GENDER STUDIES

The global idea of feminism refers to the belief that men and women deserve equality in all opportunities,
treatment, respect, and social rights. In general, feminists are people who try to acknowledge social
inequality based on gender and stop it from continuing. Feminists point out that in most cultures
throughout history men have received more opportunities than women.

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Introduction

Feminism comprises a number of egalitarian social, cultural and political movements,

theories and moral philosophies concerned with gender inequalities and equal rights for
women. It is the doctrine advocating social, political and all other rights for women which
are equal to those of men.

Feminist political activists have been concerned with issues such as a woman's right
of contract and property; a woman's right to bodily integrity and autonomy (e.g. on
matters such as reproductive rights, abortion rights, access to contraception and quality
prenatal care); women's rights to protection from domestic violence, sexual
harassment and rape; women's workplace rights (e.g. maternity leave, equal pay, glass
ceiling practices, etc); and opposition to all other forms of discrimination.

Feminist Theory is an extension of Feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields, such

as anthropology, sociology, economics, women's studies, literary criticism, art history,
psychoanalysis and philosophy. It aims to understand gender inequality and focuses
on gender politics, power relations and sexuality, as well as the promotion of women's
rights and interests.

Political philosophies such as Socialism, Marxism, Communism and Anarchism all support
the principles of Feminism to some degree, as they do all forms of Egalitarianism. In
principle, modern representative democracies also enshrine women' rights, although the
extent to which such rights are observed in practice is arguable.

In exposing the "mask of masculinity" that Philosophy has always worn, Feminism has
helped to undermine many of thecertainties that Philosophy has often aspired to. Some
feminists argue that a whole new language (a women's language) must be developed in
order to rethink the whole of Philosophy.
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History of Feminism

The history of the Feminist movement can be divided into three "waves":

First-Wave Feminism refers mainly to the women's suffrage movements (political

reform movements aimed at extending the right to vote to women) of the 19th
Century and early 20th Century, especially in Britain and the United States.

Perhaps the first major figure of Feminism was the 18th Century British writer Mary
Wollstonecraft (1759 - 1797). Her"A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" of 1792
can be seen as a feminist declaration of independence to mirror Thomas Paine's
1791 "The Rights of Man". She took the liberal doctrine of inalienable human
rights and applied them to women, at the time a bold and controversial step.

John Stuart Mill later brought the idea of womens suffrage up in his election
platform of 1865 (still highly controversial), and was later joined by numerous men
and women fighting for the same cause. The 19th Century Suffragette movement in
Britain, headed by Emmeline Pankhurst (1858 - 1928) carried out direct
actions (such as chaining themselves to railings, setting fire to the contents of
mailboxes, smashing windows and even, on occasions, setting off bombs). One
 suffragette, Emily Davison (1872 - 1913), died after she stepped out in front of the
King's horse at the Epsom Derby of 1913, and many others were imprisoned and
went on hunger strikes. In the United States, leaders of the movement
included Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815 - 1902) and Susan B. Anthony (1820 -
1906), both of whom campaigned for theabolition of slavery prior to championing
women's right to vote.

During World War I, a serious shortage of able-bodied men occurred, and women
were required to take on manytraditional male roles, which led to a new view of what
a woman was capable of doing. In Britain, the 1918 Representation of the People Act
was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned houses, and
in 1928 this was finally extended to all women over eighteen. In the United States,
First-Wave Feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of
the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1919, granting
women the right to vote in all states. However, New Zealand had been the first self-
governing country in the world to grant women the vote when, in 1893, all women
over the age of 21 were permitted to vote in parliamentary elections.

Second-Wave Feminism refers to a period of feminist activity from the mid

1960s through the late 1970s, and is associated with the women's liberation
movement and the struggle to end discrimination. Second-Wave feminists
sawcultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked, and encouraged
women to understand aspects of theirpersonal lives as deeply politicized ("the
personal is political") as well as reflective of a sexist structure of power and
stereotyping.

