CHAPTER -1

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
 6

CHAPTER I

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The primary aim of this chapter is to present an overview of north-central

Orissan archaeology. However, before that the history of Indian archaeology and that
of Orissan archaeology is discussed in an outline in order to bring proper perspective.
Archaeology may be simply defined as the systematic study of antiquities for
reconstructing the past. Renfrew and Bahn considered archaeology as a discipline
both a physical activity in the field and an intellectual pursuit in the lab (1991). The
study of archaeology has gone a long way from the days of the 18th century German
art historian Johan Wincklemann, who had worked on Rome and is often called the
Father of Archaeology He was very much interested in the Greek classical art. In
later period more study had been carried out on Greek, Roman and Biblical
archeology.

However, in the 19th century, tradition developed in the natural and social
sciences brought together the uniformitarianism in geology by Charles Lyell,
evolutionism in biology by Charles Darwin, and the concept of three age system i.e.
stone age, bronze age and iron age by Thomsen. The Three Age system of
classification was first published in a guide book to the Danish National museum in
1836 and later translated into English in 1840 (Daniel 1968,1971:47). This was
followed by the theory of cultural evolutionism by Morgan (1877), Spencer (1867,
1870) and Tylor (1871).

In respect of pre-historic archaeology, Sir John Lubbock (later Lord Avebury)

in his book Pre-historic Times has used the terms Palaeolithic and Neolithic for
two separate ages. On the basis of technology, he has classified the total human
cultural remains into four distinct phases, such as, Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age
and Iron Age. He described that the wooly mammoth, cave bear, rhinoceros and other
extinct animal flourished during the Palaeolithic period.

1.1 Archaeology of India

The study of archaeological evidences as academic interest in Indian
archaeology can be traced back to middle of the eighteenth century. It was the period
 7

of initiative taken up for a systematic and scholarly study of Indian antiquities. A

French geographer J.B.D Anvilles approach was based on possible location of the
famous sites of Pataliputra to understand this specific geographical interest but
Pataliputra was incorrectly identified with Prayag. James Rennell along with J.
Tieffenthaler and Du Perron produced three-volume study of Indian geography in the
year 1786-88.

1.1.1 The Establishment of the Asiatic Society of Bengal

With the establishment of the Asiatic Society by Sir William Jones on 15th
January 1784, emphasis was put on archaeological study, the traditional system of
Indian Jurisprudence, the study of Sanskrit literature and the in-depth study of
linguistics. Jones is credited with the clear idea about the linguistic affinity among
such languages such as Sanskrit, Greek and Latin. Joness main concern was to relate
Indian history to universal history as it was then understood.

Although archaeological discoveries were very less till the 1830, important
publications include that of Francis Buchanans three -volume report on his Mysore
Survey in 1807 and his survey of Bengal presidency, submitted in 1816. A three
volume summary of the latter was published in 1838. These were mainly statistical
surveys but contained a fair amount of archaeological information. Apart from that
Colin Mackenzie had also studied the antiquities of south India through his collection
of inscriptions and manuscripts.

1.1.2 After The 1830s

In 1830s James Princep became the Secretary of the Asiatic Society and
played a major role in the initiation of field research and contribution of decipherment
of the two most important historical scripts of India such as Brahmi and Kharoshthi.
This was a great achievement in the field of epigraphy and numismatic studies. An
important result was the discovery of the name Piyadasi or Asoka and two Indo-Greek
kings Agothocles and Pantaleon.

In these years much of attention was paid by European Generals. The

Manikyala stupa in Punjab was excavated by Lieutenant Alexander Bumes and
Charles Masson. Unlike that, Markham Kittoe dug up ten cart loads of Buddhist
images at Kurkihar near Gaya in Bihar. Another interesting feature of this period was
 8

the excavation of megaliths in south India. Captain Meadows Taylor published his
excavation results with sections. Alexander Cunnigham, a Young military engineer
had travelled extensively and wrote detailed descriptions of the areas and indentified
major archaeological sites. After the establishment of Archaeological Survey of India
in the year 1861, with Alexander Cunningham as its head, the target of reconstructing
the ancient historical geography of India rested with J.D Beglar, A.C.L Carlleyle and
H. W. Garrick. James Burgess was interested in architectural surveys. These
monographs on the monuments of west and south-east India are monuments to his
pioneering endeavour in this regard. The important research in Epigraphy during this
period includes the volumes of Corpus Inseriptionum Indicarum. In field archaeology,
the excavation at Kankali Tila in Mathura was a major discovery and in exploration
the Tarai region of Nepal gave broad idea of the topographical features of the area.

Besides the European scholars, the native scholars like Babu Rajendra Lai
Mitra , Ram Raz, Bahu Daji, R.G. Bhandarkar and P. Mukharji were also experts in
diverse branches on archaeological pursuits. For example R.L Mitra edited Sanskrit
manuscripts, RG Bhandarkar worked on the antiquity of sites like Sopora and
Kolhapur, Ram Raz on the south Indian architectural principles and Bhau Daji
published western Indian inscriptions.

I. 1.3 Prehistoric Studies in India

Robert Bruce Foote, a geologist of Geological Survey of India discovered

hand axes of Lower Palaeolithic period of Pallavaram near Madras in 1863 (Foote
1966, 1916). His collection of prehistoric implements from Andhra, Tamilnadu,
Karnataka and Gujarat were published as catalogue in the year 1914 and 1916. It was
during this period again that an archaeologist A.C.L Carlleyle, an assistant of
Alexander Cunningham, discovered Mesolithic remains from Kaimur hill section of
Uttar Pradesh.

1.2 Indian Archaeology in Twentieth Century

The twentieth century of Indian archaeology concentrates on ancient Indian

historical geography, the field exploration and built of theoretical frame work on
findings. The period can broadly be divided into two parts as Marshall Period and
Wheeler period.
 9

1.2.1 The John Marshall Period

John Hubert Marshall was appointed as Director General from the period of
1902 to 1928 but the four successive Director Generals such as H. Hargreaves (1928-
31), D.R Sahni (1931-35), J.F. Blockiston (1935-37) and K.N. Dikshit (1937-44) also
highlight the Marshall thought. The principal sites, of the Indus Valley Civilization
excavated during this period are Mohenjadaro and Harappa, by R.D Banarji and D.R
Sahani respectively. This was really a great credit for Archaeological Survey of India
in Marshalls period. A great strength of Indian archaeology under John Marshall was
the initiation of a new publication series, Annual Reports, incorporating the surveys
work from 1902 onwards. Marshalls Memoirs were also specialized on different
theme.

1.2.2 The Mortimer Wheeler Period 1944-48

After the recommendation of Leonard Woolley, Mortimer Wheeler was

appointed as the Director General in the Archaeological Survey of India. He was good
in excavation methodology and emphasized on total excavation of a site, floor level
by floor level, and systematic exposure of the structure etc. Indian archaeologists were
introduced to Wheelers methods at a training school which the Archaeological
Survey of India set up at Taxila and at his excavations at Harappa, Arikamedu and
Brahmagiri. The principles of stratigraphy were rigorously emphasized in these
excavations, which were soon duly published in a new survey publication titled
Ancient India. The other important aspect is initiation to introduce as subject to the
universities and enrich it by wide application. His creation of a new and separate
branch for prehistoric studies in the Archaeological Survey also highlighted his
concern for an uninterrupted archaeological history of India covering all phases of
human development. Wheeler no doubt paved the path to modernity in Indian
archaeology.

With regards to prehistory, authors like D. Terra and T.T. Paterson published
their studies on the Ice age in India and associated human culture which was a
significant one. This was based on their work (1939), in collaboration with Teilhard
de Chardin, from Kashmir to the salt range with a detailed focus on the Soan river
valley, a tributary river valley of the Indus. Another study was based on tools
collected in the Eastern Ghats of the Andhra region by L.A. Cammiade with M.C.
 10

Burkitt of Combridge University (Cammiade et al 1930, Burkit 1958). These were

more significant studies because of the geo-chronological scale on the European
model that influenced prehistoric research for a long time.

1.3 Indian Archaeology in Post Independence Period

In the post independence period there was a pursuit of comprehensive

archaeological research in the country. Besides the central government, the State
governments assumed the responsibility of archaeological research and conservation
and sharing a substantive amount of archaeological power with the central
government. The Indian university system has also taken part in different
archaeological activities. The numbers of archaeological museum and independent
organizations have also interest in archaeology and share important segment with the
model of archaeology.

The prehistoric and proto-historic studies of the whole country have been
focused with the help of natural - scientific techniques. Archaeology in Indian
universities has been traditionally built around history departments, and in a country
with rich past Indian archaeology is considered quite logically a historical discipline.
Archaeology has also relations with other disciplines like anthropology, geology.
Besides, archaeological chemistry plays role in archaeological dating and analytical
techniques. There are two major issues related to the traditional framework of ancient
India in terms of race, language and culture. The second issue about the progress of
archaeological research in India is rooted in the way archaeology developed in the
country.

1.3.1 Palaeolithic Study

As for the lithie material it is well known that the western sub-Himalaya
region had a distinct lithie cultural tradition throughout the Pleistocene. This tradition
which is known by the name Soanian evolves at least through three stages
beginning with the Middle Pleistocene and ending up with the Pleistocene itself or a
little later. Since there are some geo-stratigraphic basis behind the dating of the sub-
Himalayan river terraces (Mohapatra 1976:31-59), the first stage of the soanian
cultural evolution appears to belong to the Middle Pleistocene like most of the lower
Palaeolithic cultures of the Old world sans Africa on the other hand the peninsular
 11

detrital laterite and the first river gravels contain a different type of lithic material
which by and large goes by the name the Acheulian. The similarity in their lithic
contents is the strongest of all evidences for clubbing the two formations together
chronologically.

