the handpump has a surface area of 100 mm2, then the required
force is:
F=p A = (11.7106) (100/106)=1170 N
As a result of lever ratio (say 1:10) the actually required force is lowered to a force of 117 N
12 kgf.
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Flow calculation
With the piston stroke is 50 mm 50100 = 5 cm3 is supplied with each stroke.
With operation at one stroke per second it is possble to supply 560=300 cm3=0,3 dm3 per
minute.
Hence the handpump supplies 0,3 L/min at this rate.
In order to calculate the cylinder speed the flow and the surface of the piston are transferred
to m3/s and m2 and divided:
Q (0.3 / (60 1000))

v= =3.98 10-3 m/s=3.98 mm/s
A (1257 / 10 6 )
Calcultation of power
The power required to operate a pump is calculated by transferring flow and pressure to SI
units N/m2 and m3/s and subsequently multiply.
Example: a pump that supplies 60 L/min at 100 bar requires a power of:
60
Phydr= p Q = (100 100000) =10 000 W= 10 kW.
60 1000
Note: in this calculation volumetric efficiency and mechanical efficiency is ignored.
1.3 Function of pressure and flow in hydraulics:
The above calculations show another important principle which is characteristic for the
present generation of hydraulic systems:
In hydraulic systems the pressure is in principle determined by the consumer (more

specifically the load on the consumer) and the flow is determined by the pump.
This situation is oposite to the situation in electric systems where voltage is fixed and current
is determined by the consumer.
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1.4 Efficiency
In the above power calculation efficiency has not been taken into account.
In hydraulic systems the following losses are present:
Mechanical losses in pumps, motors and cylinders.

Volumetric losses in pumps and motors (leakages).
Pressure losses in piping and components.
Misadjustment when pumps are larger than actually required.
Losses in pumps
Mechanical losses are generally given as a percentage (mechanical efficiency mech).

For instance: mech=95%.
The same holds for leakages in the form of a volumetric efficiency: For instance vol=95%.
When both the mechanical efficiency and the volumetric efficiency are taken to be 95% in the
above example of the pump which supplies 60 L/min at 100 bar we have a required power of:
Phydr 10000
Pmech= = 11000 W = 11 kW.
mech vol 0.95 0.95
Pressure losses
Suppose that the pressure of 100 bar is actually required at the consumer and that the
pressure loss from pump to consumer is 20 bar (which means that the pump must operate at
120 bar). The required power is:
(120 100000) 60 1000

60
pQ
Pmech= = =13300 W= 13.3 kW.
mech vol 0.95 0.95
Misadjustment
If 60 L/min is required and the pumpspeed is 1450 omw/min the required stroke volume is:
Q (60 / (60 1000))

qV= = =43.6 10-6 m3=43.6 cm3.
n mech (1450 / 60) 0.95
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It is highly unlikely that a fixed pump of exactly this stroke volume exists. If the actual pump
has a stroke volume of 50 cm3 it will supply:
Q=qV n vol = (5010-6) (1450/60) 0.95 = 1.14810-3 m3/s= 1.14810-3 1000 60 l/min=
68.9 l/min.
The required power in that case becomes:
(120 100000) 60 1000

68.9
pQ
Pmech= = =13300 W= 15.3 kW.
mech vol 0.95 0.95
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1.5 Overview units:
Quantity Symbol SI basic unit (to be Commonly Transfer SI Transfer

used in formulas) used unit common unit common unit
SI
Pressure p N/m2 (= Pa) bar 1 N/m2 = 10-5 1 bar=105 N/m2
bar
Flow Q m3/s L/min 1 m3/s = 1 L/min =
60000 L/min (1/60000) m3/s
Power P W
Energy E J
Force F N
Speed v m/s
Rotational n s-1 min-1 1 s-1= 1 min-1=

speed (1/60) min-1 60 s-1
Stroke qV m3 cm3 1 m3 = 106 cm3 1 cm3 = 10-6 m3
volume
Surface area A m2
Torque M Nm
Overview formulas (Note: all quantities to be entered in basis SI units).
F
p=
A
F=pA
Phydr=p Q
pQ
Pmech=
mech vol
Q=qV n vol
p (q V / (2))
Mpump=
mech
Mhydromotor=p (qV / (2)) mech
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IHC Hytop B.V. 21-8-2008 Training Course schematics
2 Schematics
Hydraulic diagrams are used to symbolize the operation of the hydraulic system. Hydraulic
symbolism is in general very simple and even symbols not encountered before are easily
interpreted.
We start wiith the hydraulic diagram of the manually operated hydraulic jack of the previous
chapter.
The oil reservoir
The hydraulic pump.

The lever indicates that this pump is manually operated.
A non return valve prevents oil from flowing in the oposite

direction..
Singel acting cylinder.

The black triangle at the bottom side indicates that this is a
hydraulic connection. The white triangle at the rod side indicates
that this connection is vented to open air. The triangles are often
omitted.
A valve used for lowering the load (the triangles are black because
it is normally closed, in open position they would have been white).
The left symbol is an alternative hydraulic symbol for this type of
"directional control" valve
In the remainder of this chapter hydraulic symbols and examples their use in diagrams are
explained in more detail. In addition a few examples of the way In which the components are
constructed are given.
Details on the construction of the hydraulic components are given in the next chapter
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Example 1
Questions:
1. What is the disadvantage of

using the valve below instead
of the valve to the left?
The cylinder is used for luffing.

Supposing that the load is allways
a pulling load:
2. What happens during luffing in

(cylinder in)?
3. And during luffing out?
The following components are present in the above diagram
The oil reservoir
Level gauge.
Level switch (can be used for alarm or for stopping the pumpsets in
case of low alarm).
Thermometer
Temperature switch (can be used to switch of the pump in case of

high temperature, for alarming or fore starting and stopping a
cooling unit.
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The hydraulic pump.

The pump is driven by means of an electric motor. The size of the
pump is in general specified in cm3/rev.
There are also pumps with variable stroke volume. This is indicated
by an arrow through the pumpsymbool. Most diagrams containing
a pump with variable stroke volume als contain details on how the
stroke volume is controlled.pomp versteld wordt.
M The electic motor.

The motor power depends on the size of the pump and the working
pressure. Most electric motors run ar 1500 min-1 (50 Hz supply) or
1800 min-1 (60 Hz supply)
M In some cases a diesel engine is used for driving the pump. The
symbol is a square with a letter M.
In some cases a manual pump is used.
Every hydraulic system is equiped with pressure relief valves. The

pressure relief valves ensures that the pressure does not rise
above the pressure setting of the valve. The pressure setting is
determined by the spring which is indicated by the - symbol.
The pressure setting can be adjusted by means of a screw. The
possibility for adjusting the pressure is indicated by the arrow
through the spring.
The dotted line from the high pressure line indicates that pressure
from this port acts against the spring force. Dotted lines in general
indicate pilot lines.
An example of a simple pressure relief valve is given below:
The pressure relief valve can also be drawn as indicated to the left
in order to emphasize that the pilot line is internal to the valve.
A non return valve without and wih a spring return. A non return
valve prevents oil from flowing in the oposite direction. The
difference between non return valves and pressure relief valve is
not allways large. For that reason back pressure valves (with a
pressure of 3..10 bar are sometimes seen as pressure relief valves
and sometimes as non return valves. Furthermore it is possible to
encounter a non return valve symbol without a spring when actually
a spring with a low force is present..
- 12 -
The hydraulic cylinder is used to convert the oil flow to a linear

motion.
Types exist with only one oil connection. The rod side is connected
with the bottom side internally in that case or left open to ouside air.
Most cylinders have only one piston rod which is connected to the
load. Some cylinders however have a through rod as indicated to
the left. The fact that the amount of oil is the same on both sides
has some technical advantages but lead to higher prices
Each hydraulic system has one or more filters. Apart from the
return oil filter in the diagram above there also exist pressure line
filters and bypass filters (which are used in a separate circuit fed by
a separate pump).
Contamination in a filter can be monitored by means of an optical

or an electrical indicator. Both function on the basis of the pressure
drop accross the filter element which increases when the pressure
rises. Both are indicated in the diagram to the left.
Breather filter (needed to since the level of oil fluctuates depending

on consumers, temperature etc).
Older diagrams often contain an older symbol for the pressure

switch (symbol to the right).
Directional control valves are used to operate a cylinder. In the

symbol to the left 3 squares symbolize 3 positions of the valve.
When no solenoid is operated the pressure line is connected to the
return line. When either one of the solenoids is energized two
connections are created: one between pressure line and cylinder
and one between the oposite cylinder port and the return line.
The centering springs return the valve to the neutral position when
neither solenoid is energized. For the valve drawn here the
connections to the cylinder are closed (indicated byn the
symbols and the pressure line is connected to the return oil line (as
a result the pumppressure is low in this case and the energy
dissipation is minimized). The rectangles below the spring
symbols signify the solenoids with which the valve is operated.
When the leftmost solenoid is energized the spool in the valve is
shifted in such a way that there is a connection P-B and A-T. The
solenoid is operated by energizing the solenoid with for instance a
24 V DC voltage (supply depending on solenoid type).
- 13 -
The number of possible directional control valve spools is large. The main types are:
4-3 valve with P-T neutral position
4-3 valve with P-T-A-B neutral position
4-3 valve with closed neutral position
4-3 valve with A-B-T neutral position
4-3 differential valve with closed neutral position
4-3 differential valve with A-B-T neutral position
4-2-valve
4-2-valvel
The last two examples indicate that a valve

does not necessarily have 3 positions and 2
solenoids. An example is given to the right.
The indication 4-2 valve means that the

valve has 4 connections and 2 positions.
Other types like for instance 3-2 valve or 2-2
valves also exist.
The directional control valve also exists in a manually controlled

version as indicated to the left.
Another possibility is operation by means of hydraulic pressure.
This last valve type is often used when the amount of oil through the valve is large (typically
more than 60..100 L/min). In that case a small pilot valve is used to control the hydraulically
operated valve. The full diagram for such a valve is indicated below:
- 14 -
Elaborate symbol Eleborate symbol

A B A B
P T X P T Y
Simplified symbol Simplified symbol
A B A B
P T
X P T Y
Valve with external pilot oil and leak oil Valve with internal pilot oil and leak oil
Mixed forms of pilot supply and leak oil are also possible. Generally the simplified symbol is
used unless operation is to complicated to be indicated in this way.
- 15 -
Example 2
In the previous diagram it was possible to move the load by means of the directional control
valve. Suppose that the cylinder is erected instead. If the system of the previous diagram is
used in that case notting would prevent the cylinder to run faster than the oil supply from the
pump would allow. Furthermore the load would slowly descend as the result of leakage in the
directional control valve. In order to take care of this difficulty the system to the right is
equiped with additional components. at the bottom side of the cylinder.
The pilot non return valve is used to lock the cylinder in any desired
X position. As soon as oil is sent to the rod side the pressure built-up
C will cause the pilot non return valve to open and allow the cylinder
V to be lowered. It is customary to use the pilot non return valve in
conjunction with a valve with closed P-port and a A-B-T connection
in the neutral position.
- 16 -
Since the P-port is closed the directional control valve no longer

causes de-pressurization of the pressure port in neutral position.
For that reason the pressure relief valve is equiped with a solenoid
in that case. On de-energizing this valve the pressure line is
depressurized in this case.
The symbol to the left indicates a throttle which is in general a small

hole (as indicated by the arrow the size can be varied in this case).
The throttle is necessary in this case since otherwise the lowering
with be unstable due to repeated opening and closing of the pilot
non return valve. The lowering speed does not only depend on the
size of the hole but also in the load induced pressure.
Sometimes a more accurate flow control is necessary. This is

achieved by means of a flow control (which controls the flow
indepent of the load in the direction of the arrow).
The cylinder in the diagram is executed with a cushioning

arrangement. As a result the cylinder slows down at the end of
stroke.
A cushioning arrangement is necessary when the kinetic energy of
the movement is high.
- 17 -
Example 3
In the previous diagram the speeds were fixed by the pump capacity.
The possibility exists however for controlling the speed of the cylinder by means of (for
instance) a proportional valve.
The symbol for a proportional directional control valve is much like

the symbol for a directional control valve. To indicate that it is a
proportional valve horizontal lines are drawn below and above the
symbol. Arrows through the solenoids indicate that the solenoid
force and hence the spool position can be varied by varying the
current through the solenoid.
A brake valve has 2 purposes. First of all it is intended to lock the