This new wave of feminist thought was initiated by the seminal 1949 book "Le
Deuxime Sexe" ("The Second Sex") by the French Existentialist Simone de
Beauvoir (1908 - 1986). As an Existentialist, she accepted the precept thatexistence
precedes essence and that therefore one is not born a woman, but becomes one,
but her Feminist Existentialism in "The Second Sex" prescribes a moral revolution.
She questioned philosophy's lack of understanding of the historical and specific nature
of women's oppression. She questioned how, if everyone possessed the freedom to
make decisions and the capactiy to take existential "leaps into the unknown"
as Existentialism suggested, the endless oppression of women could be explained.
Did men choose to oppress women, or was the freedom to choose
actuallyillusory (especially for women themselves)? Beauvoir argued that women
have historically been considered as the"Other", as a deviation from the normal, as
outsiders attempting to emulate male "normality", and that this attitude
necessarily limited women's success. She believed that for Feminism to move
forward, this assumption must be set aside.

Betty Friedan's influential "The Feminine Mystique", published in 1963, criticized

the idea that women could only find fulfillment
through childrearing and homemaking, which was especially common among post-
World War II middle-class suburban communities. The Second Wave period saw
advancements in women's education and career prospects, and the legal end
to discrimination in the workplace in many countries, including the Equal Rights
Amendment to the United States Constitution of 1972. Many feminists saw the the
famous Roe vs. Wade case of 1973, which effectively legalized abortion in the U.S.,
as a significant victory

Third-Wave Feminism began in the early 1990s, arising as a response to perceived

failures of the Second Wave, and also as a response to the backlash against some
of initiatives and movements created by the Second Wave. It seeks tochallenge what
it deems the Second Wave's essentialist definitions of femininity (which they argue
over-emphasize the experiences of upper middle-class white women). Third-Wave
Feminism has also sparked off debates between"difference feminists" (who believe
 that there are important differences between the sexes), and those who believe that
there are no inherent differences between the sexes and contend that gender roles
are due to social conditioning.
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Types of Feminism

Radical Feminism

Radical feminism is a movement that believes sexism is so deeply rooted in society that the only
cure is to eliminate the concept of gender completely.IT considers the capitalist hierarchy of
society, which it describes as sexist and male-based, as the defining feature
of womens oppression. Most Radical Feminists see no alternatives other than the
total uprooting andreconstruction of society in order to overthrow patriarchy and
achieve their goals .

. The concepts of patriarchy and sex class are key ideas in relation to the
understanding of women's position and experience in all societies. b. Patriarchy
has existed in all known human societies and, as such, pre-dates Capitalist forms
of gender inequality. c. Patriarchal relationships are considered to have paved the
way for Capitalist forms of economic and gender exploitation. d. Sexual inequality
is institutionalised in society. It is not possible to achieve sexual equality through
legal means or by "changing people's attitudes". e. Men are the enemy of women.
Women are a sex class in that they share a common interest in freeing themselves
from male oppression. f. The universal causes of patriarchy are considered to be:
The exploitation of female biology by men (men can exploit women's incapacity
through pregnancy, for example). Marriage-based family relationships in which
men control women's behaviour. Heterosexual relationships. g. One solution to the
problem of patriarchal exploitation is seen to be lesbian relationships and female
support groups. www.sociology.org.uk 2005 h. Some Radical Feminists (e.g.
Firestone) argue that female emancipation can be achieved technologically
(women being freed from childbirth and so forth). i. In general, Radical Feminists
see the exploitation of women as involving both the public sphere (work for
example) and the private sphere (the home - marriage as, according to David
Bouchier, an "institutionalised source of female oppression). This a dual form of
female exploitation not experienced by men.

Separatist Feminism is a form of Radical Feminism, which argues that the sexual
disparities between men and women are unresolvable, that men cannot
make positive contributions to the feminist movement, and that even well-
intentioned men replicate patriarchal dynamics.

Sex-Positive Feminism is a response to anti-pornography feminists who argue

that heterosexual pornography is a central cause of women's oppression, and
that sexual freedom (which may or may not involve a woman's ight to participate in
heterosexual pornography) is an essential component of women's freedom.

Anarcha-Feminism (or Anarchist Feminism) is another offshoot of Radical

Feminism and combines Feminist andAnarchist beliefs in which patriarchy is viewed
as a manifestation of hierarchy so that the fight against patriarchy is an essential part
of the class struggle and the Anarchist struggle against the state.

Black Feminism (or Womanism) argues that sexism, class oppression

and racism are inextricably bound together.Alice Walker and other Womanists
claim that black women experience a different and more intense kind of oppression
from that of white women.