The stratigraphy noted at Vadamadurai and Kuliana Kamarpal have

unfortunately remained neglected by one gets a hunch that at these place the two
formations probably compliments each other.

The most voluminous among the peninsular rivers is the Narmada. Dating,
absolute or relative, has so far shown Narmada to contain deposits not older than late
Middle Pleistocene (Biswas and Dassharma 1981: 15-20). It is well known that the
Narmada and the Tapti lineaments have been active since Upper Mesozonie times and
the top of the Neogene has been depressed by 150 to 175 m along 100 to 150 km
wide zone along these lineaments (Niyogi 1981:117-120). In the lower Narmada
valley traces if neo-tectonism are clearly noticeable (Allchin and Hedge 1959). The
Kutch-Cambay region was uplifted to the present level during the quaternary
(Krishnan 1966). The erosion surgace in the Cuddapah basin at 488 to 609 suggests
uplift in the early Pleistocene, concomitant with the rise of the Mysore plateau
(Vaidhyanathan 1954).

The gravel formation represents a paleobraided drainage of western Rajsthan

of later neogene of early Pleistocene age. Though the climate was semi-arid (as
suggested by calcrete associated with gravel) note equivalent to lateritisation in the
lower lalgarh author) the moonsonal precipitation was more than that of today
(Mishra et al. 1980. 25).The Didwana lower palaeolithic (Mishra, et al. 1982 19-31) to
Mula- Mutha lower palaeolithic (Gupta and Rajaguru 1971:6 86-95) the story appears
to be very long in time. The Acheulian artefacts are found scattered over its surface
and not one has so far been found in any stratified deposit. The Acheulian industry at
Didwana (Mishra et al. 1982 72-86) or that which occurs below the milliolite horizons
of Saurashtra coast (Joshi 1980) holds out promises of great antiquity.

Mousterian culture is now diagnosed as the hallmark of the beginning of

middle stone age with Neanderthaler as its human author. Recent discoveries if rich
Acheulian tools even in the west sub Himalayan front Siwaliks in Hosiarpur district of
Punjab (Mohapatra 1981a) tend to show that this technology might have continued
 12

quite late in the quaternary sequence, though not necessarily upsetting any regional
stratigraphical or cultural sequence(Soundrarajan 1985).

1.3.2 Microlithic

Among the noteworthy discoveries that gave a stimulus for research in this
direction at the turn of the second half of this century, mention should be made of (1)
the assemblage with Upper Palaeolithic traits brought to light by Sankalia (1956: 35-
53) from the river Parvara (Maharashtra) (2) discoveries of Sharma in the Belan
valley Uttar Pradesh (1955-56) (3) discoveries of Soundara Rajan (1958) from
Nagaqunakonda (Andhra Pradesh); (4) discoveries of Issac (1960) in the Kumool
district (Andhra Pradesh) confirming the findings of Cammaiade and Burkitt (5) Sen
(IAR 1960- 61: 60) and Ghosh (1961) on the river Banjer in Mandla district (Bihar)
and (6) the blade and burin industry from Salvadgi in Bijapur district (Kamatak)
described by Seshadri (1962) subsequent findings made around this time from sites
around Renigunta in Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh (Murty 1966) and in Salvadgi
and Meralbhavi (Bijapur and Gulbarga districts, Karnataka) Paddayya
(1968,1970,1973) widened the scope for a fresh evaluation of the data in a pan -
Indian context.

Blade tool industries have a wide geographical distribution and are known
from several open air sites in the states of Karnataka, Maharastra, and Uttar Pradesh
and both open air and cave sites in Andhra Pradesh (Murty 1985).

It was also supposed that the microlithic Industries of the Mesolithic might
have developed from the Levalloisian tradition of the Middle Stone Age. The
suggestion of Subbarao thought was accepted as a working hypothesis yet a large
number of scholars pleaded against it (Misra, 1962: 113-124). Their disagreement was
based on the fact that though stratigraphic evidence for Upper Paleolithic industries
was lacking, tools similar to those had been reported from time to time (Cammiade
and Burkitt, 1930: 327- 339: Isaac 1960). In the meantime similar industries were
reported from besides Allahabad and Mirzapur (Varma. 1970:30,1985) Chittoor
district (Murty 1968: 83-101), Shompur Donb in Gulbarga, district Mysore (Paddayya
1968): Singhbhum near Chakulia, district Palamau, Bihar (Ghosh 1965) etc.
 13

In the Lekhania Excavation also thick and broad blades were noticed in the
bottom most layers (Sharma 1965). Cockbum (1894) had also noticed similar blade
element in the bottom most layers in his diggings.

Pottery has been reported form a number of excavated sites such as Langhnaj,
Bagor Phase II, Nagarjunakonda, Morahana Pahar. Baghai Khor, Lekhahia, Chopani
Mando, Ghagharia Rock shelter I in the Son Valley. The pottery of both the types
such as handmade and wheel turned is reported. At most of the sites the shreds are
very small and it is difficult normally to make out shapes.

Burials have been excavated at a number of Mesolithic settlements - Dorthy

Deep and Jambudvipa Rock shelters in the Mahadev hills in Madhya Pradesh,
Langhnaj in Gujarat, Bagor in Rajasthan, Baghai Khor and Lekhahia rock- shelters in
district Mirzapur and Sarai Nahar Raj and Mahadaha in Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh.
Extended burials have been reported from Dorothy Deep and Jambuvipa rock shelters
(Hunter 1935 : 28-57, 1936: 127-144, Baghai Khor (Varma 1965 :73-74), Lakhahia
(Sharma 1965 : 77-78) Bagor Phase I (Misra 1973), Sarai Nahar Rai (Sharma 1973 :
129-144) and Mahadaha (Sharma et al 1980 :80-98).

1.3.3 Neolithic

The whole of Indian sub-continent is rich in Neolithic artifacts. The

occurrence of Neolithic culture in the Indian sub-continent is not very late in
comparison with the rest of the world. On the basis of the radiocarbon dates,
Mehrgarh in Pakisthan, the earliest Neolithic site in South Asia, is dated to the sixth
millennium BC with both aceramic and ceramic traditions (Allchin 1996: 1(5).
Numerous polished celts (ordinary and shouldered), potsherds of kiln-backed, painted
pottery have been discovered from the different Neolithic sites of Kashmir, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhotanagpur plateau, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Mysore, Gujrat,
Madras and West Bengal. Typologically, the Neolithic implements are mainly axes,
adzes, chisels, wedges, ring' stones, shouldered hoes, hammer stones, pounders and
fabricators etc. Four different techniques of manufacturing namely, chipping, pecking,
grinding and polishing singly or in combination have been used to produce the tools.
Earlier, it was believed that except these lithie finds, the Indian Neolithic sites did not
have any other characteristics of true Neolithic way of life, that is, the evidences of
domestication of plants and animals are almost absent in India. Subsequent systematic
 14

exploration and excavations of prehistoric sites have yielded the evidences of the
antiquities of various cultivated plants and domesticated animal remains from the
Neolithic levels. Barley (Hordeum vulgare) and rice (Oriza Sativa) were discovered
from the Neolithic levels of Chirand in Bihar (Mittre 1972:18; Verma 1970-71:19-23;
Agarwal 1981:93,1992). Only the evidence of collection of wild fruits and seeds such
as Lithespernum arvensi, Ipomea, Euphorbia, Medicago denticulata, M. alcata, Lotus
corniculata have been reported from the early phase of Neolithic Burzaham (Agarwal
1984a). So far as the domestication of animal is concerned, the evidence of cattle
(Eo.s' indicus), buffalo, sheep (Ovis vignei), goat (Capra hircus aegagrus), hoarse
(Equus hemionus) dog, pig, fowl and ass have been reported from Southern Neolithic
sites of Hallur, Kodekal (Agarwal 1984: 115; Chakrabarti 1988:87). It was believed
that the animals comprising cattle, sheep, goat, horse seem to have been domesticated
(IAR 1981-82:10-11; 1983-84:12-13; Singh 2001:136).

Coming to the Belan Valley and the Vindhyan Plateau, the findings at
Chopani Mando, Koldihwa and Mahagara, indicate a continuous sequence of
transition from the stage of intensified food gathering and selective hunting (EPI
Palaeolithic) through incipient food producing (Advanced Mesolithic or Proto
Neolithic) to settled village farming (Neolithic). Mahagara is a single culture
(Neolithic) site with a 2.60m thick occupation deposit, indicating six structural
phases.

1.3.4 Pre- Harappan Site

However, the Pre Harappan study in north-western part and excavation at

Mehrgarh in 1974 by J.F. Jaxrige gave new evidence of occupation in different
periods. Mehrgarh is the only site in Beluchistan to have revealed such a long and
continuous archaeological sequence succession from pre-ceramic to Harappan culture.
Apart from that a number of sites were explored and excavated by Archaeological
Survey of India and other agencies (Asthana: 1985). In respect of early historic site,
scholar like D.C Sirkar, A.H. Dani, H.C. Roychaudhari analyzed history on the basis
of Epigraphy, and ancient text. The post independence era provided new information
from most of the areas with diversified archaeological field.
 15

After Independence the entire position regarding the extent, culture - contents,
regional variation etc. of the Indus civilization has changed. During the last six
decades, due to constant efforts of the archaeologists. More than 862 Pre Harappan,
Harappan and the late Harappan sites have been discovered in India.