X cylinder in position (like the pilot non return valve).
Its main function however is to keep the load under control during
C V lowering of the cylinder.
This functions as follows: when the leftmost solenoid is energized
pressure is applied to the rod side of the cylinder. As a result the
pilot line to the brake valve is also pressurized and the brake valve
opens slightly. If the brakevalve opens to much the cylinder speed
- 18 -
will increase and pressure at rod side will decrease. As a result of

this pressure decrease the brake valve will close a little, thereby
slowing down the cylinder and, as a result: stopping the pressure
decrease at rod side. When the brake valve reaches equilibrium the
pressures at rod and bottom side are stable.
The pilot non return valve discussed in the previous section is not
suitable for this purpose, since it cannot smoothly control the load
at low speeds.
Hydraulic hose.
- 19 -
Example 4
Instead of a linear actuator (i.e. a cylinder) it is also possible to use a rotating actuator (i.e. a
hydraulic motor). Hydraulic motors are used in winch drives.
Y Hydraulic motors are much like pumps. Instead of supplying oil as

the result of a rotary movement they cause a rotary movement as
the result of oil supply. Nearly all hydraulic motors have al leak oil
connection which should be connected (nearly) pressureless to the
oil reservoir (in pumps this leak oil is often fed into the suction
connection). Since hydraulic motors allways have a certain amount
of leakage a brake is generally required to hold the load.
A shuttle valve is used to select the port with the highest pressure,
which is used in this case for lifting a brake.
- 20 -
The brake lifting valve is used to prevent return oil pressure from
reducing the braking force when the brake is supposed to hold the
load.
In the system the speed is controlled by varying the stroke volume

of the pump by means of a proportional solenoid.
M The symbol given here is strongly simplified. Generally it is not only
indicated that the pump is variable, the complete control apparatus
is indicated as well (this can be different for each pump type).
Questions:
1. What is the advantage of a variable pump when compared to a proportional solenoid

valve?
- 21 -
Example 5
2
3
Pomp
In the above diagram the system for a dredgevalve with emergency operation is presented.
The following remarks must be made:
As long as ball valve (2) is closed the full accumulator pressure is in the spring chamber of
the cartridge. Opening the ballvalve depressurizes the spring chamber and as a result the
cartridge opens (the orifice (1) ensures that the accumulator is not able to keep the spring
chamber pressurized.
New symbols are:

Hydraulic accumulator. In the hydraulic accumulator oil is
pressurized by means of a gas (generally nitrogen).
P A The pressure reducing valve which serves to reduces the pressure

in the A port at the required value. As opposed to the pressure
relief valve no oil is lost when the pressure setting is reached.
In the example drawn here the pressure reducing valve also
R operates as a pressure relief valve from A to R. This type of valve is
called a 3-way pressure reducing valve, as opposed to the 2-way
- 22 -
pressure reducing valve which does not function as a pressure

relief valve from A to R.
The cartridge valve can be used for a number of functions like the
non return valve function as the main stage in a pressure relief
valve or (as in the above example) as a 2-2- valve.
The ISO norm does not contain the cartridge symbol. The symbol
to the left is used instead. In practice this symbol is rarely used for
cartridges however.
An actual cartridge is depicted to the right.

Cartridges are sometimes used to mimic the
function of a directional control valve used in
previous examples, especially when larger
flows are required.
In the next chapter we will see that all sorts

of cartridges exist for different applications
(directional control valves pressure relief
valves, pressure reducing valves etc).
On the next page some examples are given

on the way in wchic cartridge can be used to
create directional control valves.
- 23 -
Further examples of cartridges:
Cartridge symbol Equivalent directiontal control valve
A B
P R
A B
P R
From the last example it can be seen that cartridges allow for inclusion of simple addional
functionality without high costs. As we will see in the next chapter it is possible not only to
construct directional control valve functionality, it is very easy to construct a large pressure
relief valve with cartridges. An example is given on the next page.
- 24 -
- 25 -
IHC Hytop B.V. 21-8-2008 Training Course components
3. Components
3.1 Pumps
3.1.1 Gear pumps
Symbol:
The most common and most well known hydraulic pumps are gear pumps. Oil is displaced
by these pumps by two engaged gear wheels. Depending on the construction 2 types are
distinguished.
Gear pump with external toothed discharge

gear wheels.
Principle of operation
One of the gearwheels is driven by the
pime mover. The other gearwheel
rotates as the result of the engagement
to the driven wheel. In each gear wheel
the tooths together with the housing
form closed pockets of oil which are
transported on the outside of the
gearwheels from the suction to the
discharge side.
In the position where the teeth
disengage a new pocket is created
which is filled with oil. At the position suction
where the tooths engage oil is forced
out again to the discharge side.
Pressure, stroke volume and speed
p = 2 - 315 bar; V = 0,008 - 500 cm3;
n = 600 - 7000 min-1
- 26 -
Gear pumps with an internal toothed gear

wheel
crescent
In these pumps one of the gear wheels is
replaced by a gear ring which has internal teeth.
In this construction the length over which the
teeth are engaged is substantially longer than in
external gear pumps. As a result both the internal
leakage and the noise is reduced.
Same as for external gearpumps. In addition to suction side discharge side
the housing a crescent is required to create
closed pockets of oil. Pressure, stroke volume and speed
p = 27 - 330 bar; V = 0,08 - 500 cm3;
n = 600 - 10.000 min-1
HYTOP uses exclusively the Bucher pump in wich several sections are placed in series.
- 27 -
3.1.2 Screw pumps
Symbol:
These pumps have one driven screw spindle

which engages with one or two other screw
spindles.
The housing together with the screwspindles
form closed oil pockets. Oil is translated by
these pockets from the suction to the
discharge side.

p = 24.. 160 bar; V = 2.. 800 cm3;
n = 750 4800 RPM
- 28 -
3.1.3 Vane pumps
Symbol for a pump with

fixed stroke volume

variable stroke volume
These pumps are characterised by vanes that

suction side
slide in slots in either the rotor or the stator.
Vane pumps with vanes in the rotor
When the vanes are mounted in the rotor the

rotor may be excentric or the housing may be
polygon shaped. In both cases the oil is
displaced by means of oil pockets that are
formed by the stator the rotor and the vaves
The vanes plus houding and rotor form oil

pockets. The size of thes oil pockets change
during rotation. For pumps with excentric
rotor this volume change can be varied by
varying the excentricity.
In the balanced type of vane pump with discharge side
polygon shaped housing the stroke volume
cannot be varied. discharge side

p = 6 - 300 bar; V = 0,06-480 cm3;
n = 700 - 3000 RPM
- 29 -
3.1.4 Piston pumps

Symbols:

fixed stroke volume

variable stroke volume
A piston pump is a pump in which a fluid is discharged by means of moving pistons.

Depending on the way in which the pistons are positioned various types are distinguished.
Linear piston pump
A linear piston pump has more than 1 piston

placed parallel in one plane. Suction and
discharge strokes follow one another. Non-
return valves are required to make this pump
function.
A rotating crankshaft forces the pistons to
make suction and discharge strokes.
Working pressure, stroke volume and speed:

p = 160 - 630 bar; V = 0,4 - 15.000 cm3;
n = 50 - 6000 RPM
Radial piston pump with rotating block
These piston pumps have several pistons

placed radially and a rotating piston block
Principle of operation:
The outer ring of the pump can be displaced in
order to change the excentricity relative to the
piston block. As a result it is possible to
change the stroke volume and even to reverse
the function of the suction and the discharge
port.

p = 0 - 1200 bar; V = 0,2 - 50.000 cm3;
n =50-4000 RPM
- 30 -
Radial piston pumps with static piston

block
In these pumps the pistons are positioned

radially and the piston block is static.
A rotating shaft with an excenter drives the
pistons. A change in stroke volume is
obtained by changing the excentricity.
Channels in the piston block allow oil supply
to the pistons and discharging of oil by the
pistons.

p = 0 - 1200 bar; V = 0,2 - 50.000 cm3;
n =50-4000 RPM
- 31 -
Axial piston pumps with a rotating

swashplate and rotating piston barrel
("bend-axis pump)
The pistons are positioned parallel to the

centre line of the piston block. The piston
barrel is placed at an angle with the drive
shaft.
The piston rods are fixed to the swash plate
but otherwise free to move. As a result they
transfer the rotation of the swashplate to the
barrel.
Kidney shaped openings in the pump form a
suction and a discharge slot. The angle
determines the piston stroke and hence the
piston stroke volume. Furthermore there are
possibilities for reversing the direction of flow

p 1 - 4000 bar; V = 0,0001 - 66.000 cm3;
n = 45-8000 RPM
An example of this type of pump (also used as hydraulic motor) is the VOAC pump indicated
below.
What makes this pump special is the fact that the plunger barrel rotates by means of the gear
wheel pos (5) rather than the pistons.
- 32 -
Axial piston pumps with static swash

plate and rotating piston block
In this pumptype the pistons are postioned

parallel to the main shaft. The pistons move
by means of a swashplate wchich doesn't
rotate
The piston block rotates. As a result the
pistons (that rotate with the pistonblock),
push off against the swashplate which is
placed at an angle . Kidney shaped
openings in the pump form a suction and a
discharge slot. The angle determines the
piston stroke and hence the piston stroke
volume. Furthermore there are possibilities
for reversing the direction of flow.

p 1 - 4000 bar; V = 0,0001 - 66.000 cm3;
n = 45-8000 RPM
An example of this pumptype is the

P080-P260 pump series indicated to
the right.
This pump has a variable stroke

volume. The control system which is
used to control the pump will be
treated later in this course.
- 33 -
3.2 Pressure relief valves
3.2.1 Manually adjustable pressure relief valves.
Symbol
The purpose of a pressure relief valve is to limit the pressure in a part of the hydraulic system
at a preset value. The pressure relief valve realizes this function by letting oil flow out of the
system as soon as the pressure in the part to which is connected rises above the preset
value.
Direct acting pressure relief valves
The simplest type is the direct acting

pressure relief valve. A springloaded poppet
is lifted from its seat as soon as the force
F=pA is higher than the springforce. The
relief pressure can be altered by adjusting the
spring force.
The indirect pressure relief valve consists of a

cartridge and a pilot pressure relief valve. It functions
as follows: pressure, applied to the front of the
cartridge is fed to the pilot pressure relief valve via a
small orifice (in the drawing this orifice is mounted in
the cartridge itself but in many valves this orifice is
mounted in a channel in the cartridge housing itself).
When the pressure rises above the pressure setting
of the pilot valve it opens. As a result the pressure in
the spring chamber is limited to the pressure setting
of the pilot valve. When the pressure on the front of
the cartridge increases further the cartridge will open
and allow oil to flow from the A-port to the B-port.
The advantage of an indirect pressure relief valve is
that its pressure - flow characteristic is less tilted
than the characteristic of a direct pressure relief
valve.
The x-connection in the drawing can be used to vent the pressure relief valve and allow oil to
flow at almost zero pressure from A to B.
A photograph of this kind of valve is given on the next page.
Questions
1. Draw the diagram of the indirect pressure relief valve indicating the main stage as a
cartridge and a pilot pressure relief valve.
- 34 -
Pilot stage
Cartridge (main stage)
3.2.2 Proportional pressure relief valves.
In the ordinary pressure relief valve the pressure setting is determined by means of a spring.
There are however pressure relief valves where the pressure can be adjusted by using an
electrical signal. In principle there are 2 types of proportional pressure relief valves: without
or with position transducer.
The direct acting proportional pressure relief valve is constructed as follows:

B
A B
A
Anchor
Solenoid
The anchor applies a force to the cone which is directly proportional to the current through
the solenoid. When a pressure is applied at port A the valve will start to open as soon as the
hydraulic force is equal to the anchor force. In this manner the opening pressure is directly
proportional to the current through the achor.
The direct acting proportional relief valve with position transduces is constructed as follows:
B
A or
Anchor
Solenoid
Position transducer
- 35 -
In this case also the anchor supplies a force depending on the current through the solenoid.
The position transducer is then used to modulate the current through the solenoid in such a
wag that the anchor stays in the required position. The resulting spring force determines the
pressure at port A at which the pressure relief valve opens.
As a result the valve operates in exactly the same way as a manually controlled valve. The
advantage is that the valve functions more stable than the proportional pressure relief valve
without position transducer.
Questions:
1. What is the reason for the larger control speed of the proportional pressure relief valve
with position transducer?
The capacity of the proportional pressure relief valve is very limited (only a few liters per
minute). This is a consequence of the fact that the force of the anchor is limited. Therefore
the cone and the seat must be relatively small in order to allow high pressures to be
controlled (the seat is typically 2..3 mm).
When larger flows are required the direct proportional valve is used as a polot valve for a
cartdidge valve (i.e. the pilot section of an indirect pressure relief valve is exchanged for a
proportional pilot valve).
3.2.3 Accuracy of the proportional pressure relief valve.
With the pressure relief valve the concepts of accuracy, linearity etc are clarified. The same
concepts apply to other types of proportional valves.
Reproducability
The anchor of the proportional pressure relief valve has a very short stroke. Small difference
are caused by production tolerances. As a result it is required to readjust the princard after
replacement of the proportional valve (see section on printcards).
Linearity
Result non linearity
Whether the relation between current and
(flow,
pressure is linear depends on the type of
press.,
pressure relief valve. The documentation of
the valve generally contains a graph in which etc)
the valve characteristic is given.
control signal
- 36 -
Hysteresis Hysteresis
Every pressure relief valve has hysteresis:
when the pressure in the valve rises until the Result
valve opens then the pressure at with the (flow,
valve closes again will be lower than the press.,
pressure at which the valve opened. etc)
For a proportional valve this means that
during increase of pressure setting the
pressures are lower than during decrease of
control signal.
control signal
Repeatability
When the same current runs through the solenoid on two different occasions the resulting
pressures will differ slightly.
Dither
In order to increase the accuracy of the valve 1
a dither frequency is added to the current ditherfrequency
current
through the solenoid. The frequency and the through
amplitude depend on the valve. solenoid
The dither prevents that the anchor sticks to
the solenoid housing. In some cases the
dither is strong enough to make the entire
valve vibrate.
time
Dead band
The proportional valve does not move at a Dead band
current below a certain treshold value. A
minimum current Imin is needed to achieve
this.
Result
(flow,
press.,
etc)
control signal
- 37 -
3.3 Pressure reducing valves
3.3.1 Ordinary pressure reducing valves

Pressure relief valves limit the pressure of a system by bleeding excess oil. Pressure
reducing valves also limit the pressure in a system, but in this case the supply to the system
is blocked when the pressure gets to high.
The direct acting 3-way pressure reducing valve
The required pressure is adjusted by means of a spring.