Socialist Feminism (or Marxist Feminism)

 Socialist feminism is a movement that calls for an end to capitalism through a socialist reformation
of our economy. Basically, socialist feminism argues that capitalism strengthens and supports the
sexist status quo because men are the ones who currently have power and money. Those men are
more willing to share their power and money with other men, which means that women are
continually given fewer opportunities and resources. This keeps women under the control of
men.IT connects the oppression of women to Marxist ideas
about exploitation,oppression and labour. Socialist Feminists see the need to
work alongside men and all other groups, and to focus their energies on broad
change that affects society as a whole, and not just on an individual basis.

a. Women's work and their social status is highly marginalized by their potential /
actual "dual role" in modern societies (child-rearer and worker). Employers are
able to exploit this dual role to pay women lower wages. Men are able to exploit
this dual role by receiving "unpaid services" within the home. b. The main reason
for women's lower status in relation to men is the fact that they are generally
economically dependent upon their male partner. c. Male power over women is
consolidated by ideological myths about women (that they are naturally passive,
that they have maternal instincts and so forth). These myths are part of a
powerful socialising influence upon women that leads them to define their major
role as that of "mother, housekeeper and child-rearer".

Liberal Feminism (or Individualist Feminism) seeks the equality of men and
women through political and legal reform. Liberal Feminists see the personal
individual interactions between men and women as the place from which to
transform society and argue that no major change to the structure of society is
needed. In a lucid style, the learned professor who heads the gender
studies department at Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad,
explained six phases of feminism, from liberal feminism to the
echo-feminism in present times. It started in the first quarter of the
19th century when women started talking about their basic human
rights. Now when their equal status has been recognized
universally and no where discriminatory laws against women can
be enacted, womens special role need to be recognized as the
family unit is based on them.

a. Gender prejudice is based around individual ignorance. education is seen as a

valuable tool in the battle against discrimination based around ignorance. b. It is
possible to legislate (pass laws) against sexual discrimination as a way of
changing individual attitudes and behaviour. For example, the Sex Discrimination
and Equal Pay Acts in the 1970's in Britain. c. The general position of women in
our society has significantly improved in the past 100 years. woman have legal
equality with men, although they still do not have status equality with men (that
is, males still tend to have generally higher social status than women

French Feminism (or Post-Structural Feminism) tends to be

more philosophical and more literary, than the morepragmatic Anglophone
Feminism. It is less concerned with immediate political doctrine and generally
focuses on theories of "the body". The 1949 treatise "The Second Sex" by the
French author and philosopher Simone de Beauvoir(1908 - 1986) is a foundational
tract of contemporary Feminism, in which she sets out a feminist Existentialism which
prescribes a moral revolution and focuses on the concept of Woman as the
quintessential Other, which de Beauvoir identifies as fundamental to women's
oppression.

Eco-Feminism links Feminism with ecology, arguing that the domination of women stems
from the same patriarchal ideologies that bring about the domination and destruction of
the environment. She said that women by nature, as biologically proved, were soft, caring, loving
and tolerant, while men were generally aggressive, war managers, although exception in both sexes
were there. Women in the industrial societies demand that they must be duly paid for their domestic
work as they were doubly exploited by the capitalist system and the patriarchal system, both running
side by side, and also by their male counterparts, she added.

Dr Farzana Bari said that women being piece-loving were more nature-friendly and could manage the
worldly affairs with greater care and compassion. She however, agreed that all women like all men
were not equal, as a poor and deprived woman could not compete with a rich and privileged woman.

Pro-Feminism refers to support of Feminism without implying that the supporter is

a member of the feminist movement. It is usually used in reference to men who are
actively supportive of Feminism and of efforts to bring about gender equality.

Cultural feminism is a movement that points out how modern society is hurt by encouraging
masculine behavior, but society would benefit by encouraging feminine behavior instead.

Mens Feminism

Pro-feminism refers to support of the cause of feminism without implying that the supporter is a member
of the feminist movement. The term is most often used in reference to men who are actively supportive of
feminism and of its efforts to bring about the political, economic, cultural, personal, and social equality of
women to men.[1] A number of pro-feminist men are involved in politicalactivism, most often in the areas of
gender equality, women's rights, and violence against women.