By and large, the Pre-Harappan and Harappan sites are located along the
major rivers. Contrary to this the late Harappan sites, are found along tributaries,
towards upper reaches of these rivers. To begin with, the classical wares in
Baluchistan wheel - turned bi-chrome, polychrome and grey was were considered by
Piggott (1950) as the diffusion traits coming from Mesopotamia and Iran. Baluchistan
was considered by Allchins (1968) as a corridor was transmitted cultural influences
from the West to East and vice versa. Baluchistan was also considered by Childe
(1934), McCown (1942) and others refuge zone for the Iranian chalcolithic people
were defeated and uprooted by the Aryans coming or northern Iran and Soviet Central
Asia.

They are all characterized by a painted ceramic, usually black-on-red, a

specialized blade flake industry of the siliceous material like chalcedony and copper
which, being scarce, was used on a restricted scale (Joshi 1985).

1.3.5 Late Harappan

The term late Harappa culture has been variously described. Literally the term
could mean the end or the diffusion of a civilization at the climax period. Wheeler
proposed the specific name for the last and developing branch of the Indus civilization
in Saurashtra (Kathiawar) and even further south as Saurashtrian Indus (Wheeler
1966:87)

The Late Harappan Culture represented a devolutionary stage of the Indus

civilization. In fact the devolution of a civilization would involve in its practical
application, the reversal of a few abstract criteria of urbanization as laid down by
Childe and discussed by Adams (Childe 1950 : Adam : 1966).

Possehl in Gujarat context called there sites as post Urban Harappan. It was
centrally less organized less differentiated and less specialized than in the urban phase
(Possehl 1980 :20).
 16

1.3.6 Chalcolithic

All these chalcolithic cultures flourished in the black cotton soil zone. This
according to Leshnik (1968: 295) clearly represents an ecological adaptation dictated
by available technology, knowledge and means.

It has been presumed that there early farmers could not have cultivated the
black cotton soil in the absence of iron plough (Kosambi 1963:315-16,1989) and may
have confined their agriculture to the alluvial strips along the river banks (Agrawal
1982 :218).

1.3.7 Iron Age

While the concept of an Indian Iron Age is recent and dates from N.R.
Baneijees publication on the subject in 1965 (Baneijee 1965a, 1965b), the academic
interest in Indian iron goes back to the eighteenth century and possesses a much
broader dimension than a narrowly archaeological one.

The most significant feature of this phase was the publication of N.R.
Baneijees The Iron Age in Indian in 1965. Although this book was much criticized
both on account of its totally diffusionary framework and the details of interpretation
of some archaeological data, it must be acknowledged in retrospect that this was the
first attempt to define the scope of Iron Age studies in India and deserves as such full
recognition as a pioneering work in the context of modem Indian archaeology.

In 1979, Sahi published his analysis, of the occurrences of Iron objects in

Phases lb and Ie of the chalcolithic Ahar on the basis of data presented by the Ahar
excavation reports.

It may be observed that the idea of different each iron using centres with an
indigenously evolving base of iron technology has been accepted with some
modification in two recent interpretations of Indian prehistory and protohistory
(Agrawal 1982, Allchin and Allchin 1982) B and F.R. Allchin (1982:345,
1984,1989a,1989b) now put the first period of iron in the subcontinent between 1300
and 1000 B.C. but they prefer to correlate the spread of iron in subcontinent with the
secondary spread of the Indo Aryans. According to them this need in no way
conflict with the indigenous populations beginning to exploit local sources of are to
smelt their own ore (Allchin and Allchin 1982 : 356)
 17

A similar metallurgical opinion has recently been expressed in the Indian

context by K.T.M. Hegde (1981) who belives that the Indian iron working developed
indigenously. On the authority of R.C. Agrawal and V Kumar D.P. Agrawal (1982:
255) refers to the discovery of a crucible shaped furnace used for direct reduction of
ore, where the bloom was heated in an open furnace and forged on an adjacent
platform.

At Koldihwa the Iron Age level includes iron axes are arrow head, besides
crucibles and slag. The second site is Panchoh, reported in IAR 1975-76 :47.
Apparently a single culture site this shewed three layers from the top: a 20cm thick
which layer, a 25cm thick blackish layer with small stone pieces and iron nodules and
a 15 cm thick yellow layer with iron nodules and kankar.

Shaffer (1978 unpublished) has strongly questioned the assumed vital techno
economic role played by iron tools in the settlement of the Gangetic Plain. Dilip
Chakrabarti has questioned the diffusionary frame work of Indian Iron Age and
believes that it is a product of indigenous evolution in India (Chakrabarti: 1976,1992)

1.3.8 Historical Sites

Andhra Pradesh has proved to be one of the richest areas so far early
historical sites are concerned. So far as the sites with Buddhist are concerned, the
place of pride of course goes to Nagaijunakonda followed by Yelleswaram. Huge
stupa mounds have also been reported from Kalingapatnam (IAR 1976-77: 10),
Dhulikatta in district Karimnagar(IAR 1975-76 :2-3), Kondapur, District.Medak (IAR
1973-74: 6), Dupadu, district. Guntur, Chandavarman, Dist.Prakasam(IAR 1976-77:3)
and Viratraj Gudda, or Erradibba in district Khammam. All these Buddhist sites
belong to the early centuries of the Christian era and speak of the spread of Bhuddhim
and the large following it had enlisted among the people of this region. This is
evidenced by the rise of several well planned townships as evidenced also at
Satanikotta in dist. Kumol. (IAR 1977-78: 3-11), again of the Satavahana period and
following the plan of a fortified town as at Dhulikotta.

Further South, in Karnataka, Vadgaon-Madhavapur in district Belgaum has

proved to be most promising site where extensive structural remains of the
Satavahana period have been unearthed. Another similar centre, has been evidenced at
 18

Chandravalli, district Chitradurga (IAR 1977-78: 27-29) where well built structures,
coins and a range of sophisticated antiquities like beads, terracotta and metal objects
have been found. In Tamilnadu, Literary sources give a picture of a very prosperous
township in the early centuries of the Christian era subsequently Kaveripatnam (IAR
1973-74:25, IAR 1977-78: 50) exposed viharas and shrines along with structures of
moulded bricks and decorative stucco figurines. The excavation at Kuchipuram in
district Chingelput has given more significant evidenced.

The excavations at Ter and Bhokardan (Deo & Gupte 1974), Tagarpura and
Bhogavardhana of ancient times stand testimony to the same social and economic
conditions. Ter (IAR1967-68) is also known for the structural temple, apsidal on plan
and assigned to the same period. Pauni (Deo & Joshi 1972) in the Vidarbha region of
Maharastra has brought to light an extensive Hinayana Buddhist establishment going
back to the period of the NBP and subsequent times. Paunar, in Dist. Wardha, Well
known for the series of Vakataka sculptures of Ganga, Ramayana panels, panels of
Siva and the Seshasayin Vishnu, gave evidence of brick-built structures indicating
that it was an important centre in the 5th -6th Century A.D. (Deo & Dhavalikar 1967)

The central India comprising the state of Madhya Pradesh has given evidence
of numerous early historical sites, right from Mauryan times onwards. Several
urbanized religious and trade centers like Maheswar (Dikshit 1952 IAR 1965-66),
Ujjain (IAR 1956-57), Eran, Tripuri, Vidisha, and Malhar (IAR 1974-77) and scores
of early Buddhist establishments have been brought to light. The location of the
region being significant, it served as the link between the north and the south and
seem to have received the impact of urbanization from urbanized centre of
Uttarapatha and a channel of transmitting Buddhism further South. Besnagar (IAR
1977-78) came up in premauryan and Mauryan times as a settlement with stone drains
and ring well.

In western India Somnath, Dwarka, Devni mori and Prabhas Patan have
brought to light noteworthy evidence. Prabhas Patna gave evidence of the massive
fortification of stones assignable to c.4th cent. B.C. to 1st cent. B.C. whereas Dwarka
on the sea-coast evidenced its occupation in the initial centuries of the christen era.
Devni mori (Mehta et al. 1966) has, on the other hand, evidenced a large scale
Buddhist establishment with quite a range of terracotta and stucco statuary.
 19

The noteworthy excavations given important information of the early

historical period are those at Kausambi, Raj ghat, Ahichhatra, Rajgir, Kumrahar,
Vaishali, Rupar, Purana Qila, Jagatram, Mathura, Piprahwa, Ganwaria, Antichak,
Sringverapura, Champa, Ayodhya to name only a few. Kausambi (Sharma 1960 and
1969) the capital of Vasta and present day Kosam, has given some remarkable
evidence. Equally important has been the site of Rajgir, ancient Rajagriha, the capital
of Magadha. It is one of the most expensive sites and has in sporadic excavation (IAR
1953-54) evidenced mud rampart built by King Ajatasatru (5th Cen. B.C). Another

important site from is Vaisali (Deva and Mishra 1950) the birth place of Mahavir, the
24th Tirthankara of the Jainas. Antichak which has been excavated since 1973, has

given reasonable idea of the nature of the Vikramshila establishment (IAR 1973-78).
The excavations at Champa (IAR 1974-77) for several seasons, though attesting
habitation from pre- NBP period, seem to indicate a prosperous phase only in the
Mauryan-Sunga times culminating in the Gupta period when the town becomes a
jewellery-manufacturing centre. Similar seem to have been the case with Balirajgarh
(IAR 1972-75) which became a centre of terracotta and bead production. Remains of
a slightly later period were exposed at Nalanda (IAR 1975-76: 8-9) where a brick-
built temple, rectangular on plan, with moulded decoration, niches for images, votive
stupas and corbelled drains were uncovered giving an idea of the religious
establishment of 7th - 8th cent, and later. The excavator identifies. Piprawa (IAR 1973-

74: 27-28) with ancient Kapilavastu which played an important role in Bhuddhism.
Mathura the famous sacred city and having a chequered career in the history of India
has been tapped by several archaeologists so far and yet remains inexhaustible. In the
excavations of 1956-57, evidence of habitation could be had from c. 6th cent. B.C.

onwards. The excavation from 1973-76 onwards, have confirmed the antiquity of the
site to the pre-NBP period.