The pressure in port A (which is connected to the part of the
system in which the pressure must be limited) is also
applied to the opposite side of the spring. As soon as the
pressure in port A rises above the pressure setting the spool
slides upward and closes the A-connection. If the pressure
increases even further the connection A-T opens and oil
flows from the system. The 3-way valve functions not only
as a pressure reducing valve but also as a pressure relief
valve. This is not always the case. If the T-port is lacking the
however a leak oil connection (connected to the spring
chamber) is required
Symbol:
P A
- 38 -
The indirect pressure reducing valve
The indirect pressure reducing valve functions

in the same way as the indirect pressure relief
valve.
As with the indirect pressure relief valve the
pilot element is a pilot pressure relief valve.
When the pressure in the A-port is low the
cartridge is fully open. When the pressure rises
above the pressure setting the pilot valve
opens. When the pressure rises further the
cartridge spool moves upward and as a result
it blocks the passage from B to A...
Simplified symbol Full symbol

P A
P A
L
3.3.2 The proportional pressure reducing valve
Larger proportinal pressure reducing valves are constructed as indirect pressure reducing
valve in which the pilot valve has been replaced with a proportional pressure relief valve.
Direct acting proportional pressure reducing valves also exist. Its P A

operation can be compared to the operation of a direct acting
proportional pressure relief valve. This type of proportional
pressure reducing valve is exclusively used as pilot element for a
proportional directional control valve or for a pump stroker. They R
generally supply a pressure of appr. 50 bar max.
Questions
1. Give the full symbol for an indirect 3-way pressure reducing valve.
- 39 -
3.4 Directional control valves.
3.4.1 Swiching directional control valves.
Symbol of a 4-3-way valve

(example)
In directional control valves it is possible to open and close connections between various
ports.
The most important type is the directional control valve with sliding spool. In addition there
are also leak tight valves which are generally called poppet type valves. In this section we
will only concern ourselves with sliding spool type valves.
Direct acting control valves
The direct operated directional control valve has a houding in which a spool is shifted from
left to right or vise versa by means of 1 or 2 solenoids and springs.
When no solenoid is engaged the spool is maintained in its neutral position (by means of
centering springs). When the left solenoid is activated the spool will slide to the right and
when the right solenoid is operated the spool will slide to the left.
It depends on the form of the spool which connections exist in the various spool positions.
In the above valve (with connections T, B, P, A, T) the neutral position is characterised by a
blocked P-port and a connection A-B-T. When the left solenoid is activated a connection P-A
opens and the connection A-T closes.
It is not allowed to energize both solenoids at the same time since the valve will at best not
operate and in the worst case (if proper AC solenoids are used) the solenoids will burn-out.
- 40 -
Pilot directional control valves
In a pilot directional control valve a small valve (the same as on the previous page) is used to
operate a large spool.
pilot oil pilot oil supply

drain to Y from X
pilot valve
main valve
When a solenoid is energized one of the main spool sides is pressurised. As a result the
spool will shift.
In the neutral position the main valve has only blocked ports.
In the above valve energizing the left solenoid will cause the pilot valve spool to move to the
right. Pressure on the right side of the main spool will subsequently cause it to move to the
left. As a result we will have connections P-A and B-T.
Pilot oil supply may be external or internal (in the last case the pressure connection of the
pilot valve is connected to the pressure connection of the main valve.
The type plate on the pilot section may contain the symbol for the main stage (but this is not
allways the case).
Pressure for the pilot section can be supplied externally through the X-connection or
internally from the P-connection. Something similar applies to the return oil from the pilot
valve.
- 41 -
3.4.2 Proportional directional control valves
There is a number of different types of proportional directional control valves:
The direct acting valve without position transducer

In this valve the proportional solenoid applies a force to the spool
which is directly proportional to the current. As a result the spool
shifts until the force is balanced by the oposite spring force.
The direct acting valve with position transducer

In this valve the position is measured and the current through the
solenoid is controlled at a value to keep the spool in the correct
position.
In this case the current through the valve is not a measure for the
position of the spool.
The pilot operated valve without position transucer.

This is the most common type and its full diagram is given below.
A B A current through the solenoid of the leftmost

pressure reducing valve generates a
pressure (proportional to the curent) in the
rightmost side of the main spool. As a result
the spool shifts to the left until this pressure is
balanced by the spring force on the left.
The position of the main spool is dependent
on the current through the proportional
solenoids.
X P T Y
The pilot operated valve with position transducer

In this case the position of the main spool is measured and the
current through the solenoid of the pilot section is adjusted in such
a way that the required position of the main spool is obtained. The
pilot valve can be a direct acting proportional directional control
valve with or without position transducer.
In the above case a closed neutral position is drawn. When high accuracies are required that
is general practice. In that case the neutral position of the valve is executed as a so-called
zero-lap or critical-lap position, meaning that the smallest deviation from the neutral position
results in an oil flow from PA (or PB) and BT (or AT)
Proportional valves of this type have much in common with so-called servo valves which can
be regarded as a very accurate proportional valve which can be controlled very fast.
- 42 -
Typical examples of zero-lap valves can be found below: first a proportional valve with a
flapper - nozzle pilot section:
and a proportional valve with a jet pipe pilot section:
As soon as the control system is activated for these types of valve the spool is shifted to its
electrical neutral position (which may be diferent from the mechanical neutral position which
is created by the centering springs). The electrical neutral position of a zero-lap valve must
always be precisely adjusted during commissioning
- 43 -
The pressure compensator.

Proportional valves can be regarded as controllable throttles:
when pressure drop increases more oil will flow through the valve.
It is possible to make the flow independent of the pressure drop
by adding a pressure compensator to the circuit as indicated in
the diagram to the left.
The operation of the pressure compensator is explained in the

section on flow regulators. Pressure compensators are never
used in combination with zero-lap valves since the advantage of a
fast control valve vanishes when a compensator is used.
- 44 -
3.5 Non return valves (check valves)
Simple non return valves seat ball (or cone)
The function of a non return valve is to allow

an oilflow in only one direction. In order to
have leak tightness in the other direction the in out
valve is usually excecuted with a ball or a
cone.
valve lifted from seat:
Most non return valves are kept on the seat free flow
by means of a spring. In some cases
however gravity is used. In that case the
mounting position is important.
valve on seat:
flow blocked
Cartridge non return valve
The cartridge element is used for various

functions. In principle it connects to ports (A
and B in the drawing). By applying pressure
to the spring chamber the cartridge is closed.
In a cartridge non return valve this chamber is

connected to port B. As a result the cartridge
is closed when the pressure in B is larger
than the pressure in A. It opens when the
pressure in A is larger than the pressure in B
plus spring force.
Symbol (full and simplified)
B B
A
A
- 45 -
The pilot non return valve. Pilot non return valve without drain
The pilot non return valve consists of a non

return valve which can be opened by means
of a pilot piston. Oil can flow unhindered from
V to C since the valve of functions as an
ordinary non return valve in that direction. Oil
cannot flow back from C to V unless sufficient
pressure is applied to the px port..
Symbol:
pX
pX V C
C
V
Under some circumstances it is necessary to Pilot non return valve with drain
select a pilot non return valve with external
leak oil connection.
The advantage of this valve is that it opens
even when there is back pressure on the V-
port. If the leak oil connection is lacking
pressure in the V port will counteract the
pressure in the px port and this may in some
cases prevent the valve from opening at all.
Symbol:
pX L
pX L V C
V C
- 46 -
3.6 Flow control valves
The purpose of flow control valves is to control the oil flow.
Throttles
Throttles are the most simple type of flow

control valves.
A throttle is nothing more than a restriction in

the flow path. As a result forcing oil through
the restriction requires a relatively large
pressuredrop.
Since the amount of oil that flows through the
restriction depends on the pressure, throttles
are not pressure independent. Nevertheless
throttles are often sufficient for controlling the
oil flow.
Throttles exist in fixed or adjustable execution
Symbol fixed throttle (or orifice):
Symbol adjustable throttle
- 47 -
The 2-way flow controller
A disadvantage of the throttle is its sensitivity inlet

to pressures. In some cases a more accurate
flow control is required in which flow is
independent of pressure variations. This can
be achieved by installing a 2-way
compensator before the throttle. In order to
achieve this the spring chamber of the
compensator is connected to the channel
behind the throttle (p3) and the opposite side
leak
is connected to the channel leading to the oil
throttle (p2). The restrictions in these pilot
channels only serve to stabilize the
compensator.
As a result of the spring acting on one side of
the compensator spool it will start to move to
outlet
the right as soon as the pressure drop across
the throttle is larger than the spring setting. In
this way the compensator maintains a Simplified symbol
constant pressure drop across the throttle.
The result of a constant pressure drop across
the throttle is a constant pressure
Full symbol
independent flow.
The 2-way compensator functions much the P A
same as a pressure reducing valve.
The 3-way flow control valve inlet
The operation of the 3-way flow control valve compen-

is much the same as the operation of the 2- sator
way flow control valve. The difference is that
in the 3-way the superfluous oil flows to the
reservoir port whereas in the 2-way valve this
oilflow to the throttle is blocked.
throttle
The 3-way compensator functions much the
same as a pressure relief valve.
Full symbol
P A outlet
Simplified symbol
R P A
R
- 48 -
3.7 Brake valve
Counter balance valve.

3
A counter ballance valve is primarily used 2
to keep a load under control when it is
being lowered. The cartridge on the right
must be mounted in a manifold block and 1
located on or very near to the hydraulic
motor.
Overcentre valves are also used on
cylinders but may lead to jerky movement
in that case.The pilot ratio depends on
the relative surfaces of the connections 1,
2 and 3. In general the following relation
holds when the valve is regulating:
(p1-p2)+(p3-p2)=pressure setting. The
valve is stabilized by selecting the correct
pilot ratio.
Brake valve
The brake valve is used for the same

purpose as the overcentre valve and is
also suitable for cylinders in more difficult
situations.
The valve is opened on the basis of the
pilot pressure alone. When compared to
the overcentre valve you could say that
the brake valve has a pilot ratio =.
Since it is not possible to stabilize by
changing the pilot ratio the valve is
stabilized by means of a pilot orifice
instead. This requires the valve itself to
have a long opening characteristic (i.e. the
valve opening is small compared to the
stroke of the valve.
- 49 -
3.8 Pump control systems
The pump control systems mentioned below can be obtained on most piston pumps. The
diagrams belong to the pumps in the Denison P-080 .. P260 series.
The pump stroke volume is adjusted by means of a hydraulic cylinder. On the pump itself a
number of control valves is mounted with which the cylinder can be set at the required value.
3.8.1 Pressure cut-off.
A pressure cut-off control system is adjusted at a certain pressure. As long as the pressure
used by the various consumer stays below this pressure the pump will stroke to the
maximum volume. When consumer pressure rises above the pressure cut-off level the
pumpstroke will decrease until the pressure is at the pressure cut-off level (i.e. the pump will
take an equilibrium position).
The V-port in the diagram makes it possible to use an external pilot pressure relief valve to
adjust the cut-off pressure.
3.8.2 Load Sensing control
- 50 -
Load sense control (also LS-control) is similar to the pressure cut-off control but in this case
the pressure at which the pump starts to destroke is dependent on the pressure in the LS-
port. With a load pressure on the LS-port pL the pump will start to destroke as soon as the
pump pressure is pL+pLS. The pressure pLS is 15..20 bar. The LS control system therefore
dissipates less energy than the pump with only a pressure cut-off control.
Furthermore a valve between the pressure port and the LS connection is subjected to a
constant pressure drop and therefore starts to act as a load independent flow control valve.
3.8.3 Power limiter
The power limiter causes the pump to destroke when pressure times flow are higher than the
power adjusted in the power limiter.
- 51 -
3.8.4 Hydraulic stroker
In the hydraulic stroker the pump stroke volume is adjusted proportional to the pressure
control signal in port H. This pressure can be controlled by means of (for instance) a
proportional pressure reducing valve or proportional pressure relief valve.
3.8.5 Electric stroker

If the proportional pressure reducing valve is integrated in the pump itself we obtain a pump
with electric stroker.
- 52 -
3.8.6 p-Q Controller

In the pump with p-Q control both the pressure and the stroke volume are controlled:
If the pressure in the system is lower than the pressure setting of the pump the pump will
supply the required oil flow. When the system pressure is higher than the pump pressure the
stroke volume will decrease. The pressure and flow are controlled by means of two separate
solenoids on the pump. In addition the pump also contains a pressure transmitter (to
measure the actual pressure) and a position transmitter to measure the stroke.
With this type of control it also possible to control the pump at a fixed power (electronic
power control).
- 53 -
3.9 Printcards
A proportional control solenoid is never controlled directly but allways through a printcard
(which may be integrated in the valve itself)
For valves without position transducer the EC01A2O printcard can be used:
d6
d2 +10 V bd28 24V DC
24V
d4 -10 V supply
+15 V bd30
b2 0V
b4 -15 V
z2/z32
GND b6/z28/z30
EMC-ground (not
equal to print GND)
d12 EC01A2O
Diff. input -10V .. +10 V z24
b12 Solenoid B
z26
Stop
b16 b24
Solenoid A
b18 b26
+ 4...32 V Ramp off
0V b20
Remarks:
Printcard connector DIN41612 F48
b12 to be connected to GND when no differential input is used.
b16 disconnect to stop
b18 connect will disable the ramp.
When the print supply is used for stop and ramp-off pins bd28 and bd30 must be used.
This printcard has two output stages to the solenoids of the proportional valves (if the valve
has only one solenoid the output for solenoid A is used).
The print can be controlled with several input signals to terminal d12 and b12 (depending on
dipswitch settings on the card). A preferred possibility is a differential input -10V..+10V.
The supply to the printcard is 24 V DC.
It is possible to set the values of Imin and Imax on the printcard. Furthermore the card
generates a dither and a contains a ramp generator. The output stages provide a constant
current, independent of the load presented by the solenoids (unless resistance is too large).
For proportional valves with pressure transducer the printcard supplied with the valve itself
must be used.
- 54 -
For the pump with p-Q control a micro-processor based card type PQDXX-Z00 is used
The settings of this card are made by means of a PC program.