Marxism feminism

Capitalist class relationships are the root cause of female oppression, exploitation and
discrimination. Men are socialised into exploitative relationships in relation to work and
they carry this socialisation over into the home and their relationship to women. b.
Patriarchy is an ideology (a set of related beliefs about the world - in this instance, male -
female relationships) that stems from male attempts to justify the economic exploitation
of women. c. The "family system" characteristic of modern societies benefits capitalism
(and, by extension, the men who tend to dominate positions of power and influence)
because women: - can be forced / socialised into unpaid domestic labour. - can be forced
/ socialised into responsibility for child-rearing. This benefits the Capitalist because they
do not have to pay women to perform this role (the "reproduction of labour power" in
society). This benefits men because women perform a "domestic servant" role for all
men. d. Neither Marxist nor socialist Feminists see men as the "enemy" of women. To
create a Communist / socialist society men and women have to co-operate in to:
Overthrow the Capitalist system of economic exploitation (Marxist Feminism). Create a
more-equal and equitable form of society (Socialist Feminism). www.sociology.org.uk
2005 e. For Marxist Feminists, the concept of social class is considered to be more
important than the concept of patriarchy since the latter is seen as a form of ideology
that stems from class exploitation. Women are not a "sex class" because the only thing
they have in common is their sex - an upper class woman, for example, has little if
nothing in common with a working class woman. In addition, there is general agreement
amongst Marxist

Approaches to development

THE WID, WAD, GAD APPROACH ON

GENDER DEVELOPMENT
March 19, 2013 by cn2collins Bookmark the permalink.
Over the years development programs have been criticized for ignoring gender roles and the impact it has
on women in the global south. However we see a shift to integrate women into development programs in
hopes of eradicating poverty and low social economical status. The six main theoretical approaches are: (1)
the welfare approach; (2) women in development (WID); (3) women and development (WAD); (4) gender and
development (GAD); (5) the effectiveness approach (EA); and (6) mainstream gender equality (MGE).
Martinez tries to understand the various outcomes and effectiveness of all 6 development theories.

Despite the effort to reinforce gender mainstreaming into society we still see a vast number of gender
inequality especially in the developing world. Women make up the 70% of individuals living in poverty and in
sub-Saharan Africa 57% of HIV infected individuals are women. This also includes the disproportionate ratio
of women to men in the job market and at leadership position, low level of education among women, and low
socio-economic status among women.

The term Women, Gender and Development could be seen a discipline much like ever other area of
knowledge. However, what sets it apart from various disciplines is that, its major contributors are individuals
that raise issues and concerns, concerning women, gender and development. These are academics, feminist
activists and development practitioner.

In 1972 Ann Oakley, was able to distinguish the difference between sex and gender. Gender refers to ones
sexuality based on masculinity and femininity and sex refers to the biological features of one physiology.
With the rise and popularity of the term gender, came with its misusage of its actual meaning. For example,
as Most development agencies and NGOs supported its terminology, however they used it as a reference
point when talking about mainly women issues. Today the term gender has become more popularized, that it
is usually linked to a wide range of sectors like politics, economics, environment and health.

Social assistance or the welfare approach originated back 1950s to the 1970s during the era of
decolonization and political transitioning in most African and Asian countries. The welfare approach was a
response to most of the newly independent countries outcomes of inequalities among the local elites and the
common man in each nation.

Most international development agencies applied a very western approach towards helping these nations
develop. Some of these theories where the modernization theory, and the Malthusian theory (Population vs.
Resources). These brought about a negative impact and outcome towards most developing nations
development and it also help to further impede on its progress.