In Orissa, Sisupalgarh has been identified with Tosali of the Asokan records
and Kalinganagara referred to in the inscription of Kharavela. Through the settlement
here goes back to Mauryan period, subsequently it developed into a well fortified
town, one square kilometer on plan with each side of the fortification having majestic
gateways. Within the fortified area were the habitations of brick-built houses (Lai
1949: 62-105, Mohanty and Smith, 2006: 27-32). Another site having fortifications
was Jaugada in district Ganjam (IAR 1956-57).
 20

Bangarh, Bharatpur, Chandraketugarh and Tamluk are some of the notable

historical sites in Bengal. Of these, Tamluk identified with ancient Tamralipti has
given evidence of human occupation right from the Mauryan period till the medieval
Pala times (IAR 1954-55: 19-20, 1975-76: 51-52). Bangarh in district Dinarajpur
repeats the same sequence, but in addition has brought to light distinctive
constructions like a lotus-shaped tank with probably a pillared canopy.(IAR 1973-74:
32-33, 1974-75: 51). Similarly Chandraketugarh in district 24 Praganas, has given two
votive stupas and a polygonal temple with Sarbatobhadra plan of the Gupta time (IAR
1956-57: 29-30). The Sarbatobhadra type monuments were also reported in different
canonical text in ancient period (Sukla 1958, Gopinath rao 1914-16).

In Assam, Ambari a suburb of Gwahati gave evidence of habitation which

might go back to the initial centuries of the Christian era (Ansari and Dhavilkar
1977:79-87). Recently, at Gauhati, in an area called Dumar Jhar, excavations gave a
terracotta boat shaped object, which is identified as funerary offering (IAR 1974-75:

7).

Medieval archaeology indicates in the western Asiatic and central Asiatic

relations, in the use of language and materials like ceramics, and other features and
explains many aspects of this trend, by its continuous search. Archaeological
examination, however, gives a clue to understand this legend in its religio-historical
context, and adds significant details, to the changing patterns of the habitation. A study
of Mallapurana, Kaumarika Khanda (Mehta 1965), Nagarkhanda (Mehta 1968),
Dhamaranya (Mehta 1971-72 1975), Prabhasakhanda (Mehta and Khatawala 1975)
and such so called late puranas, on the basis of archaeological work have given very
interesting historical and culture data for the town and the period for which they were
written. However where local history is studied in the light of archaeological work as
was done at Cambey (Subbarao and Mehta 1955,1969), Vadnagara Bhinnamal
(Parmar 1969) Modhera, Dholka (Mehta u.d:59-69) and other sites in Rajastan and
Gujurat a phenomenon was observed that Indian traditions have a mixture of absolute
historical phenomenon presented in the grab of transference of myths, growth of local
traditions both historical and mythical on the one side and explaining away certain
phenomena on the other.
 21

The Indian traditions are stored in the Puranas and the epics; some
corroboration and additional information are available from the vast Vedic literature.
So some scholars continued to hold that the traditions contain some real truths, and
that they refer to genuine historical traditions and events about men and material
culture gleaned through a maze of labyrinthic myths and chronological absurdities
contained in them. Puratattva No 8 is very largely devoted to the discussion of the
theme Archaeology and Tradition by eminent archaeologist and historian , who
have tried to identified the various chalcolithic and PGW cultures with one or the
other early and later puranic dynasties. The problem whether they are merely myths or
are even partly real is exercising our mind. Mahabharata, Myth Reality (Gupta
1976), Ramayan, Myth or Reality( Sankalia 1973) are two serious exercises in the
line.

It was left to B.B Lai on the morrow of Indian independence to embark on the
adventure of testing Indian tradition on the crucible of archaeology. He started with
the Mahabharata sites with place names and geographical location as described or
nearly described in the Mahabharata. And the first site selected was Hastinapur (Lai
1954-55: 4-151). From the excavation Lai found Painted Grey Ware, which he
ascribed to the tradition of Mahabharata (Lai 1976: 52). He dated the PGW ware
1100-800 B.C., and fixed the date of the Mahabharata war in cir 836 B.C. (Lai 1976:
58). When traditional sites of the Mahabharata were being tested by archaeologist,
Ramayananic tradition could not be left out. Lai with greater expertise and resources,
took up Ayodhya at 14 different sites in the Ayodhya city. The habitation did not go
beyond the NBP, or early NBP phase (Lai 1981: 30-33).

1.3.9 Allied Aspect in Archaeology

Chemical analysis of metal objects, ores and slags are being carried out for
investigating ancient metallurgical processes involved in obtaining the metal used in
the manufacture of various antiquities like weapons of war, agricultural implements
and various art objects (Agrawal, D.P 1976). Such studies throw considerable light on
the socio-cultural and economic activities of the ancient times. Another field of
investigation is the study of ceramics the objects of which are abundantly obtained
from the archaeological sites (Hegde, K.T.M. 1962,1965).
 22

A conventional and routine feature of quartemary pollen Stratigraphy is to

recognize events of vegetational alteration in pollen diagram, which are designated as
local and regional pollen Zones. The attempt at a much wider synthesis of
contemporary events in vegetational developments from various part of the country,
however, small their number is, has resulted in a skeletal model of pollen
Stratigraphy.

The Pleistocene fossil localities in India have been brought to light as a result
of researches carried out by palaeontologists more than a century ago. Large
collections of fossils have been made the Karewas of Kashmir, the Siwalik formations
of the Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, the alluvial deposits of the Narmada basin, the
Deccan river valleys and the Kumool caves. A few localities in Assam, Bengal,
Gujurat and Tamil Nadu have also yielded some faunal material. However, it is only
during the last forty years or so that prehistoric archaeologist and anthropologist have
developed an interest in these deposits and started an intensive research for the
remains of Early Man, his tools and the contemporary (Badam
1968,1973,1979a,1979b,1985)

In Indian sub-continent, the various subdivision of the Pleistocene period viz.,

Lower, Middle and Upper, are based mainly on vertebrate Palaeontology and
Palaeolithic archaeology. The Technical studies require the investigation of the raw
materials e.g. (stone, ores native metals, clay) used by man, the processes innovated
by him to extract materials e.g. copper, iron, from their ores and compounding the
extracted materials e.g. preparation of arsenical copper and tin bronzes etc. and
making new class of compounds by combining various materials e.g. making glass by
fusion of silica, lime and coloring agents etc. A number of studies have been made
(Bharadwaj 1965-66: 57-80), Lamberg-Karlovsky (1967:145-165), Bharadwaj
(1970: 229-37), Agrawal (1969, 1971a,1971b, Hegde 1972:140).

1.4 Archaeology of Orissa

In a third world country India, archaeology, like ethnology primarily

developed in a colonial context (Chakrabarti 1988). Hence both the art historic
tradition as well as natural and social science traditions influenced the growth of
Indian archaeology. Keeping this in view, the history of Orissan archaeology will be
discussed in two phases emphasizing the themes of prehistoric, art history, epigraphy,
 23

numismatics, historical archaeology and conservation (for a summary, see Basa

2000). The first phase of Orissan archaeology would comprises a brief account of the
state of Archaeology under the colonial period. The second phase is the archaeology
of post-colonial that up to the present.

1.4.1 Colonial Period

The Orissan archaeology has traveled in the same way with the tradition to
understand the way of life of people of the past on the basis of material remains. As
per its development on various aspects the archaeology of Orissa has been broadly
divided into six themes, pre-history, art-history, epigraphy, numismatics, historical
archaeology and conservation. In recent study made by Basa on history of
archaeology of Orissa, he divided into three phases; the first phase would comprise a
brief account of the state of archaeology in Orissa upto 1825. The second phase is the
archaeology of the colonial period and the third phase is the post-colonial period that
from 1947 to the present.

1.4.1.a Monuments

In briefly, the living and non-living monument of Orissa has. always attracted
traveler, art lover and archaeologist. In this course Mahmud B. Amir Wali, a Persian
traveller of the 17th century who reached Puri at the beginning of the festival of
Jagannath on 17th May, 1626 and who was in Orissa for two years, wrote about the
height of Konark temple. The European sailor of 17th century referred the Konark and
Puri temple as Black Pagoda and White Pagoda (Chakrabarti 1988:10). In the Diaries
of Streynsham Master contains a statement for December 23 rd, 1676, wee sailed in
sight of the Black Pagoda and White Pagoda (Digby and Harle 1985:1). The Ain-i-
Akbari by Abul Fazl, a 17th century text, refers to Orissa containing one hundred and
thirty nine masonry forts (Jarrett and Sarkar 1949:138). Subsequently, Thomas
Bowrey in 1669-79 and James Rennell in 1783 referred the White Pagoda or the
Jagannath temple. Rennell mentioned, The famous Pagoda of Jagamath lies a few
miles to the east of the lake, and close to the sea shore. It is a shapeless mass of
building; and not otherwise remarkable, than as one of the first objects of Hindu
Veneration, and as an excellent sea-mark (Rennell 1783-242). Followed by Rennel,
Motte visited Orissa during 1760s by taking the riverine route of Mahanadi from
 24

coastal Orissa to Sambalpur in western Orissa and had left an account which has
relevance for Orissan archaeology (Acharya 1955).