The first step in the adjustment is to list the requirements, for instance (the data enclosed in
rectangles must be determined by the user; the other information follows from these data):
3
Stroke volume [cm ] 180
Speed [rpm] 1465
Volumetric efficiency at 350 bar 94%
Maximum available flow [L/min] 260.24
Minimum flow [L/min]

Required maximum flow [L/min] 200
Percentage of maximum stroke volume 77.2%
Maximum pressure [bar] 350

Compensator pressure [bar] 15
Required minimum pressure [bar]
Required maximum pressure [bar] 320
Required shaft power [kW] 40

Percentage of maximum power 21.9%
Pressure estimate at maximum stroke volume [bar] 76
Pressure estimate at maximum flow [bar] 100
- 55 -
The data loaded into the printcard by means of the PC can be calculated to be (the table
below is the actual lay-out of the pragramming tool.
MINQ 0 flow adjustment in 0.01%, press identify for AIN
MAXQ 7715 flow adjustment in 0.01%, press identify for AIN
MINP -430 Pressure adjustement in 0.01%, press identify for AIN
MAXP 8714 pressure adjustment in 0.01%, press identify for AIN
1
AIN:WQ 7715 9999 0 U complexe input scaling of Q input, press identify for MIN/MAX )
1
AIN:WP 9144 9999 470 U complexe input scaling of command pressure, press identify for MIN/MAX )
AQ:UP 50 ramptime for Q in ms
AQ:DOWN 50 ramptime for Q in ms
AP:UP 500 ramptime for P in ms
AP:DOWN 500 ramptime for P in ms
PL:PL 2185 powerlimiting value in 0,01%
PL:T1 50 T1-filter for power in ms
PL:EXT OFF activation of external power control
PVSEL 180 Selection of pump size
2
TYPE L Selection of the control function )
SENS ON sensor monitoring
WQ 0 process parameter for MONITOR and OSCILOSCOPE, see block diagram
With the pump programmed like this the pump follows the following curve when the required
stroke volume is maximum.
400
350
300
250
p(bar)
200
150
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Q(L/min)
- 56 -
3.10 Cylinders
Symbol for cylinder

without cushioning
Symbol for a cylinder with

through rod
Symbol for a cylinder with

cushioning
A cylinder is used as an actuator for a linear movement.
bottom piston piston rod cylinder head

cylinder tube
cushioning cushioning
piston seal throttle (for cushioning)
The main parts in a cylinder are: the cylinder tube, the piston, the piston rod. By discharging
oil to the bottom side of the cylinder the piston and hence the piston rod will move to the rod.
Oil fed into the piston rod side of the cylinder causes the piston and piston rod to move to the
left.
The above cylinder has a cushioning at bottom and rod side. As soon as the cushioning pin
enters the cushioning bore the main oil connection at bottom side is blocked and as a result
oil can only leave the cylinder through a small throttle. As a result the cylinder slows down.
- 57 -
3.10.1 Seals
The cylinder contains various seals that should prevent external leakage as well as internal
leakage (from bottom to rod side or vise versa).
The simplest type is the o-ring which

is only used as a static seal (for parts
that do not move relative to each
other.
As may be clear from the drawing an

o-ring can easily be extruded through
a slit if it is to large.
If this is an actual risk it may be prevented from

happening by inclusing back-up rings in the design.
For moving parts other seals are used.
The oldest type of seal is the chevron seal

shown alongside. This seal type is more
and more replaced by more modern types.
A seal type that is used more often nowadays lip seal

is the lip-seal shown alongside (often in poly- dirt scraper
urethane execution).
In addition this drawing shows the dirt

scraper which is present in every cylinder.
The dirt scraper prevents dirt to enter the
cylinder. Under heavy circumstances an ice
scraper is used.
- 58 -
When low friction is a prerequisite a seal of glyd ring

the glyd-ring type is used. In this case a guide strip
teflon ring is installed which is pre-tensioned
by means of an o-ring.
The guide strip is also synthetic.
- 59 -
3.11 Hydraulic motors

Y
Symbol of a fixed motor
Y
Symbol of a variable motor
A hydraulic motor is the opposite of a pump. A motor transforms hydraulic energy in a

rotation.
This implies that in general the components, used as a pump can also be used as a motor.
The following types are distinguished
- Gear motors
- Vane motors
- Axial piston motors
- Radial piston motors
Although the basic constructions are the same it should be noted that the demands made to
motors are different from the demands made to pumps. A pump always runs at a constant
speed whereas a motor has a continuously varying speed. Even the direction of rotation
varies.
The first three types of motor are much the same as the accompanying pumps. The most
important type is the axial piston pump of the bend-axis type see section 3.1.4. The drawings
below show a bend-axis variable motor with pressure control (motor goes to larger stroke
volume if a the pressure is higher than the treshold pressure.
- 60 -
Unlike the other types radial pumps and motors differ substantially.
Radial motors in general have a much larger stroke volume and they generally run at a much
lower speed. This makes it possible to use this motor type as a direct drive engine without
the need for a planetary gear box.
There are radial piston motors with a static piston block and radial piston motors with a
rotating piston block. There are however also radial piston motors based on a totally different
concept as described below.
Camring motor with static casing
In this motor type the piston block rotates with (in this case) 2 rows of 8 pistons.
Each piston is connected to a small wheel which runs along the camring. In this case the
camring has 6 summits. As a result In each rotation each piston makes 6 in- and outgoing
movements. During the outward stroke the piston is connected to the supply line and during
the ingoing movement it is connected to the diecharge line.
Camring motor with rotating casing
In this motor type the shaft is static instead of

the casing. As a result this motor is
particularly suited for a which drive. The
winch drum is simply connected to the motor
casing. Further more a bandbrake can be
mounted to the motor casing very easily.
This motor type has a very good mechanical

efficiency and is able to run at extremely low
speeds.
- 61 -
3.12 Accumulators
In general accumulators contain a medium separator. A gas (generally nitrogen) is separated

from hydraulic oil by a membrane a bladder or a piston.
gas valve
cover
gas valve
gas side
pressure vessel nitrogen
bladder
cylinder
piston
membrane seal
pressure vessel
guiding
strip
seal
pressure vessel valve
oil connection oil connection oil

connection
The accumulators are called membrane accumulators (a), bladder accumulators (b) or piston
accumulators (c).
When oil enters the accumulator the nitrogen volume decreases and the pressure rises. The
nitrogen charge functions as a gas spring in this way.
An accumulator can be used for the following purposes:
- Storage of hydraulic energy to be used in case of emergency (for instance when a

pump has failed). Some valves (for instance in the petrochemical industry) must remain
operable under all circumstances. By storing the required amount of oil in the
accumulator it can be used for operating the valve when no other source of energy is
available. It should be taken into account that during supply of oil by the accumulator
the nitrogen pressure decreases. That is why the pressure that is required for operating
the valve should be chosen relatively low.
- The accumulator can also be used as a buffer in a system where the oil requirements
are fluctuating. In that case the accumulator can be filled up when the pumps supply
more oil than is needed by the system. This oil can be used again when the system
requires a larger flow than available from the pumps only.
- Vibration damping
In some case the accumulator is used without separator, for instance in swell compensators
on trailing suction hopper dredger. Furthermore it is customary to use air in stead of nitrogen
there.
- 62 -
Symbols for accumulators:
Official symbol for an

accumulator (not normally
used for a piston
accumulator).
Unofficial symbol for a

piston accumulator
During expansion of the gas in the accumulator (i.e. when the accumulator supplies oil) the
pressure drops but in addition to that the gas temperature drops as well. As soon as the
discharge from the accumulator stops the temperature starts to rise again, and with it the
pressure rises also. In the below diagram the N2-volume increases from approximately 5.5 to
6.5 L in three steps. Between the steps the pressure can be seen to recover as a result of
temperature recovery..
180 8
170
7.5
160
150
7
140
pressure
130 6.5
N2 volume
120
110 6
100
5.5
90
80 5
0 200 400 600 800
For filling up an accumulator the reverse proces takes place, as depicted in the below
diagram (it is necessary to start the pump twice to get close to the required pressure).
180 10
170 9.5
160 9
150 8.5
140 8
pressure
130 7.5
N2 volume
120 7
110 6.5
100 6
90 5.5
80 5
0 200 400 600 800
- 63 -
3.13 Filters
Symbol
Many failures in hydraulic systems are caused by contaminations. Creation of contamination

as well as particles entering from outside the hydraulic system cannot be prevented as the
result of the following causes:
- Contamination enters the cylinder when the piston rod is retracted.

- Contamination enters the reservoir through the breather.
- Moving parts in pumps motors etc. create contamination as the result of wear.
- Contamination is present after production of the system.
- During maintenance extra contamination is created.
Since penetration and production of contamination cannot be prevented for 100% it is

necessary to filter contamination from the system.
Irrespective of the location where they are mounted all contamination

filters consist of a filter housing and a filter element. The indicator
filter element is nowadays generally made of
compressed fiber.
The small pores between the fibers ensure that oil may
pass through it wheras contamination is retained.
In the alongside filter oil passes through the element from
the outside to tohe inside. The contamination retained in
the filter will block the pores and eventually will cause the
pressure drop across the filter element to the rise. In the
end the contamination indicator (which measures the
pressure drop across the filter element) will show that the
filter is contaminated.
If this is ignored the pressure will rise even further and
eventually the bypass valve (if present) will open. This is
not as it should be of couse and the filter element should
be replaced when the contamination indicator switches. It
is not possible to clean the filter element!
The following filter types are distinguished:
o The discharge filter: this high pressure filter is located in the discharge port of a pump.
Its most important function is to ensure that a brake down of the pump does not lead to
a massive spread of contamination through the system.
o The return oil filter, which prevents contamination to enter the reservoir from the
system. Often the return oil filter is used as a system filter. This means that is used to
keep the contamination at an exceptable level.
o The bypass filter. This is a small filter with very small pores fed by a separate pump.
Despite the small capacity it is also used as a system filter. It's advantage is that it is
always in use even when the main sets are not running.
- 64 -
o The breather filter is present in every installation. Due to variations in oil level in the
reservoir air is exchanged between reservoir and surroundings. The breather filter
ensures that the air enters the reservoir filtered.
- 65 -
3.14 OIl coolers
General cooler symbol
Oil water cooler
Oil air cooler (driven by

M
electric motor)
Each hydraulic system produces heat. In many cases the system is not capable to lose this
heat to the surroundings without the aid of a cooler
Air coolers
In an air cooler cool air is blown through a

radiator by means of a fan.
Water coolers
In a water cooler water is used for cooling down the oil. In the tube cooler below water flows
through tubes from left to right. The oil on the other hand is forced to follow a zigzag path
through the cooler from the lower right to the lower left connection.
- 66 -
A more modern type of water cooler is the plate type cooler.
- 67 -
3.15 Hydraulic oil
Tasks of a hydraulic fluid
The V-belt in an automobile is used to transport energy from one shaft to another. In a
hydraulic installation the task of the V-belt is taken over by a hydraulic fluid. The main task of
a hydraulic fluid is the transportation of energy.
Other tasks are:

- lubrication of moving parts, for example directional control valves, piston rods, bearings
etc.
- protection of metal surfaces against corrosion.
- removal and transport of wear parts like for instance contamination, water, air
- transport of excess heat as the result of friction and leakage
It should therefore be obvious that the hydraulic fluid is an important element in the hydraulic
system. For the transport function of the hydraulic fluid all fuids are suitable in principle. In
order to fullfill the task of lubrication and anti-corrosion protection mineral oils are used in
over 90% of all applications. Unless specified otherwise HYTOP installations should be filled
with a mineral oil type. A hydraulic fluid has certain innate properties which can be changed
with additives.
Properties of hydraulic fluids
Viscosity
Viscosity describes the fluids resistance against flowing. This resistance is the result of
internal friction. It is the most important property of the fluid. In hydraulic systems the
kinematic viscosity is used with as its unit the cSt (or mm2/s).
The viscosity at 40C is used to designate the type of fluid. An oil type ISO VG46 designates
a fluid which at 40C has a viscosity of 46 cSt.
Fluids with a low viscosity cause high internal leak oil losses, especially in high pressure
systems. In order to obtain a high volumetric efficiency the viscosity should therefore not be
too low. Moreover a low viscosity causes excess wear in pumps and motors.
When on the other hand the viscosity is too high valves will switch too slow. Furthermore the
pressure losses in the suction line to the pomp will become to high and the resulting
cavitation in the pomp will cause it to fail.
Viscosity index
Viscosity is a function of temperature and this is expressed in the viscosity index (VI). Normal
fluids have a viscosity index of 100. Multigrade oils have higher viscosity indexes from 150 to
200 (which means that there is lesser viscosity variation with temperature.
In industrial hydraulics the start up temperature lies between 5 and 20 C. During operation
the temperature rise is abt 50C. The maximum working temperature is therefore abt 70C.
When very accurate control is required the oiltemperature must be kept between strict limits
(between 50C and 60C) by heating up or cooling down.
In construction machines offshore and on ships the starting temperatures vary between
-10C and 20C. Moreover the reservoirs are generally smaller due to limited available
- 68 -
space. As a result the demands on these systems are generally higher than in industrial
installations. Higher fluid temperatures are encountered as a result (upto 90C).
The higher fluid temperature of causes the oil to age more quickly. The same holds for the
pump, seals and hoses.
One result of temperature increase is expansion of the oil which can often ot be neglected.
Each degree of temperature increase causes the volume to increase with 0.07%.
Oxidation
Hydraulic fluids show aging through oxidation. The hydraulic fluid is in close contact with
oxigen and if in addition hot spots (local very high temperatures) arise in the fluid the fluid will
rapidly degrade. This can be recognised by darkening of the fluid and a strong smell.
The degradation products will cause a slower seperation of water and air from the fluid.
Oxidation has an adverse affect om the life of the hydraulic fluid. Presence of iron- and
copper particle catalyse oxidation of hydraulic fluids.
Corrosion
Corrosion arises through:

- water in the oil;
- reaction of bronze and brass with the hydraulic fluid itself
- acidic degradation products
Special dopes are added to the fluid to prevent this from happening.
Compressibility
Compared to air the hydraulic fluid one might say is incompressible. In reality however this is
not entirely correct. Especially in hydraulic control systems the dynamic behaviour of the
complete installation is very important. The stiffness of the hydraulic fluid is decisive for all
movements and vibrations. At high pressures the compressibility cannot be neglected.
As a rule of thumb the compressibilty of oil is 0.5% to 1.0% for each 100 bars of pressure
increase.
Contamination
Contamination causes approximitely 70% of all failures of hydraulic system.
Contaminants are:
- particles
- air
- water
It is actually advisabe to filter "new" hydraulic fluids before filling up the system.
- 69 -
Danger of fire
Mineral oils are inflammable. When hydraulic oil leaks from a component under high
pressure the oil nebula which is the result can easily catch fire when in contact with a hot
surface or open fire. This is why foundries and aircrafts use inflammble fluids.
Environment
High demands are made on hydraulic fluids and systems for environmental reasons. Better
sealing methods prevent oil leakage. Systems for the analysis of fluids are used to limit the
amount of oil changes. Allthough mineral oil is still the most widely used type of fluid, other
fluids, that pose a lesser threat to the environment, are being developed rapidly.
Specific mass
The specific mass of mineral oils is between 800 and 900 gram/ltr. The specific mass
however is temperature dependent and drops with temperature rise. With each degree
temperature rise the volume change is approximately 0.07%. When the oil is inside a closed
vessel which cannot expand we will have a pressure increase instead of volume increase. As
a rule of thumb: 10 bar per C temperature rise.
In order to protect for instance cylinders against the pressure rise as the result of the heat of
the sun, small pressure relief valves are installed (so called thermal relief valves).
- 70 -
IHC Hytop B.V. 21-8-2008 Training Course Systems
4. Systems
4.1 The closed system

In the closed system (which should not be confused with an electronical closed control loop)
the speed and the direction of rotation is determined by the control of the swash plate of the
pump. The principle diagram is as follows:
Brake
Flushing
motor
carter
Brake
Aux. pump
Flushing valve
Boost Accumulator
pressure
Pressure transducer
Closed pump
with variable
stroke volume
Suction boost pump Return oil
The closed systems characteristic is that the major part of the flow from the consumer is fed
into the suction side of the pump. A small boost pump (typically with 20% of the total
capacity) has its inlet port connected to the reservoir and discharges to the low pressure side
to the closed circuit. Excess oil is purged from the closed circuit by means of the flushing
valve.
The closed circuit has a number of advantages when compared to the open system which is
treated in the following sections.
The control system is simple and very stable.
Dissipation of energy is much less than in the open system since the speed is not
controlled by means of a proportional valve.
The control system can be is relatively fast (depending on the control system of the
pump). Speeds upto approximately 0,25 seconds can be obtained (from zero to full flow).
This type of pump is particularly suitable for CT systems (the pump pressure must be
measured and fed back to the control system in this case).
- 71 -
The closed system also has a number of disadvantages:
For each consumer a separate pumpset is required since each pumpset can only operate
one consumer at the same time.
In the closed system there is a danger of cavitation when the distance between pump and
consumer is large. Cavitation on one side of the circuit is caused by a sudden pressure
increase on the other side of the circuit. This pressure increase causes compression on
that side and as a result, a shortage of oil on the other side.
Questions
1. What is the function of the flushing valve?
2. Why is there an accumulator in the system?
3. Why hasn't the accumulator been connected to the discharge of the boost pump?
- 72 -
4.2 Open circuits
In an open circuit the inlet of the main pump is connected directly to the reservoir. The pump
discharges to the pressure line which is connected to one or several (proportional) directional
control valves. By energizing a valve a consumer is operated. There are several possibilities
for controlling the speed of the consumer:
Speed control by controlling the pump's stroke volume. When the pump is used in this
way only one consumer can be operated at the same time.
Fixed speed by using flow control valves or throttles. This type of control is used for
consumers where speed control is not important.
Speed control by means of a proportional valve.
In last case a fixed pump or a variable pump with pressure cut off is used. This type of
system is energy consuming. A little more friendly is a load sense pump which adapts to the
maximum pressure required in the system.
All examples in part 2 are open systems, as are most systems on hopper dredgers and cutter
dredgers.
4.3 Ring line systems
Ring line systems are always open

system: the pump inlet is connected to
the reservoir and dicharges to a
pressure ring line. There is no essential
difference between ring line systems
and other open systems. The phrase
"ring line system" indicates that the
various control valves are not mounted
on the powerpack but are distributed.
The opposite is called a central system.
The advantage of a ring line system is
that it requires less piping.
Modern hopper dredgers are equiped

with a ring line system.
- 73 -
4.4 Synchronised movement
With 2 hydraulic motors it is possible to synchronise 2 cylinders:
pR
3 3
pB1 pB2
p1 p2
1
pV
During the cylinder out movement the oilflow from the control valve is split in two flows which
are nearly equal. The speed of both cylinders is nearly the same (differences are due to
differences in volumetric efficiency and compression of oil).
When the pressure required at the leftmost cylinder is 50 bar and the pressure at the leftmost
cylinder is 150 bar the pressure between valve and flow divider is 100 bar (mechanical
efficiency is ignored in this case). The pressuredrop of 100-50 bar on the leftmost motor
causes a torque to the rightmost motor where as a result pressure increases from 100 bar to
150 bar.
The pressure relief valves [4] are installed to correct position differences at the end of stroke.
Questions:
1. The back pressure valve [2] is necessary for correct functioning of the flow divider in the
inward stroke of the cylinders. Why?
2. In the above case the cylinders experience only a pushing load. How can this be deduced
from the diagram?
- 74 -
An alternative which functions under all conditions is drawn in the following diagram:
- 75 -
4.5 Proportional speed control

Below the diagram of a proportional speed control based on an ordinary proportional
directional control valve with pressure compensator is drawn. The winch speed is dependent
on the current through the energized solenoid.
In order to lift the load the leftmost solenoid is energized. As a result of the ensuing pressure
in the working line the brake is lifted and the load is lifted with a speed proportional to the
proportional control.
When a load is lowered the rightmost solenoid is energized. The pressure in the line to
non-load side causes the brake valve on the load side to open sufficiently to allow a
controlled lowering.
Since the brake is lifted by means of the pressure in the working line this is a very safe
system: as soon as the supply pressure vanishes the movement stops and the brake is
applied.
For high demands of accuracy and fast control (in particular when the speed is nearly zero)
this system is unsuited. One reason is that there is no feedback from the winchspeed. A
second reason the fact that the pressure compensator and the brake valve delay the
operation.
For an accurate control system a closed control loop is required. It is possible to achieve this
with the closed hydraulic circuit described above or with the control system in the next
section.
- 76 -
4.6 Speed control
The basic diagram for speed control is as follows:

Instead of a proportional valve a zero-lap
control valve with position transducer is
used. The pressure compensator and
brake valves of the previous system are
omitted. The winch is equiped with a
speed sensor. pL=pA-pB
The brake can no longer be controlled

from the working lines and have to be
controlled by means of a separate valve.
This system has less intrinsic safety but
this can be corrected by means of the
control system.
Since this type of control systems is very

fast an accumulator is generally added to
the pressure line.
The pump is equiped with pressure cut-off.

pA pB
The control system functions as follows:
when a certain speed is required the
speed of the winch is compared to the
required speed. If the actual speed is too
low the valve is given a larger opening and
if the actual speed is too high the valve is
given a smaller opening.
In principle this can be achieved by means pP

of a PID controller but then it becomes
necessary to use a high gain in order to
achieve accuracy. Altertively it is als
possible to use the closed loop only for a
small correction to a speed that is for the
most part controlled in an open loop.
M
In order to realise this the characteristic of the valve is measured and entered in the control
system. Furthermore pressure transmitters are included in the pressure line and in both
working lines. With the aid of the transmitters it is possible to calculate the signal to the
control valve needed to obtain the correct flow through the valve. The valve is then set at this
calculated opening and as a result the open loop is already relatively accurate.
- 77 -
Hazards
We assume that for hoisting the rightmost solenoid of the control valve is energized. As soon
as this solenoid is energized there is a flow from P to A and from B to T. Across both sides
there is a pressuredrop as a result of this flow and, since both openings are equal the
pressuredrops are equal. This (when neglecting return oil pressure): pP-pA=pB.
When pL=pA-pB is the load pressure this results in:
pA= (pP + pL) and pB= (pP - pL).
During lowering the leftmost solenoid is energized and the relations are
pP-pB=pA and pL=pA-pB. This leads to the same relation as during hoisting:
pA= (pP + pL) and pB= (pP - pL).
From this formula the hazard during lowering is immediately obvious: when the loadpressure
is higher than the pumppressure the motor cavitates on the non-load side. This can be
caused by a too high load pressure but also by selecting a speed higher than allowed by the
available pumpflow (since in that case supply pressure will drop).
- 78 -
IHC Hytop B.V. 21-8-2008 Training Course Hydraulic maintenance
5 Maintenance
5.1 Some general remarks on maintenance
It is of prime importance to strictly observe the directions for use and maintenance
instructions issued by the manufacturer of the equipment in order to enable a troublefree use
of the equipment. Maintenance and adjustments of the installation should be executed by
experienced staff.
Apart from the general instructions you should also comply with the specific instructions for
the hydraulic components used as a part of the installation. This applies especially for pumps
and motors.
5.2 Safety instructions for work on hydraulic installations
Make sure the system is fully shut down