Women in development (WID) approach, was originated as a result of three major feminist moments/waves
concerning feminine conditions. The first two were due to the feminist waves. The first wave also known as
womens suffrage movement, originated in the North America back in the late 19 th century, when women
fought for the equal right to vote and participate in politics. The second-wave of feminism sought to deal
with the remaining social and cultural inequalities women were faced with in everyday affair i.e. sexual
violence, reproductive rights, sexual discrimination and glass ceilings. The second wave was very
controversial however the womens movement was very influential that the UN organized the first global
conference on women back in 1975 at Mexico. The conference sought to address nations role on fighting
gender inequalities and support womens right. The third was influenced by Ester Boserup (1970) publication
on Womens Role in Economic Development. The book sent a shock wave through northern development
agencies and humanitarian organization (pg 93). She states and gave empirical results of how increasingly
specialized division of labor associated with development undermines or neglects the value of womens work
and status especially in the developing world. As it explains why women were being deprived an equal
share among men in social benefits and economic gains. Boserup book had an influence on making women
more visible in development approach and as a specific category when addressing women in development.
In 1973, the US congress implemented a bill, which required the USAID to include women in development
programs. The WID approach helped to ensure, the integration of women into the workforce and increase
their level of productivity in order to improve their lives. However some have criticized this approach as
being very western. Since it is a perception of the global south from global north perspective, as it fails to
acknowledge the collective and cultural concerns of women in the developing world. It approach has been
tagged as being rather cumbersome on women, as it fails to understand the dynamics of the private sphere
but focus solely on the public sphere.
The women and development (WAD) approach originated back in 1975 in Mexico city, as it sort to discuss
womens issues from a neo-Marxist and dependency theory perspective. Its focus was to explain the
relationship between women and the process of capitalist development in terms of material conditions that
contribute to their exploitation (pg 95). WAD is often misinterpreted as WID, however what sets it apart is
that, WAD focuses specifically on the relation between patriarchy and capitalism. The WAD perspective
states that women have always participated and contributed towards economic development, regardless of
the public or private spheres.

The Gender and development approach originated in the 1980s by socialist feminism. It serve as a
transitioning point in the way in which feminist have understood development. It served as a comprehensive
overview of the social, economic and political realities of development. It origin relates back to the
Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN) network, when it was first initiated in India.
The DAWN program was then officially recognized in 1986 during the 3 rd UN conference on women in Nairobi.
The conference brought about activist, researcher and development practitioners globally. As the conference
discussed about the achievements made from the previous decades evaluation of promoting equality
among the sexes, and a full scope of the obstacles limiting womens advancements, especially in the
developing world. The forum discussed about the effectiveness of the continuous debt crisis and structural
adjustment program implemented by the IMF and the World Bank, and how such concept of neoliberalism
tend to marginalize and discriminate women more in the developing countries. The diversity of this
approach was open to the experiences and need of women in the developing world. Its two main goals were
to prove that the unequal relationship between the sexes hinders development and female participation. The
second, it sort to change the structure of power into a long-term goal whereby all decision-making and
benefits of development are distributed on equal basis of gender neutrality. The GAD approach is not just
focused on the biological inequalities among sexes: men and women, however on how social roles,
reproductive roles and economic roles are linked to Gender inequalities of: masculinity and femininity.
The Effectiveness Approach (EA) originated in the 1980s. Its ideas are linked to the concept surrounding
WID, which was the inequalities women faced and how societies fail to acknowledge the impact of women in
economic development. However EA sort to not just include women into development projects but also
reinforce their level of productivity and effectiveness in the labor market. So this required the development
of infrastructure and equipment that aided to increase womens earnings and productivity (especially women
in the rural areas).

Mainstreaming Gender Equality (MGE) approach also commonly referred to, as gender mainstreaming is the
most recent development approach aimed on women. Gender mainstreaming ensures that all gender issues
are address and integrated in all levels of society, politics, and programs. It originated in 1995 at the 4 th UN
conference on women in Beijing, China. At the forum, 189 state representatives agreed that the inclusion of
both women and men in every development project was the only way to succeed and progress in a nation
economic growth and development. The WID approach had been drop by various aid agencies like CIDA,
due to it negative interpretation from supporters as being too feminist and brought about hostility from men
towards such programs. So basically organization like CIDA now has to include men and women in their
annual development report concerning the allocation of funds spent towards education, health care, and
employment of both sexes.

In conclusion to all the six main theoretical approaches.

1) It is important to note that no approach can be neutral in terms of its effect on the power relationship
between men and women.

2) Second, gender inequality is highly linked with the power struggle that hinders the recognition of women
as significant actors and negotiators of the development processes.

3) Finally, the need for including actual fieldwork results into theories of development. Basically, the
collective needs of individuals need to be put into consideration when implementing various development
theories.

Queer Theory: Queer theory is the most recent post-structuralist reaction against the
notion of normalcy and focuses on gender and sexuality. Specifically, queer theory
challenges heteronormativity, or the assumption that heterosexuality and the resulting social
institutions are the normative sociosexual structures in all societies (Gellner and Stockett,
2006). Queer theory challenges the idea that gender is part of the essential self and that it is
instead based upon the socially constructed nature of sexual acts and identities, which
consist of many varied components (Warner, 1993; Barry, 2002).