After the British occupation in Orissa in 1803, A. Stirling (1825) made an

extensive survey on the coastal area with special emphasis on Puri, Bhubaneswar,
Konark and Jajpur. This is a singularly important paper because of the introduction of
the study of the Orissan temple style and antiquities in Indian archaeology
(Chakrabarti 1988-26). The Stirlings account of Orissan archaeology had three
significant aspects: (a) his emphasis on concentration of religious antiquities around
four places of pilgrimage, such as Hara-khetr, the Vishnu or Purushottama Khetr, (b)
an illustration of an inscription at Udayagiri and (c) an account of civil construction
such as bridges (including illustration), forts and stone revetments (Basa 1994:3).

1.4.1.b Epigraphy

In respect to Epigraphy, it was Charles Wilkins who laid the foundation of

Epigraphy in India (Chakrabarti 1988-32; Kejariwal 1988:223; for a general outline
on Indian Epigraphy see Sircar 1977, Ramesh 1984) and the James Prinseps studied
various inscriptions at a feverish pace from 1834 to 1838 reach a monumental
highness in Epigraphieal study. As to Orissan epigraphy, there were two major
contribution made by Prinsep. These are the decipherment of the Hathigumpha
inscription and the Udayagiri cave inscription.

There was debate among scholars as to its chronology (for a review see
Banerjee 1927: 488-98; Panigrahi 1981:27-28), and it has been pointed out as 200-
175 BC. According to D.C. Sircar (1972) the language of the Hathigumpha
inscription was Pakrit resembling Pali and the script Brahmi of about end of 1st
century B.C. (1942-206). Barua (1947:54-5) believed that Kharavelas reign began
and probably ended in the first quarter of the 1st century A.D. K. Sitaramiya (1945)
mentioned that period as golden period in Kalinga.

Successively, R. Baneijee (1876, 1877) and Fleet (1894-95) studied the

inscription of Yajati Kesri, Another important dynastic history of the Bhauma Karas
was reconstructed on the basis of the study of inscriptions by Binayak Mishra (1934).
Hultzseh also studied the Ganga dynasties such as Alamanda plates of Anantavarman
(1894-95a); Achyuta Puram plates of Indravarman (1894-95b) and the Chicacole
 25

plates of Devendravarman (1894-95c). Fleet also studied some copper plates and
pointed out that the oldest Ganga grants probably belong to the 7th century.

1.4.1.C Sculptural Art

The study of sculpture is one of the most important segments in archaeology.

Orissa is full of sculptural panel along with its architecture and throw light on the
social history of Orissa as well as its descriptions and measurements.

In Orissa and Her Remains Mona Mohan Ganguly (1912) attempted to

establish how the aim of architecture; fitness, stability and beauty has been achieved
in the case of Orissan temples. On the basis of sculptural embellishments of the
Parasuramesvara temple, he placed it to 5th-6th century A.D.

R.P. Chanda (1929) emphasized the art historic tradition of Khiching. Talking
of the sculptures he mentioned that the peculiar scroll decoration or absence of
decoration of slab and the careful furnish even of the lower half of the figures, reveal
the emergence of a local school of sculpture at Khiching on the basis of art historic
remains, he argued that there were all sects including Buddhist and Jaina at Khiching.

In the History of Orissa R.D. Banarji (1931; Chapter 19) mentioned about
the development of Orissan architecture during the eight centuries which intervene
between the second group of early cave temples of the Khandagiri-Udayagiri group of
Jaina caves and the earliest Medieval temples (1931:334). On the basis of an
inscription from Holal in Bellary district of Karnataka, Banarji (1931) for the first
time talked of Kalinga style of architecture, besides the other well known three types
such as Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. The Kalinga style could be recognized by the
curvature of sikhara.

As per the division of Orissan architecture, the earliest temples of Medieval

Orissa could not have been earlier than the 7th century A.D. Although by that time a
regular temple style had developed, the earliest type of medieval temples of Orissa is
found in the Parasuramesvara and Muktesvara in Bhubaneswar, along with the two
temples of Gandharadi in Boudh area. The second group of temple is associated with
the three-shrined Tantric temples of Boudh, Khiching and Bhubaneswar which are
characterized by want of Mandapa or Jagamahana and the sudden curvature of the
sikhara inwards near the top. The third group comprised a large number of temple
 26

including Lingaraja, Anantavasudeva and the Brahmesvara in Bhubaneswar. It is

characterized by main shrine with additional three mandapa and the sikhara curves
which suddenly towards the end near the Amlaka. All the Jagamahana of third type
are lofty halls in which the Jagamahana of Lingaraja temple is mostly stupendous
structures existing in Orissa as stated by Banarji.

Subsequently, N.K. Boses(1932) Cannons of Orissan Architecture

followed the indigenous Silpa-Sastra i.e. Bhubana Pradipa and Silpa Pathi (Silpa-
Sastra) and described about the erection of thatched huts, selection of buildings sites,
the classification of soil etc. whereas the second part deals with the architecture of
temples based on the five recessions of the Bhubanapradipa.

Orissan architectural descriptions incorporated in Percy Browns Indian

architecture (1971) mention the area of influence of Orissan architecture apart from
the development in coastal Orissa. He also mentioned that a small group of temples of
Orissan style are found at Mukhalingam close to the southern border of Orissa and a
series of ruined shrines in Mayurbhanj in north-Orissa. Basically he considered style
as of primary importance.

Stella Kramrisch (1946,1947,1976) raised Havells metaphysical explanation

in her study The Hindu temples, gave a new turn to the study of Indian temple
architecture of which Orissan temples were a most significant expression.

Apart from these scholars, some British civil servants like John Beams
mentioned about some remains and buildings at Kopari (1871) and Chatia (1872).
C.S. Banarji (1870) discussed the Buddhist remains of Nalitgiri and Udayagiri as well
as the antiquities of Jajpur (1871) and A.E. Caddy (1896) discussed about two
unrecorded sculptures in the Ananta cave, Khandagiri.

L4.1.d Numismatic Studies

Numismatics or study of coins also became an important aspect of

archaeological studies and have equally important like other aspect of archaeology.
The Puri-Kushana coin published in 1958 in the Madras Journal of Literature and
Science No. 7 (New series by Walter Elliot is the most remarkable discoveries in the
history of Orissan numismatics. Subsequently, the Puri-Kushana coins were reported
from Balosore district (A.R.A.S.1 1924-25:130), from Bhanjakia (A.R.A.S.I. 1924-
 27

25:132), Viratgarh and Nuagaon in Mayurbhanj district (Acharya 1940) and Sitabinjhi
in Keonjhar (Acharya 1940). Besides, the Puri-Kushana coins, P. Acharya (1940)
referred to the discovery of copper coins of Kaniska and Huviska from Bhanjakia and
three gold coins of Chandra Gupta II from Bhanupur.

The Fanam or the gold coins of the Gangas are also reported by Hultzsch
(1896: 322) in Ganjam district. Subsequently, Hoemle referred to such gold coins
from Angul district (1897:144-5).

In respect to the foreign coin, the Roman coins from Bamanghati in

Mayurbhanj have been reported by Beglar (1882:72-3). Apart from these, there are
two other places Gumada and Kotapad in undivided Koraput (1930) from where
Roman comes have been found.

1.4.2 Post-Colonial Period

The post-colonial period is very much significant in respect of Historical

Archaeology, Art History, and Pre-History etc. The North Central Orissa has no such
in depth study in regards to art history, epigraphy, numismatics and historical
archaeology etc. However, some minor work in this region highlighted the area
specifically in the historical period.

In continuation of the coin study Ramachandran (1951) discussed the Puri-

Kushana coins from Sitabhinji in Keonjhar district. Recent discoveries of punch
marked coins have been reported from Ghumal on the bank of the Kharkhai river,
near Jamda, in Mayurbhanj district by Kishor K. Basa and research scholars Basanta
Mohanto and Tapan Das (Basa et al 2000:42; Mohanta 2002).

The art history of Orissa were continued in the post colonial period and it has
mentioned that in developing a Chronological evolution and stylistic analysis of the
Orissan temple and its decorative tradition in view to emphasizing continuity and
change as well as regional varieties and external influences filtering into Orissa. But
the studies are confined to coastal Orissan monuments. In this trend the pioneer
workers are Dehejia (1979), Behera (1993), Donaldson (1987) and Behera
(1976,1996).
 28

In the study of Historical archaeological evidence, recently, P.K Mishra

(1998) drew attention of north Orissa and has reviewed the archaeological evidence in
Mayurbhanj from pre-history to medieval period.

1.4.2.a Prehistory

However, the important segment of archaeology is pre-history in which the

north Orissa and central Orissa has been paid more attention along with other areas of
the state. The credit was due to Valentine Ball, a geologist who reported for the first
time Palaeolithic artefacts from four places such as Angul, Talcher, Dhankanal and
Bursapalli (Ball 1876:122-3, 1880:507). Half a century later, Paramananda Acharya
reported Neolithic artefacts from his native village Baidypur in Mayurbhanj, northern
Orissa and in the late thirties reported Kuliana along with E.C. Worman, a Harvard
University researcher Later the site was excavated by the Calcutta University under
the direction of N.K. Bose and D. Sen (1948). It is important to note here that Kuliana
is the first excavated lower Palaeolithic site in India.

To trace the Stone Age culture in Orissa, Mohapatras work on central and
northern Orissa is significant one and he reported Palaeolithic culture in a larger area
of Orissa. Tripathy brought to light Stone Age sites of various ages in south western
Orissa (1967,1973,1980,1982,1982-83). Thus Nanda worked on upper Indravati Basin
(1984:85,2000), Singh in erstwhile Dhankanal district (1985-1988,2000), Ota in
Phulbani district (1982-83, 1986), Mohanty in Keonjhar district (1985 (1988, 1988-
89, 1989) 1993,1998,2000) and Behera in Sundargarh district (1989) 1991-92,)
1992a, 1992b). The Palaeolithic cultural relics also reported from Kuchinda in
western Orissa. The Duburi and Tumka region is also very much important for the
study of Microlithic period (Basa and Sahoo 199*). The North Orissa and part of
Central Orissa has received most attention specifically in the Budhabalanga and
Subamarekha river basin of Mayurbhanj district (Mohanta 2002-10) and the
Brahmani and Mahanadi basin in the erstwhile Dhankanal district. The unpublished
dissertation from the Department of Anthropology, Utkal University is also major
source of pre-historic survey data of various part of Orissa.