For reasons of safety during operation the disconnection or removal of pipe connections,
quick-disconnect hydraulic connections and components is prohibited. Couplings should only
be checked under de-pressurized and cold conditions according to the directives in the
applicable component sheets. Make sure the system is completely shut-off when work has to
be executed on the installation. Depressurize the reservoir if required.
Always lower loads, switched off driving motors and fully discharge hydraulic accumulators.
Lock the main switches and remove the starting keys. Disconnect the minus pole of the
starter battery of a combustion motor drive and remove the essential fuses. Apply a clear
indication that work is to be done on the machine or installation. Apply safety notices
mentioning that switching on the installation is prohibited.
Make sure no uncontrolled energy can come free by operations on the hydraulic system. For
instance, disconnecting a cylinder connection having a load on it will give in the most ideal
case a wet suit and an considerable contamination of the environment. An example is the
disconnection of the bottom connection of the cylinder lifting the mast of a fork-lift truck. Quite
often the connection can only be reached when the mast stands in the upright position.
When the mast is not hanging in a sling, the person disconnecting de connection could be
crushed by the mast and the prongs.
Hydraulic accumulators
Hydraulic accumulators are pressure vessels and subject to local laws and rules. A hydraulic
accumulator is filled with highly pressurized nitrogen. Therefore welding or soldering as well
as mechanical work on the accumulator is not allowed. Ignoring these regulations and
incompetent repairs can lead to serious accidents. Always de-pressurize hydraulic
accumulators before disassembly, read the manufacturers product description and follow the
instructions. Leave the repair exclusively to the manufacturer. Fill the accumulators only with
nitrogen and never use another gas like oxygen or air .
Cleanliness
Cleanliness is extremely important when working on a hydraulic system. Before removing
components or disconnecting pipes the area and the necessary tools should be thoroughly
cleaned. It is also primary to prevent that area from becoming contaminated with hydraulic
oil. Never work with greasy hands. Cover the surroundings with suitable material to prevent
contamination of these surroundings.
- 79 -
Prevent leakages
Repair leakages forthwith. Consider that oil is freed when disengaging and disconnecting
components and pipes. Take account of this by taking measures to catch that oil. Estimate
the possible quantity of freed oil and have containers ready of sufficient size. Take into
account oil reservoirs situated above the work point and the siphon effect. If valves are
present close them. Label closed valves clearly and do not forget to open the valves when
starting up. Apply a safety notice near the main switch or the ignition key that valves or
cocks are closed.
Have plugs, blind plates etc. at hand in order to seal the openings immediately after they
have been formed to prevent dirt ingress into the system. Check that no pressure can build
up from behind these plugs and blind plates. Make sure that in such case the plugs and blind
plates can withstand these pressures. Do not leave a partly dismantled installation
unattended without having double-checked whether a leakage could result from siphoning or
from something else. Make sure that the installation will not be found after the weekend with
an emptied oil reservoir. The oil in the reservoir is worth money, the oil outside the reservoir
has become chemical waste and must be treated as such.
Cleaning hydraulic installations

Keep hydraulic installations clean. Greasiness attracts dirt and makes surfaces slippery.
Dont use cotton waste to clean hydraulic installations because it leaves cotton particles.
Dont leave cleaning rags behind in the reservoir. Clean mess at once.
Surface treatments
Sand and grit blasting of a hydraulic installation or even of installations in the neighborhood
of hydraulic installations should be executed with great care. Make sure that no grit particles
can enter the hydraulic system. Seal all orifices of the reservoir. Protect or remove sensitive
components like instrumentation and solenoids. Protect rotating shafts and their seals,
protect piston rods and their seals.
Protect surfaces serving as seal of components. After blasting the hydraulic installation
should be cleaned with the greatest care. Grit particles are disastrous for a hydraulic
installation. Used grit particles left in for example countersunk holes will oxidize and form
traces of rust.
Protect all moving parts, flexible seals, bearings, ball-and-socket joints, piston rods etc.
during the application of paint. Bear in mind that hydraulic oil degrades certain paints.
Waste disposal
In case of leakage the fluid spillage should be mixed with sawdust, sand, earth and
preferably with absorbent grains and then disposed in accordance with the Code for
dangerous waste products. All used lubricants should be disposed in accordance with the
Code for dangerous waste products. This Code states among others that it is compulsory to
provide a detailed report about delivery or receipt of chemical waste and waste oil.
Storage of hydraulic oil

Hydraulic fluids are stored in various containers. These are generally plastic or metal
containers. The most well known are barrels of 200 liters. For the storage of hydraulic fluids
precautionary measures have to be taken in order to prevent contamination of the soil and
the ground water. Moreover a license under the Nuisance Act is necessary for this storage.
Disposal of spilt oil has to be done in accordance with the chemical waste legislation.
Hydraulic fluid expands when it warms up. The bulging cover or bottom of a container points
to this. Moreover the container, when standing, will breathe and at night it will draw cool fresh
air and so it will become contaminated with water.
- 80 -
Store the containers therefore in the following way:

Storage in a dry clean area with a temperature as stable as possible.
Storage outside of broached containers on a wooden support or on a horse with the filling
and vent opening in the position quarter to three.
Ingress of dirt can be prevented by:

Cleaning thoroughly the top of the container and especially around the filler opening
before opening the container. Remove also, if present, water on top of the container.
Storage outside under a shelter in a clean environment.
In case of fire
In case of fire, fire fighting can be done with foam, powder or carbon-dioxide fire
extinguishers. Dont use water. The use of water jet spray must be left to fire fighting experts.
Health aspects and first aid

Handling hydraulic oil or lubricants may be harmful for your health.
Always avoid:
skin and eye contact
swallowing hydraulic oil
inhalation of oil mist and oil vapor
Always take the following preventive measures:

Wear plastic gloves, good working clothes and apron
Wear wide view goggles
Provide ventilation
Avoid oil mist by exhaust
Provide machines with splash boards
Do not eat, drink or smoke during work or on the workplace
Do not use contaminated rags to remove oil from the skin, wash with water and soap
Regularly and long-term inhalation of oil mist, smoke and damps must be avoided. Much
attention must be paid to the prevention of oil mist in de work areas. The MAC value (this is
the maximum admissible concentration) for oil mist is 5 mg/m3.
- 81 -
Give first aid in the following way:

In the event that something happens that might have been prevented, act in the following
manner:
In case of skin and eye Clean the skin rigorously with soap and rinse with water
contact: In case of contact with the eyes rinse them for at least 10
minutes with running water
In case of doubt about the seriousness of the complaint call
always medical assistance
If there is any reason to believe that oil under pressure has
been injected through the skin into the body or in one of the
limbs call immediately for medical assistance. If not treated it
can cause blood-poisoning which can be lethal!
Inhalation of oil mist and Bring the victim into fresh air, keep it warm and call for a doctor.
vapor:
Swallowing: Call immediately for medical assistance, dont arouse vomiting,
because it might result in choking whereby oil could enter the
lungs.
Choking If you suspect that liquid has entered the lungs (e.g. by
vomiting) call immediately for medical assistance.
Bear in mind that hydraulic oils can cause allergic reactions. Read always the product
specifications of the hydraulic oil used and of the lubricants and oils used.
5.3 General instructions for installation of equipment
Installation of equipment
When installing the equipment pay attention to the correct mounting position, ambient
temperature, voltage etceteras. Mount the equipment tension-free. Connecting surfaces
should be sufficiently flat. Bolt fixing bolts uniformly.
Installation of pumps
Align pumps carefully when mounting them on diesel engines or electric motors. Take
appropriate measures to prevent axial and radial loads on the pump. Mount hydraulic piping
tension-free on a pump. Too great forces on the pump will distort the lantern gland on which
the pump is mounted. Because of this the alignment of the coupling will no longer
correspond. The pump should preferably be connected with hoses and flexible parts to the
hydraulic system. Axial and radial load of the pump shaft can, within very short term, lead to
wear followed by breakdown of coupling and pump. This can seriously contaminate the
hydraulic system.
The coupling between pump and motor must allow the pump shaft enough clearance. It is
possible that, due to the load of the internal parts, the pump shaft makes minimum
movements. The prevention or restriction of these movements can lead to fatigue cracks.
Follow always the instructions delivered with that particular pump.
Installation of piping
The hydraulic diagram provides primary the functional working of the hydraulic system and
should therefore not be considered as a piping diagram.
- 82 -
Use hydraulic piping of sufficient diameter to prevent high pressure drops and flow speeds.
Always ask HYTOP for a piping advice.
Make sure the pressures stated for pipe, hoses and connectors are in accordance with the
operating pressures in the system.
Use only seamless steel precision tubes in accordance with DIN-2445/2, material type St.
37.4 (NBK) or St 52.4 or stainless steel tubes according to DIN-2464, material type
AISI 316 L.
Take account of expansion of straight piping due to temperature and pressure. Mount the
piping in such a way that expansion is not obstructed. Use expansion bends if necessary.
Fix the pipes with synthetic tube clamps. As a rule of thumb the spacing of the clamps should
be:
1 meter for pipes with an overall diameter up to 30 mm
1,5 meter for larger pipes.
Determine carefully the places for fixing the tube clamps and have them heavy enough to
prevent transmission of vibrations (i.e. not in the middle of a plate).
Pipe bends should have a radius not less than two times the outside diameter of the pipe.
Use appropriate cold-forming dedicated bending equipment. Check that the pipe at the place
of the bend is not oval. Take account of the lowered maximum work pressure of the pipe to
the bend which weakens the piperm bending and/or filling the pipe bending is not permitted.
Inspect, when using welding bends and welding flanges, the welds inside the pipe. Make
sure that it is accessible for inspection.
Do not weld straight parts of piping directly together. Use for these connections couplings or
flanges. Use only butt-weld type flanges and not welded-on type flanges.
Clean the piping before installation and remove dirt, weld spatter etc. Mount the piping
tension free.
Replace damaged piping and hoses immediately.
Follow the mounting instructions on the product-sheets of the pipe-couplings.
Installation of hoses
Use hoses where, due to interdependent movements of the components or in relation with
the construction, high tensions could arise in tubes, couplings, flanges or bolts. The same
holds for places where otherwise severe vibrations would occur (which could lead to extra
noise production or metal fatigue).
Use hoses with a bursting pressure of at least 4x the working pressure (and with installations
according to Lloyds at least 5x the working pressure). Mount the hoses without twists and
with a bending radius equal or larger than specified by the supplier. Use only hoses with
press-fitted couplings and coupling pins provided with O-ring seals. The use of profile ring
fittings on coupling pins is not allowed. Use O-rings with a minimum hardness of 70 Sh and
for extremely high temperatures viton O-rings of 85 Sh.
- 83 -
Connecting hydraulic cylinders and motors

Align cylinders properly in order to prevent side loads and bending loads. Deflection of the
cylinder provokes damage of rod and bearings causing leakages and contamination of the
system.
Avoid ingress of dirt in cylinders during build-in. Keep therefore the cylinder connections
always sealed with plugs. Remove the plug only when it is absolutely necessary to adapt the
position of the piston rod (and only during the adaptation itself).
When mounting a hydraulic motor (for example on a winch) align it with care. Take
appropriate measures to prevent axial and radial loads on the hydraulic motor shaft. Mount
hydraulic piping tension-free on a hydraulic motor. Too great forces on the hydraulic motor
will distort the lantern gland on which the hydraulic motor is mounted. Because of this the
alignment of the coupling will no longer correspond. The hydraulic motor should preferably
be connected with hoses and flexible parts to the hydraulic system. Axial and radial load of
the hydraulic motor shaft can, within very short term, lead to wear followed by breakdown of
coupling and motor. This can seriously contaminate the hydraulic system.
The coupling between hydraulic motor and what is driven by it must allow the hydraulic motor
shaft enough clearance. It is possible that, due to the load of the internal parts, the hydraulic
motor shaft makes minimal movements. The prevention or restriction of these movements
can lead to fatigue cracks.
5.4 Flushing
Introduction.
The pumping of a suitable clean fluid at appropriate velocity through the hydraulic pipework
flushes away the assembly debris. A clean system is essential for a satisfactory functioning
and prolong the life of the hydraulic system. Omitting or shortening of flushing leads
inevitably to accelerated wear of components and to trouble. Standard CETOP RT 117 H
describes how to flush a hydraulic installation.
The following is a summary of that CETOP standard. Here the flushing medium is presumed
to be the specified operational hydraulic oil (or an oil which can me mixed with it without any
harm). For cases where a special flushing oil is needed (because the system would
otherwise be insufficiently cleaned) the reader is referred to the CETOP standard.
Condition of components
Make sure all components are clean, ready for mounting, protected by preservation oil and
provided with sealing plugs. Remove sealing plugs etc. only just before assembly. Pay
special attention to the pipework concerning dirt, rust and so on. Reject contaminated
pipework and replace or clean it before use.
Preparation of the system

Replace those components that form a restriction in the oil flow or that can be damaged by
the oil flow by accessories. These components, probably already flushed during assembly,
are among others: reservoirs, pumps, motors, cylinders, valves, flow regulators and other
valves with small openings. Filters can be left in the installation when the elements have
been removed.
Apply vents at all high situated points in order to ensure that pipes and components are well
filled and apply drains at the lowest points and at the end parts in order to enable removal of
dirt. Avoid dead ends or bypass them with accessories.
- 84 -
Flush only the simple systems in one time. Divide more complicated systems into several
flushing loops and flush every loop separately. Flush if necessary pump sets and valve
manifolds separately.
Apply couplings for flushing connections, preferably quick-disconnect hydraulic connections

to each flushing loop. Choose ample sized connections so that the flushing fluid can pass
with a low pressure drop.
Steel piping and couplings