The Chalcolithic culture in Orissa is known from Sankeijang (Dash

1986,1989, Yule 1989:210-22), the recently excavated site of Golabai by ASI (Sinha
1990,1993,2000), Chalcolithic is also reported from Kuanr in Keonjhar (Ray 1993)
 29

and Gopalpur. near Tangi (Kar 1998), whereas the issue of Iron Age is still
problematic.

The study of megalithic culture in Orissa is not well defined as in other

neighbour states. However, Brandtner (1994) has reported some stone circles from
Kalahandi, Behera (1995-96) has discovered a cluster of eleven Megaliths near Burla
in Sambalpur district. During the extensive survey of Boudh district both Menhirs and
Stone circle are reported by Tripathy (1996-97, 2000, 2001). In recent work of
Mohanta (2002-2010) suggest that the Hos tribe place two types of memorial stone
i.e. Menhirs (vertical) and dolmen (horizontal) types, basically the dolmen variety is
compulsory for every deceased person whereas the Menhirs for some specific person
only.

1.4.2.b Historical Archaeology

Historical archaeology starts travel with the decipherment of the Ashokan

inscription noticed in different part of the subcontinent in 3rd century B.C.
(Chakrabarti 1999:262). The history of the region has been broadly divided into Early
History, Medieval History and Modem History, but the Early History (600 B.C. to
600 A.D.), Medieval History (800 to 1700 A.D.) is very important in respect of
archaeological point of view. In the early historic period the main characteristic is the
emergence of village to state society. Some of the major early historic cities of India
include Ahichhatra (Ghosh 1973; IAR 1963-64), Hastinapur, Kausambi (Sharma
1960), Mathura (IAR 1973-74: 31-32, 1974-75: 48-50, 1976-77: 53-55), Rajghat
(Narain and Roy 1976), Sringaverapura (Lai 1993) Taxila, Ujjain (IAR 1956-57: 20-
28) etc.

In the same way, the urban revolution developed with the help of trade, new
farming technique, metallurgy development of state or organization etc in Orissa also.
From the growth of full time specialists in different crafts, metal work and its
expanded foreign trade evident that trade played an important role for the
development. A well established trade route and interregional trade system was
evident during the Mauryan period.

Orissa enriched with forest and minerals resources and contains vast delta
plain and long coastlines. In ancient Orissa, a number of early historic sites reported
 30

from different part of the state. In recent year a few of such sites have been excavated
systematically. The important centre are Sisupalgarh (Lai 1949), Jaugada, Manikpatna
(Pradhan 2000), Asurgarh, Nehana (Bradthner 1994), Manmunda( Mishra & Pradhan
1989-90, 1990,), Khiching (Chanda 1927,1929,1949 Joshi 1983), Radhanagar (Mishra
2000) etc.

The famous site of Khiching is located on the western border line of the
Mayurbhanj district. It is about 25 kms away from Karanjia in the north-west
direction. Though N.N. Vasu (1911) first identified Khiching with Khijjinga-Kotta,
this place has drawn the attention of Lieutenant- Tickell as early as 1837 and of other
scholars. This place is famous for the Khichingesvari Thakurani, the family Goddess
of the Bhanja dyanasty. In 1971 two copper plate grants established Khijjinga - Kotta
with Bhanja kingdom. After N.N. Vasu, the archaeological potentialities of this site
drawn attention of various scholars like R. P. Chanda (Acharya 1961 : 330, 1969;
Mitra 1971 : 232). There are remains of two ancient forts 'Kichakagada' and
'Viratgada', believed to be the royal residence of the Bhanja rulers. (Mohapatra
1984:147-51; Basa 1997: 3-34). Excavation of Viratgada uncovered brick buildings,
potteries, terracotta figurines, stone figurines, beads as well as iron objects,
particularly three iron-nails (Mohapatra 1984:149). In the northeast direction, from
the vast ruin of Kichakagada, a place 'Chaulakunji' with fourteen monolith pillars -
four large and ten smalls, is noticed. Again in the northeast to Kichakagada, nearest to
Kiehakesvari temple, a brick mound called Itamundia revealed an image of Buddha.
From this site, one doorjamb showing an image of Mahisha Mardini Durga is found.
To the south of Itamundia, a site called Chandisal is situated and from this place an
important discovery of some' carved bricks' is made (Mohapatra 1984: 148 - 49)

Haripur otherwise known as Hariharpur is situated about 15 km southwest of

Baripada. It was the state capital of the ex - Bhanja rulers of Mayurbhanj. The
geneological account of the Bhanja dynasty reveals that the Maharaja Harihara
Bhanja was built this capital city after his name in 1322 Sakabda coressespending to
1400 A.D. Numerous evidences of archaeological importance have been reported
from this anciant capital city of Haripur such as, brick temple of Rasika Raya,
Ranghansapur, Durbar hall, Radhamohan temple, Jagannath temple and some
sculptured stone relics (Mohapatra 1986a: 144- 7,1986b)
 31

Langudi is a low hill situated near village Salipur in the district of Jajpur. It is
one of the important early historic Buddhist centres of coastal Orissa dating back to
1st century A.D. Intensive exploration in this area was made which revealed
evidences of a series of rock-cut stupas of early historic period along with a number
of early medieval Buddhist shrines (Prusty and Mohanty 1995:325-327; Prusty
et.aI1997; Mishra and Mohanty 1998:214). In 639 A.D. when Hieun Tsang visited
Udra (present Orissa) he has mentioned pu-sie-no-ki-li(Puspagiri vihar) in his book
'Sieukei". Excavation at the site in recent time was made by the Orissan Institute of
Maritime and South East Asian Studies that unearthed a fragmented stone Brahmi
inscription in Sunga terracotta stupas etc. On the basis of Brahmi inscription, which
reads "Puspasambhara Giri" the site dates back to first century A.D.

The site of Lalitgiri is located in between the hills of Parabhadi and Handa.
Initially a small scale excavation was made in this by Utkal University and thereafter
some major excavations were done by Archaeological Survey of India in 1985-86,
1986-87 and 1988-89 (IAR 1988-89:65-66; 1989-90:77-80; Chauley 1996; Basa
1997:38). A stupa along with well paved circular stone flooring around it was
excavated from the site. A wide variety of archaeological relics has been excavated
from this stupa area which includes pottery, pedestal, stone sculptures, terracotta
plaques, votive stups, silver slags, circular gold ring etc. The ceramic assemblage of
the site includes fine to medium fabric grey and red are, red ware both slipped and
washed, dull ware, black ware and black slipped ware. A square shaped pedestal
contains some inscriptions written in Brahmi script was date back to 2nd - 3rd century
A.D.

This archaeological site is situated in the Jajpur district, about 102 km towards
northeast from Bhubaneswar. The site was excavated by J.S. Nigam, G.C. Chaulay
and B.K. Sinha (Nigam:2000, Chaulay: 1996,2000, Pattnayak:2000) of Archaeological
Survey of India. A variety of archaeological evidences have been unearthed from the
site which included potsherds, brick pavements, portions of the circular and square
stupas, half a dozen bases of votive stupas, ritual pits, kitchen room along with four
chullas made of burnt bricks, sculptures of different deities, iron objects like nails,
knives, rings arrowheads and spearheads, terracotta and clay seals and sealings,
terracotta figurines like mother Goddess, animals, beads and games men, stone ring
and circular pendent of gold. The square shaped main stupa is made of brick and a
 32

monastery located at the north of this main stupa. On the basis of these excavated
relics Nigam argued that the Madhavapura Mahavir at Udayagiri came into existence
sometime in the 7th-8th century A.D.

This site is situated on the left bank of the river Kushabhadra in Puri district. It
is about 11 kms southeast to the Sun Temple of Konark. J .S. Nigam of the A.S.I
excavated this site. This site revealed a single culture deposit. A brick-jelly floor-
might have served as a loading and unloading platform, an oven and a hearth were
unearthed from this site but no structures were found. Two types of potteries are
found, one is the local pottery, wheel made, dull and mostly of dark grey colour and
the other one is of red ware. The egg-white glazed and glazed chocolate-coloured
posherds of Arabian origin and local potteries are found with limited number Chinese
Celadon and Chinese porcelain. Chinese legend bearing copper coins with square
perforations in the centre is also found from this site. These coins are datable to C.14
century A.D. Other recorded findings are areca nut shaped beads, a fragment of
animal head in terracotta, pieces of glass and copper bangles, a miniature copper bowl
and copper coins of native rulers. (Basa 1997:29)

This site was excavated by archaeological survey of India, which was a well-
known fort in the mediaval time (Sinha 1994; Rao 2000). Rao discussed the results in
three phases. Pillared platforms built of dressed laterite stones veneered with creamy
white khondalite stones are associated with Period-I. While Sinha (1994) argued these
pillars to be the remains of a temple, Rao (2000) rejected it on his simple ground that
no Hindu king would construct his palace over the remains of a temple. The
beginning of Period II is associated with a plastered wall on the northern side running
in east -west orientation over the structure of Period I. The structures of period II were
dismantled and the material was used for the structure for Period III which, Rao
mentioned, mainly represents the construction of the palace of Raja Mukunda Dev
(A.D. 1560-68).

The above review contains a summary of Neolithic and Post-Neolithic cultures

of Orissa reconstructed on the basis of survey and excavation. However, inspite of the
attempts and progress made in archaeology of Orissa- both in prehistoric and
historical archaeology, there are some major limitations (Basa 1997:40-41).
 33

Baidyanathpur in Sonepur district is a prehistoric and medieaval site lying on

the north bank of Tel. A squarish pit in the south -eastern part of the site is one of the
possibly early historic features (Yule 2006).

Badmal site lies 41 km south of Sambalpur. There is fortifications, with two

smaller glacies are located on the north-western side towards the river. In 2001/02
P.K Behera tested this iron age and early historic rampart site first by means of three
trenches and obtained stratified charcoal, usable for dating. Besides, semi finished
beads and splinters of semi precious gem stones came to light (Yule 2006).

Once a provincial Mauryan fortified capital of the newly conquered province

of Kalinga, Jaugarh is framed by its version of the monumental stone cut edits in
prakrit of the Mauryan emperor Asoka. Despite J.D. Beglars description during the
later 19 century of the extant fortification towers and moat (the wall had towers also
of earth, at each of the eight entrances) without photos and drawings, the remains are
difficult to visualize and comprehend (Beglar 1882: 112). In Debala Mitra of the ASI
transected the northern glacis with a trench. (Mitra 1957: 30-31, p 40-44)

P. K Behera reports settlement remains at Khambeswaripalli, located on the

northern bank of the Mahanadi, Chalcolithic and iron age remains are found here. The
Iron age interferences here with the early historic period. Black slip ware funnel-
mouth bowls red slip ware and plain red ware vessels of diverse shaped with
complicated rims comprises the pottery assemblages (Behera 2000-2001 a & b,2002).

The site Jamsargarh is formed by a natural escarpment lying some 16 m above

the confluence of the rivers Koel to the north and Birsa nullah to the south. Brick
fortifications are visible on the north and the south -east sides, complementing the
natural slope (Yule 2006).

A key site for the early historic western Orissa is Kharligarh 1.5 km east of
Bhumpada, near the confluence of the Rahul and the Tel. The antiquity of this
naturally defensible site has been recognized since the 1930s. The steep edges of the
settlement are eroded by dozens of gullies, the largest of which is located in the north
west comer of the site. Building debris protrudes from those gullies on the north, east
and south slopes of the naturally fortified settlement area (Mohapatra 1986a, 1986b).
 34

In 1973 N. K Sahu from Sambalpur University dug several trenches in this

settlement which today are visible, but whose essential remains are unpublished. On
first viewing this Asurgarh it seemed that possibly only the south wall of a quadratic
fortification is preserved. Sherds of Iron age and early historic date have been
recovered (Pradhan 1987-88, Chhotray 2000).

Ulapgarh is located near Sambalpur. The rock art features are of surprisingly
high artistic qualities. They include painted and incised animal as well as geometric
designs. Atop the escarpment an abandoned dwelling survives as a ruin (Mohapatra
1986a 1986b).

Budhigarh attracted the attention of B. Mishra and P. Mohanty owing to the

occurrence of early historic pottery sherds and finds. The ancient settlement area
extends north of the present day village south towards the south. Located in the north,
the settlement extends to the river bank, in the south it extends further west (Mohanty.
et all 997-98,1998-99,2001).

The above review contains a summary of lithic tradition and historical

archaeology of Orissa reconstructed on the basis of survey, excavation and analytical
observation of cultural archaeological edifice. However, inspite of the attempts and
progress made in archaeology of Orissa, both in prehistoric and historical
archaeology, there are some major limitations (Basa 1994,1997,2000).

1.5 Limitations of Archaeological Research in Orissa

1. The surface exploration has been made in various regions of

Orissa with excavation at few places. These excavations are basically of
vertical nature to throw light on relative chronology with diachronic
perspective. In the absence of horizontal excavation it is difficult to
reconstruct a comprehensive history of the society at a synchronic level.
2. Chronology is the major problem in Orissan archaeology, in
which radio carbon dates available from the site of Sankerjang (2590+60 B.P.
(KN 3753), Cal-795 BC (Basa 1997: 40-41). Sinha (2000:344) has reported a
radio carbon date from Golbai for the beginning of Period Ha which is
4100+100BP (PRL No. 1637). Behera has reported some dates from western
Orissa site.
 35

3. The adoption of inter-disciplinary approach is very limited to

the Orissan archaeology. However, the techniques like remote sensing and X-
ray diffraction analysis would be a great help to archaeological research. In
Orissan archaeology, problems still remain on various issues. These include
the site formation process, domestication of plants and animals, identification
of port sites from early historic period onwards, etc. Inter-disciplinary
approach is the answer to all these problems (Basa 1997:47) with the recent
advances in Orissan archaeology, which had traveled from the period of
romanticism of the nineteenth century.
4. The early historical archaeology study was confined to coastal
as well as a few urban sites only whereas rural sites of the early historical
period can serve to understand the approaches like catchment analysis, state
formation process and ancient trade.

1.6 Archaeology of North Central Orissa

The north central Orissa is confined to the region of southern part of Keonjhar,
South eastern part of Sundergarh, western part of Mayurbhanj, Angul, Dhenkanal,
northern part of Jajpur, eastern part of Sambalpur and Devgarh district (Figure-1).
Archaeological research in the region during the colonial phase received attention
with the work of British scholars on the monuments and other cultural materials of the
region. Following Valentine Ball, Palaeolithic sites have been reported by Aeharya
(1923-29), Bose and Sen (1948) which were confined to Mayurbhanj District.
Mahapatra (1962) started systematic exploration of the river valley in north and
central Orissa in order to locate prehistoric sites, particularly in the districts of
Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundergarh and Dhenkanal. He explored the river valleys of
Brahmani. Baitarani, Mahanadi and Burhabalang, covering an area of approximately
25,000 sq. km and located a number of prehistoric sites of lower and middle
Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures. These studies were also important due
to the stratigraphical feature, with reference to Pleistocene climate. They have focused
the morphological and technological parameter of stone artefacts.
 36

1.6.1 Palaeolithic Culture

It was the discovery in the year 1939 that gave a new dimension to
Palaeolithic archaeology of the north Orissa in general and Mayurbhanj in particular.
The study focused and laid foundation of scientific prehistory of India at Kuliana
through an excavation. It was a mile stone for India as well as Orissa for the first
excavated palaeolithic site and truely focuses on systematic approach to Palaeolithic
study.

P.K. Singhs (1980-1985) systematic investigation of the central Orissa

focused on the Stone age cultures of the region. His study was confined to Denkanal,
Angul, Talcher, Kamakshya nagar and Pallahara subdivision, which resulted in the
discovery of 53 Lower Palaeolithic, 06 Mesolithic and 19 Neolithic sites. There are
1599 Lower Palaeolithic tools recovered from central Orissa which includes 88
(5.50%) chopper, 1302(81.42%) hand axe and 33 (2.06%) scraper. Typologically
Central Orissa is dominant with hand axe and cleavers. Except choppers, the other
tool types are smaller in their occurrence and they do not have much typological
significance. However, they suggest the multi-implemental behaviour of the early
human folk in the area.

Khilar (1997-99) has reported 833 lithic artefacts of different cultural periods
from the 14 sites of Deo basin around Karanjia. The findings include four lower
palaeolith, 86 middle palaeoliths, 144 upper palaeoliths, 465 microliths and 134
neoliths. The Deo basin, which is tributary to Baitarani, was dominated by
palaeolithic artefact as a whole. During the year 1992-93 Mohanta has surveyed in
Manada (Mohanta 1997-99) area. The finding comprised Lower Palaeolithic, Middle
 37

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 38

Palaeolithic, Microlithie and Neolithic artefacts. The Palaeolithic artefacts were

basically made out of quartzite.

It the field session of 1996-97 in Kantala area of Pallahara, student of the

Department of Anthropology, Utkal University have reported 612 artefacts of which
four are indentified as Palaeoliths, 338 as Microliths, and 270 as Neoliths (Mishra
1997).

In the western margin of Similipal massif study by Chakrabarty (Chakrabarty

2000) in Khiching plateau, the sites are divided into open air sites, channel-bed sites
and cliff section sites. The Lower Palaeolithic artefacts in the first instance are divided
into two groups; shaped tools (65: 37.35%), and simple artefacts or debitage (109:
62.65%). The shaped tools are represented by hand axes (17 : 26.15%), cleaver (14:
21.53%), knives (4: 6.15%), choppers (8: 12.30%), picks (1: 1.53%) scrapers (18:
27.69%), chisel (1:1.53%) point (1:1.53%) and a non-descriptive flake tool (1:1.53%).
The simple artefacts consist of flakes (13:11.93%), cores (5:4.59%), and other wastes
(91: 83.36%) the Lower Palaeolithic assemblages on ground of their techno-
morphological features have been designated as Acheulian.

The Middle Palaeolithic comes from three sites. The tools are made usually on
fine-grained raw material like chert, chalcedony jasper etc. and include various types
of scraper borers and scraper -combination tools.

In the field session of 1999 in Sankerjang collected 411 artefacts. These are
includes Palaeolithic(lower and middle), microlithie, Neolithic and iron implements.
There are only three types of lower palaeolithic artefacts i.e chopper tools, hand axe
and anvil, whereas the middle palaeolithic artefacts are 10 in number which includes 4
hand axes, 2 scrapers and 4 flakes constitute the tool types.