If the supplied pipes and couplings are dirty they should be treated in the following way
before installation and after complete manufacturing:
Inspect all welds on piping and couplings on the presence of weld spatter. Remove these
before the cleaning procedure starts.
All welded steel piping should be blown through with steam or air in order to remove weld
spatters, dirt or sand. The piping should be filled with and the couplings immersed in a hot
alkaline solution left to soak and cleaned immediately afterwards in accordance with
normal practice. During this procedure dirt, paint and grease is removed as a preparation
for acidifying. This is followed by acidifying the welded parts. It is extremely important that
after this all traces of acid are carefully removed.
Treat the piping with a suitable rust preventive oil after the piping has been thouroughly
dried with dry air. This rust preventive oil should be soluble in the flushing oil to be used.
Seal finally all openings to prevent ingress of dirt or moisture.
Flushing fluid, flushing speed and oil temperature

Treat the piping with a suitable rust preventive oil after the piping has been thouroughly
dried with dry air. This rust preventive oil should be soluble in the flushing oil to be used. Seal
finally all openings to prevent ingress of dirt or moisture.
In order to clean the system as fast and as efficient as possible a sufficiently high flushing
speed and temperature is needed. Pump therefore enough oil through the piping. Flushing
should preferably be twice the operating flow rate and at least 8 m/s.
To make sure that the flow is turbulent the Reynolds number must be at least 3000 (this is
reached when vd/ 3, where v is the flow rate in m/s, d the inner diameter in mm and the
viscosity in mm2/s or cSt).
Furthermore 60 C is a reasonable flushing temperature for mineral oil.
Flushing equipment
Flush with an hydraulic pump unit designed for it. Flushing demands special requirements of
a hydraulic pump unit. HYTOP can supply flushing hydraulic pump units and/or give advice if
required.
Flushing procedure
Fill the system from the flushing hydraulic pump unit in such a way that the oil is filtered
before entering the system. New oil is often contaminated in respect to hydraulic standards.
Circulate the flushing fluid and vent the system. Heat the fluid up to 60 C. Flush the
connected flushing string carefully till an appropriate contamination level has been reached.
As a rule of thumb the flushing string has to be flushed 2 to 3 hours. The contamination level
can be checked by analyzing the oil samples with a good automatic particle counter.
After flushing has been finished the oil has to be removed from the flushing string. Seal off
the components to prevent ingress of dirt afterwards.
- 85 -
5.5 General instructions for commissioning
Commissioning consists of a number of procedures that have to be followed very carefully.

Hereunder follows a short overview of the essentials. Commissioning should not be done
without consulting the documentation of the hydraulic parts of the installation.
Check the following points before commissioning:

Has the system been cleaned according to the instructions in the previous chapters?
Have all electrical components been connected and are they functioning well?
Is the right hydraulic fluid present. Use of the right fluid, especially with the correct
viscosity, is essential for trouble-free functioning of the system. For the selection of the
right fluid You should follow the advice of HYTOP.
Make sure the work conditions are immaculate. Clean the filler cap on the aggregate (if
present) before opening. Check the reservoir on cleanliness and clean if necessary.
Check the fluid on the presence of water.
Fill the system with fluid having the required contamination level.
Fill the system in such a way that ingress of dirt or chemicals cant take place. Use
therefore only clean oil which will be filtered when filling takes place. It cant be
emphasized enough that malfunctions of hydraulic systems, especially at the start, are
frequent when no attention is paid to this.
Most HYTOP-systems are equipped with a special filler connection in order to guarantee
that filling takes place via the return line filter. Use in that case a separate pump for filling.
Fill the system via the filler opening in the tank when the system has not been equipped
with a filler coupling. Do not remove the filter element during topping up.
Pre charge the accumulators to the required pressure.
After these preparations work as follows

Set, at the start, the pressure control valves, flow regulators and pressure regulators of
pumps at a low value. Directional slide valves should be in the neutral position. An open
return flow to the reservoir should be possible.
Open suction valves, if present.
Top up the pump housing of the piston pumps and motors carefully (for more details see
the documentation sheets concerned) through the upper leakage connection.
Top up the vane pumps, gear pumps and internal gear pumps by disconnecting the
pressure outlet connection and pouring the oil in the discharge connection while turning
the pump by hand (for more details see the documentation sheets concerned).
Top up the suction lines.
Check the direction of rotation of the pumps.
Start the motor slowly (In case of E-motors by quick on and off switching) in order to
check the direction of rotation.
Let the pump deliver fluid at minimum pressure during about 15 minutes and listen for
abnormal sounds.
Set the pressure limiting valve at about 10 to 20 bar and start up the system in order to
obtain its normal working temperature.
Test the installation functionally and without load.
De-aerate the work lines at the highest possible point. Actuate the control valve and have
the pistons several times extended and retracted without load. Slowly increase the load
and raise the settings of pressure and flow regulators.
The system is well de-aerated as soon as foam is no longer formed in the reservoir and
the driven components are functioning without producing surges or extra noise.
Check the oil level and top up after de-aeration if necessary.
- 86 -
Adjust as follows:
Adjust slide valves and valves at values as indicated on the hydraulic diagram.
Variable pumps with pressure cutoff are usually protected by an additional pressure
control valve. Check that the set pressure of the pressure control valve is higher than the
pump pressure (at least 30 bar).
Check the pre-charged nitrogen pressure of the accumulator.
Long-life test of the installation.
And perform the following follow-up:

Check the temperature of the system after a few hours of running.
Repair leakages (usually by tightening the couplings and bolts after a few hours of
operation). See mounting instructions for this.
Replace the filter elements. Most of the dirt is collected during the first running hours.
5.6 General instructions for visual inspection and maintenance
HYTOP-hydraulic equipment has been designed for long-term trouble-free functioning. The
maintenance needed is minimum but practical experience has shown that 80 % of the
failures in hydraulic systems are due to dirt, lack of maintenance and wrong choice of fluid.
Make use of your senses smell, touch, hearing and sight during the inspection in order to be
able to determine the symptoms of burning, heat, noise, vibrations and leakage.
Fluid level
Check continuously the fluid level because when the fluid level is too low the temperature
rises, undissolved air can remain in the oil, and the pump can break down due to suction of
air. This holds especially for systems not equipped with a level switch. Do this preferably
daily and if this is not possible, for instance because the aggregate is not easily accessible,
at least once a month. Check always under the same conditions: put the cylinders at their
point of departure and blow off accumulators if present. By checking carefully the level and
recording it, occurring problems can be traced.
Fluid temperature
The working temperature depends of several factors such as ambient temperature, the
machine sequence, the pipework etc. In practice the temperature ranges normally from
40 C to 80 C.
A maximum temperature of 70 C is recommended for mineral oils, because at higher
temperatures aging will accelerate and the life span of seals and hoses will be shortened too.
Check regularly the temperature in the reservoir. Slow rising of the temperature can point to
contamination, wear or leakage and must be considered as a signal to inspect all
components under consideration. A sudden increase in temperature requires forthwith
shutting down and inspection of the installation.
If it is not possible to have the temperature daily checked, for instance because the
aggregate is not easily accessible, then it has to be done at least once a month Check
always under the same conditions: make sure that the aggregate has been in operation
during a fixed time span before checking and record duly the oil temperature as well as the
ambient temperature. Herewith it becomes possible to trace changes and occurring
problems.
Fluid condition
- 87 -
The aging of the fluid depends of a number of factors such as: temperature, pressure,
humidity, ambient pollution etc. The aging of the fluid can, to a certain extend, be judged by
a simple visual observation as indicated in the table. Take always an oil sample and dont
rely on the oil in the gauge glass.
Apart from this visual check it is recommended to have the oil regularly checked in a
laboratory.
Visual inspection of oil

Appearance Contamination Possible cause
Dark color Oxidation products Overheating, insufficient change of fluid
(possible mixture with other fluid).
Milky appearance Water or foam Mixture with water or air.
Separation of water Water Mixing with water, for instance coolant
Air bubbles Air Air uptake, for instance by too low level or
leak suction.
Sedimentation Solid material Wear, dirt, aging.
Burning smell Aging products. Overheating.
Fluid analysis
Have the fluid regularly analyzed (for example every six months) on its chemical composition
in order to determine aging, change of pH-value, water contents etc.
It is also possible to have the contamination class determined in the laboratory. However the
sampling procedures for this have to be executed very accurately because otherwise the
determination would be worthless. A better way is to make use of an equipment that can
determine the contamination level of an operating system. This service can be provided by
HYTOP if required.
Changing the fluid

Change the oil at intervals of 2.000 - 4.000 hours when it is not regularly examined in a
laboratory. The time interval between changing the fluid can considerably be lengthened
when the fluid is treated with care and regularly analyzed.
Filter inspection and replacement of cartridge
Filters without clogging indicator:

Replace the filter cartridges first after the first running-in period (after about 50 running
hours). Hereafter the filter cartridges should be replaced every month up to six month,
depending on the circumstances.
Indicating filters:
Check preferably daily but at least every month the filter. Check the clogging indicator when
a normal flow quantity of oil passes through the filter and the oil has reached its natural
operating temperature. During system start-up when the oil is cold the indicator can become
activated due to the high viscosity.
Air filters
These filters filter the in and outflow of air in the oil container. The inspection interval
depends of the surroundings. Replace them at least when the other filters are replaced too.
Air filters with silica-gel turn color from blue to deep pink when the element becomes
saturated with water.
- 88 -
Accumulators
Apart from the legally required tests it is also necessary to check regularly the precharged
nitrogen pressure, especially during running-in of the installation.
Oil air coolers

Clean oil air coolers regularly, one thing and another depending on the precipitation of dirt
from the surroundings.
Oil water coolers

In this case the cleaning interval is dependent of the water quality, the temperature and the
water flow. Use nylon brushes or chemicals for cleaning
Piston rods
Piston rods can be made of carbon steel or stainless steel and can be chromium plated,
nickel chrome plated or ceramic coated. Even the thickest layers can be attacked by a
corrosive atmosphere. It is therefore of the greatest importance to protect the extending part
of the rod with a suitable corrosion preventive means or by retracting the rod at intervals of a
certain duration (in that case a thin oil film adheres on the rod). It is difficult to indicate the
duration of the intervals because this is depending on the circumstances. The interval can
vary between daily and weekly. Guidelines can be obtained by studying other working
installations in the neighborhood. Especially in coastal areas and in marine use, but also in
chemical industries it is recommended to retract the rods daily. If grease or another corrosion
preventive means is used the interval should be monthly up to every six month (n.b.: some
corrosion preventive means interact adversely with seals or hydraulic oil).
Settings
All pressure regulating valves, flow regulating valves, pressure compensators and electric
equipment as pressure switches, limit switches and thermostats are adjusted during
commissioning. Check these settings at regular intervals.
Various other checks

Staying alert and paying attention to details makes it possible to detect failures at an early
stage so that more serious failures can be avoided. This is especially the case during the
running-in period but holds also afterwards.
Pay special attention to:

External leakages.
Dirt.
Damage, especially of hoses and pipes.
Unusual noises from pumps, motors, couplings, fixations etc.
Correct functioning of instruments.
- 89 -
IHC Hytop B.V. 21-8-2008 Training Course Trouble shooting
6 Trouble shooting
6.1 General guidelines for faults and fault-finding
General approach
The general way of dealing with a malfunctioning system is diplayed in the following diagram:
Step:
Failure
1 Flow Pressure Direction
Symbols
2
Diagram
List of
3
components
Order of
4 Noise Vibration
examination
Provisional
5
test
Extensive
6 Heat Leakage
test
Failure
7
components
Consider
8
cause and effect
Fig. 1
General failureprocedure
Explanation:
Step 1 :
Fault finding obviously starts with a problem: a hydraulic cylinder or motor does not function
correctly for instance :
- there is no movement
- movement in the wrong direction
- irregular movement
- wrong speed
- creeping, for example lowering by itself
- wrong order
- incorrect force
Whatever the cause is, the problem can be brought back to a problem in flow (speed),
pressure (force)or direction of movement.
Step 2:
Read the hydraulic diagram and check the functioning of each of the components.
Step 3:
Make a list of the "suspicious" components.
- 90 -
Step 4:
Put these components in order of priority.
Your last experience with this hydraulic system and the ease with which the components can
be tested, play a in important part.
Step 5:
Carry out a provisional test on each of the components on the list. Look at the installation,
adjustments, signals etc.
Check if a component has abnormal symptoms.
These symptoms can be: very high temperature, noise, vibration and leakage.
Note:
The system rarely brakes down completely. Therefore, with a large installation, you will first
have to examine the part where the defective component is localized.
An example for this is a pump which cavitates in a hydraulic supply system. The supply
system is then isolated from the rest of the installation and tested further.
Step 6:
Move to extensive testing with the help of testing equipment, without removing any
components from the system.
Step 7:
This test must pinpoint the defect component(s).
Now make a decision if you are going to repair or replace the component.
Step 8:
Before you restart the system you must consider the cause (which tells you whether the
same malfunction can happen again) and the consequence of the failure (has tehe defect
component caused problems in orther locations, for instance:has the malfunction caused
contamination in the system).
Use of senses
Senses (vision, hearing and touch) are an important starting point in fault finding. In order to
use these senses effectively it is essential to become familiar with the installation when it is in
good working order in order to be able to check for differences.
The following markers sould be observed:
sound (noise)
vibrations
temperatures
external leakages
shaky movements
Heat
When the system is working longtime at too high a temperature the lowered viscosity will
give rise to extra wear in the components which will cause the temperature to rise even
more. Internal leakage, restrictions and activated pressure limiting valves can be localised
without difficulties by measuring the surface temperature of the in and outgoing piping to
these components. Especially contactless infrared measuring instruments are very suitable
- 91 -
for this. As a rule of thumb, every 14 bar pressure drop cause a raise in temperature of the
oil of 1 degree centigrade.
In the case of excessive heat the following should be checked:
Cause Remedy
Too little oil in the reservoir Top up reservoir and check reason of low
level
Malfunctioning of the cooler (if present) Check cooler on dirt or that the fan of an
electrical or hydraulic driven oil/air cooler
turns and whether water is flowing through
the oil/water cooler. Check also whether oil
is passing through the cooler
Wrong oil Fill the system with the correct oil
Activated pressure limiting valves Remove overload if present and adjust
limiting pressure valves
Mechanical friction of moving parts Check alignment and replace or repair the
components concerned
Internal leakages in hydraulic components Replace or repair the components
concerned
Restrictions (for example quick-disconnect Adjust restrictions correctly, tighten quick-
connections not tightened or not well disconnect connections and replace or
functioning) repair the components concerned
Noise
Noise is often a first indication that something is wrong and the source can be extremely
difficult to locate. It is known that certain types of hydraulic components can produce much
noise when they are built-in in a certain way (e.g. pressure regulators mounted on a panel).
Follow the following procedure in the case of excessive noise:
Cause Remedy
Pump sucks air Check oil level and suction line
Pump cavitates Check:
air filter
pressure in suction line (compare with
allowed pressure in the documentation)
check valves in the suction line
type of oil
rotational speed of the pump
Check
Misalignment Align pump or motor
Defective pump Replace pump
Defective component (pressure relief valve, Replace component
flow control valve)
- 92 -
Vibration
Vibrations caused by instability of components can also be caused by a change of load on a

hydraulic motor or a cylinder. The problem becomes evident in a component, the cause lies
somewhere else.
In the case of vibration the following precedure must be followed:

Cause Remedy
Pressure pulsations of the pump Check pump
Coupling between pump and motor worn Replace coupling
Defective component Replace component
Loose pipework Fix pipework
Incorrect adjustment of non-return restriction Adjust valve correctly
valve in systems with controlled non-return
valves and negative load
Instability of components (e.g. brake valves) Adjust correctly or replace
in the entire system
Air in the system Remove cause
Check for damages (and replace if
necessary)
Leakage
Cause Remedy
Loose swivels and nipple Tighten
Paint or dirt on sealing surfaces Clean surfaces rigorously
Wrong, defective or too hard seals Use correct seals
Oil temperature too high in combination with Lower temperature
pressure peaks
Defective or swinging shafts Replace component
Damaged piston rods Replace piston rod or renew surface
- 93 -
Cavitation
If noise or vibration is caused by cavitation the following must be checked:
Cause Remedy
Suctionline clogged up Clean
Diameter of the suctionline too small Replace by a bigger diameter
Too many curves in the suctionline Change the routing of the line
Suctionline too long Apply a schorten of lager diameter
Fluid too cold Heat until recommended temerature
The wrong fluid Change fluid
Airbreather clogged up or too small Rinse or replace
Local throttle valve in suctionline Remove the throttle valve
Defect boost pump Replace or repair the boost pump
Pump is running too fast Reduce the speed
Pump too far above fluid Change the location of the pump
- 94 -
Air in the system:
Air can be big problem
Cause Remedy
Fluid level too low Fill up until the right level
Bad design of the reservoir Modify the reservoir
Return line above fluid Lengthen the return line
Wrong fluid Change fluid
Defect seal of the pumpshaft Replace the seals
Leakage in the suctionline Tighten the connections
Porous suction hose Replace the suction hose
Incorrect removal of air from the system Remove air again
Consequences of air in a pressure relief valve:
- 95 -
6.2 Fault tables for various components
Pumps
Fault Cause Remedy

Heat excessive internal leak check viscosity
replace pump
defective control equipment replace pump
not correctly adjusted control readjust
equipment
oil level too low top up
Noise supply pump defective replace

pump bearing worn out replace pump
scoring of the pump replace pump
seals defective causing suction of the change seals
pump
maximum allowable pressure readjust pressure
exceeded
clogged air filter on reservoir change air filter
clogged suction valve replace or clean
misalignment of pump and motor re-align
oil level too low top up
wrong oil change oil
turning in wrong direction Let the pump turn according to the
arrow on pump housing
Vibration irregular running test electric motor and coupling,

replace pump and test
misalignment re-align
Leakage seals mounted in a wrong way replace seals by correctly

(seals)
pressure too high in pump housing check leak line on obstruction, lower
leak pressure by shortening or larger
diameter of the leak line and change
seal
misalignment re-align, replace seal
wear on running surface repair or replace pump, protect pump
shaft against dirt
Pressure leakage pressure too high check leak line on obstructions.

(too low or
irregular)
turning in wrong direction change direction of rotation
suction of air change seals, tighten screwed seals,
check welds, check oil level
internal leak too high replace pump, check oil
built in pressure limiting valve replace pump
defective
- 96 -
Fault Cause Remedy

pump worn replace pump
defective manometer replace
Flow leakage pressure too high check leak line on obstruction, lower
(too low or leak pressure and change seal
irregular)
turning in wrong direction replace or change direction of rotation
suction of air change seals, tighten seals, check
welds
no pressure build up because of change seals, tighten seals, check
emptying suction line welds, fill pump
pump cant vent itself fill pump with oil and disconnect
discharge line to vent
discharge and pressure line connect correctly
interchanged
internal leak too high replace pump, check oil
built in pressure limiting valve replace pump
defective
suction valve doesnt close replace pump
pump worn replace pump
pump turns too slow check recommended minimum speed
defective pump shaft or coupling replace
fluid level too low top up
clogged suction filter replace or clean
viscosity of fluid too high use fluid with the viscosity for the
pump recommended by the
manufacturer
To the left: damaged swashplate of a axial piston

pump as the result of overheating dur to lack of
lubrication.
This problem was recognized due to the fact that

the sound of the pump changed when compared
to a new pump.
- 97 -
Pressure limiting valves
Fault Cause Remedy

Heat incorrect pressure adjustment readjust
to much internal leakage replace pressure limiting valve
Noise seating flaps because of dirt on clean, flush

seating
air in spring chamber of valve deaerate valve
Vibration valve seating damaged repair or replace valve

insufficient damping restrict control lines, replace
restrictions
Leakage seals not tight change seals
Pressure too low working pressure setting set higher

(too low, to
high or
irregular)
too high working pressure setting set lower
valve doesnt close because of dirt remove dirt
on valve seat
valve seating damaged examen valve seating, clean or
replace
broken spring replace spring
too much internal leakage replace valve
wrong flow restrictor in valve or repair
obstruction in leak line or leak line
not connected
Flow regulating valves
Fault Cause Remedy

Pressure pressure drop in valve too great check valve and if necessary replace
Flow restriction valve closed adjust correctly

plunger sticks replace
differential pressure over flow raise differential pressure by raising
regulator valve too low the system pressure
Directional control valves
Fault Cause Remedy

Heat Too high internal leakage replace pilot valve
Control valve does not fully change check magnet voltage, maximum 10%
over voltage drop
Vibration Control valve contaminated clean, flush
Leakage Seals not tight replace seals
- 98 -
Fault Cause Remedy
Flow Sealing plugs pilot operated control repair

valve missing or loose
Incorrect switching position test
Valve sticks clean and check whether all fixing
bolts have been equally tightened and
whether the mounting surface is really
level smooth
Directional control valve does not return spring broken, check solenoid
switch voltage (maximum 10% voltage drop),
check solenoid
- 99 -
Hydraulic motors
Fault Cause Remedy

Heat internal leakage too high test and repair
lower output due to wear test and repair
excessive friction mount internal parts less tight
insufficient scavenging flush motor case
Noise defective or wrong seals new seals and if necessary new piston
rod or shaft
wear of running surface replace
mechanical damage of motor replace motor
Motor rattles De-aerate, connect leak oil line to
highest point of the engine
Vibration continuous alternation between static increase speed, mount other seals
and dynamic friction due to low
speed
pressure too low increase pressure
Leakage defective seals replace
Flow rate internal leakage repair

defective seals replace
wear due to contamination (parts) replace
Pressure excessive internal friction (parts) replace

hunting De-aerate, test slow running
characteristics
incorrect piston displacement of replace motor
motor
- 100 -
Cylinders
Fault Cause Remedy

Noise defective or wrong seals new seals and if necessary new piston
rod or shaft
air in cylinder deaerate
buffer defective or not sufficiently adjust correctly or replace
working
Vibration continuous alternation between static increase speed, mount other seals
and dynamic friction due to low
speed
pressure too low increase pressure
Leakage defective seals replace
Flow rate internal leakage repair
defective seals replace
wear due to contamination (parts) replace
Pressure excessive internal friction (parts) replace

hunting deaerate, test slow running
characteristics
- 101 -
6.3 Examples of problems
Problem 1
A system according to the below diagram has been installed.
The cylinder fails to move however despite the fact that the pump is running. Make a list of
possible causes for this malfunction. How would you try to find the cause for this problem.
How would you solve the problem.
- 102 -
Problem 2
The following system is overheating
Make a list of possible causes.
- 103 -
Problem 3
In the following system during commissioning it was found to be possible to retract the
cylinder once but no matter what was tried the cylinder failed to extend.
What is the cause?
- 104 -
Problem 4
The following system was commissioned without any problems. After month however the
starts to extend spontaneously as soon as the pump is switched on.
What can the cause? Ho would you solve it.?
- 105 -
Problem 5
In the following system the storage position occurs when the cylinders are completely
extended. After extending however the load starts to lower slowly without operation from the
control desk.
What are the possible casues?

Is it possible to prevent this?
Suppose that sea-fastening beams are attached to the load when the cylinders are in
extended position. What would you do prior removing the seafastening beam.
- 106 -
Problem 6
The following cylinder is used on a dredgevessel on deck to operate a sluice valve. Despite
various repairs and replacement of selas the cylinder keeps showing signs of leakage.
What can be the reason?
- 107 -

Hydraulics PDF

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Hydraulics PDF

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IHC Hytop. B.V.

1 Basic principles .......................................................................................................... 4

2 Hydraulic diagrams .................................................................................................. 10

6 Trouble shooting ...................................................................................................... 90

The purpose of a hydraulic system is moving a load by means of a hydraulic system.

The handpump (1) contains a relatively

Since the piston in the handpump is

The same pressure is applied to the much

Later we will encounter a number of other components such as:

o Oil conditioning equipment (such as oil coolers, filters etc.).

1.2 Simple calculations

Basic quantities and units

For flow Q the unit L/min or dm3/min is used of old.

F=p A = (11.7106) (100/106)=1170 N

Hence the handpump supplies 0,3 L/min at this rate.

Q (0.3 / (60 1000))

1.3 Function of pressure and flow in hydraulics:

In hydraulic systems the pressure is in principle determined by the consumer (more

In hydraulic systems the following losses are present:

Mechanical losses in pumps, motors and cylinders.

Mechanical losses are generally given as a percentage (mechanical efficiency mech).

(120 100000) 60 1000

Q (60 / (60 1000))

The required power in that case becomes:

(120 100000) 60 1000

1.5 Overview units:

Quantity Symbol SI basic unit (to be Commonly Transfer SI Transfer

Rotational n s-1 min-1 1 s-1= 1 min-1=

Overview formulas (Note: all quantities to be entered in basis SI units).

The oil reservoir

The hydraulic pump.

A non return valve prevents oil from flowing in the oposite

Singel acting cylinder.

1. What is the disadvantage of

The cylinder is used for luffing.

2. What happens during luffing in

The following components are present in the above diagram

The oil reservoir

Temperature switch (can be used to switch of the pump in case of

The hydraulic pump.

M The electic motor.

In some cases a manual pump is used.

Every hydraulic system is equiped with pressure relief valves. The

The hydraulic cylinder is used to convert the oil flow to a linear

Contamination in a filter can be monitored by means of an optical

Breather filter (needed to since the level of oil fluctuates depending

Older diagrams often contain an older symbol for the pressure

Directional control valves are used to operate a cylinder. In the

4-3 valve with P-T neutral position

4-3 valve with P-T-A-B neutral position

4-3 valve with closed neutral position

4-3 valve with A-B-T neutral position

4-3 differential valve with closed neutral position

4-3 differential valve with A-B-T neutral position

The last two examples indicate that a valve

The indication 4-2 valve means that the

The directional control valve also exists in a manually controlled

Another possibility is operation by means of hydraulic pressure.

Elaborate symbol Eleborate symbol

Simplified symbol Simplified symbol

Since the P-port is closed the directional control valve no longer

The symbol to the left indicates a throttle which is in general a small

Sometimes a more accurate flow control is necessary. This is