1.6.2 Microlithie Culture

A number of Microlithie tool assemblages have been identified in different

parts of India. The study of the Belan stratigraphical section resolved the problem of
its position in Indian context. In brief discussion, the entire section from bottom
upwards has been divided into ten deposits consisting of the three gravels and the
intervening deposits. Cemented gravel II or the deposit marked (7) and overlying
reddish silt deposit (6) have yielded Middle Palaeolithic assemblage. Over the reddish
 39

silt (6) rest yellowish silt numbered as (5) has yielded an industry which can be called
transitional between the Middle Palaeolithic and the Upper Palaeolithic. Cemented
Gravel III or deposit number (4) is the true Upper Palaeolithic horizon followed by
overlying layer (3) which has yielded Upper Palaeolithic blades along with
Microlithic blades and flakes. Layer (2) and (1) have yielded Microliths associated
with geometric shapes. The Belan stratigraphy further co-relate with Chapani Mando
excavated site (Sharma 1980), Lakhania (Sharma 1965). In addition to that a number
of of important sites are in Singrauli basin in Uttar Pradesh (Krishnaswami and
Soundara Rajan 1951), Biddaber II near Nandikanama pass (Soundara Rajan 1958),
i

Langhnaj in Gujarat (Sankalia 1956), Birbhanpur in Bengal (Lai 1958:4-48) Teri

industries in Tamilnadu (Zeuner, F.E. and Allchin, B 1956:4-20), Mirzapur in Uttar
Pradesh (Verma 1964). The critical study of the assemblages indicated that at least
three categories could be distinguished in the then Mesolithic assemblages, such as
(1) Non-geometric microliths without pottery (2) Geometric microliths without
pottery and (3) Geometric microliths with pottery. On this basis the microlith site are
datable in Indian context. The Non-geometric pre-pottery stage can be placed with
marginal adjustments within the time bracket of 10,000 BC to 8000 BC. The
geometric pre-pottery stage may be fixed between 8000 BC to 2000 BC. The last or
third stage tools assemblage 5000 BC and 1500 BC. So the place of microlithic
1
people of India is in a time framework of 12,000 BC to 1500 BC.(Verma, R 1985:27-
36).

In case of Orissa, the Microliths are reported from different places. The
Microlithic study by Mohapatra (1962) was done in a systematic exploration of the
i
river valleys in north and central Orissa in order to locate pre-historic sites,
particularly in the district of Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundargarh and Dhenkanal. After
a decade gap, Singh identified Mesolithic phase near Sarang, Meramandali, Talchar,
Gotamora, Balaram Prasad and Kundale. The Kuchai excavation (ASI in 1961-66) in
north Orissa! has some evidence of microliths but it does not give any clear-cut picture
either of its age or the environmental condition at the time of the microlithic industry
(Thapar 1976).

The six year research carried out by Singh from 1980-85 resulted in the
identification and collection of microlithic implements from six sites such as Sarang,
Meramandali, Talcher, Gotamara, Balaram Prasad and Kundale (Singh 1985). All
 40

these sites are open air sites and the artefacts were collected from the loose rocky
surface which rests above the Kankarised layer. Out of total collection 472 microlithic
tools, they comprised 13 fluted core, 2 fluted flakes, 150 flakes, 97 simple blades, 35
used blades, 62 backed blades, 47 small blades, 44 points, 11 scrappers, 11 lunates.
The raw material used is mainly black chert. All the sites except Gotamora are located
close to the Brahmani river and its tributaries Nadira and Lingana. At the site of
Gotamara a large number of flakes, blades, cores, reject material and fragments of
crude potteries have been recovered in large quantities, and are spread over a wide
area, whereas the finds from other sites are distributed over a small area. It suggests
that the former one was workshop-cum-habitation site whereas the later sites were
used for temporary purpose.

The upper Mahanadi valley in the Sundargarh district, specifically on Koel

near Misankund, Shigudighat near Birsa town and Pitamahal and other sites have
yielded a large number of microliths on compact reddish brown weathered sandy silt
deposits. These tool types comprised of blunted backed blades and bladelets, lunates,
micro-Gravette points, borers, burins, a variety of side and end scrapers and a solitary
trapeze. Typical geometric forms are completely absent. The raw material used for
manufacturing these tools is mainly metamorphosed shales and milky quartz (Behera
1983-84).

Explorations in Ghasipura and Harichandanpur Taluks of the Keonjhar district

by P. Mohanty (1983-84) resulted in the discovery of 12 primary Mesolithic sites. The
majority of the sites are in association with the granite outcrops and a few are on the
foot hills close to the tributary rivers. The sites are Karadapal, Tikira, Noapara,
Kachildarah, Karadabani, Sanahudi in Ghasipur Taluk and Palarpur (Rebna),
Golibeda, Chilikadah and Bhagamunda in Harichandanpur Taluk. Four of these sites
are quite large with the artefacts found spread in an area measuring 100m x 100m.
Beside the above sites, at a few rock outcrops stray microliths and heavy artefacts
were reported. Although these spots cannot be called as. sites but their significance for
interpreting the working of the Mesolithic cultural system cannot be ruled out. The
microliths consisted of retouched blades, truncated blades, blunted backed blades,
truncated blades, points, borers, crescents, triangles, trapezes, side scrapers, scrapers,
hollow scrapers, knives, flake cores, blade cores, worked nodules and chips. Chert
was the principal raw material found in most of the sites along with quartz,
 41

chalcedony and agate also utilized. All these site have heavy duty tools made of
dolerite and quartzite in association with microlith artefacts. Their types included uni
and bi-facial choppers, points, discoid cores having steep edges, scrapers, flakes,
lunates, knives and celts.

Further in the exploration work at Champua, Ghasipura, Ghatangaon,

Harichandanpur, Palaspal and Patana Taluks of Keonjhar district Mohanty (1986-87)
reported 58 Mesolithic sites. Most of the sites discovered are located in the granitic
outcrops, whereas others were found in the foothill regions close to streams. The sites
are ranging from the small ones, have an extent of 100m2 whereas the largest size
measures about 20,000m . The sites are now under dense forests. Most of the sites
were primary and undisturbed by nature. The lithic industry of Keonjhar has been
divided into two category (i) microlithic (ii) heavy-duty tools. Out of the total sites 14
sites yielded only microlith, 5 sites yielded heavy duty components and the remaining
39 sites are of both components. There is no stratigraphical evidence to separate the
two components. Thus it is clear that the heavy duty tools found in this area,
according to Mohanty form an integral part of the Mesolithic culture. The microlithic
assemblages have the most out-standing feature of a well developed blade technology
industry. The main tool types reported are backed blades, obliquely truncated blades,
retouched blades, burins, knives, triangles trapeze, crescents, lunates, side scraper,
steep scrapers, thumb-nail scrapers, flake core, blade-cover, micro blade core, utilized
blades, flakes and chips. The techniques used were soft hammer of bone or wood,
punch, or by pressure technique and then various type of retouching were done on
them. Chert was the main raw material used. Besides these quartz, chalcedony and
dolerite were also used. Along with these tools, heavy duty artefacts made of dolerite,
quartzite and lime stone are found. These differ from the microliths both in terms of
raw materials and their typo-technological features. The heavy duty artefacts
comprise of chopper-chopping tools, horse-hoof scrapers, picks, knives, large
scrapers, limaces and flakes. Celt fashioned by means of flaking grinding and
polishing is another interesting category of artefacts. However, the lithic data from
Keonjhar are divided into four major classes as per its area of occupation,
concentration and distribution of artefacts, artefacts of heavy duty and implement
along with light scatters of microliths and pre-dominancy of heavy duty artefacts. In
the North Central Orissa, this is possibly for the first time that a full attempt has been
 42

made to account for it in functional-ecological terms. As no fossil or organic remains

were available at the site, it is not possible to give absolute dates to the culture but on
the basis of the blade technology and edge-ground tools, these sites are dated
tentatively between 5000 to 2000 BC (Mohanty;1989, 1992, 1993).

In the district of Boudh, Mesolithic sites occur in three contexts (1) river bank
deposites (2) foothill region and (3) raised land / upland deposit of the rivers and
small nallahs. In this phase the sites yielded artefactural assemblages of two different
kinds namely microlithic artefacts (both geometric and non-geometric shapes) made
of siliceous materials like chert, chalcedony etc. All the Mesolithic sites found in the
region are associated with the alluvium deposits of about lm to 3m determined forms
different exposed section (Tripathy 1996).

An intensive exploration in Telkoi region of Keonjhar district was made by the

Department of Anthropology, Utkal University in 1998 (Dehuri 1998, 2004). The
reported artefacts include 287 microlithic artefacts from Madhusudanpur, Charigarh
College area, Tungur Pahar, Balisahi, Nuagarh and Telkoi. The microlithic artefacts
are dominated by fluted core, flake, blade, awl, borer, burin, point, scraper and notch.
It is variety of crypto crystalline silica used as main raw material.

Apart from these, the Department surveyed around Pallahara region ( Basa
2000:16-61, Basa et al 2000:264-284) on the Mankara river basin which is a tributary
of Brahmani. A good number of microliths are reported. The important sites are
Samiapalli, Subamapalli, opposite SEDP, Pallahara College area, Bajpur, Muktapur
and Kainsaripalli. The microliths are geometric and non-geometric type. In a trial
trench at Bajpur, a microlithic horizon of Mesolithic culture was identified, in which
blade let, blade, crescent, burin and flake are recovered below 45cm of present
surface. It is interesting to note that the microlithic implement concentration noticed
just under the Neolithic horizon.

Besides the above mentioned explored microlithic site, during the field session
1996-97, the Department of Anthropology, Utkal University has conducted a field
work around Kantala near Pallahara which revealed 270 microlithic artefacts,
characterized by blade, flake, crescent etc (Mishra 1997).
 43

During the field session of 1999 in around Sankerjang area 411 artefacts were
collected. These include Palaeolithic (lower and middle), Microlithic, Neolithic and
Iron implements. There are 193 microlithic implements reported from the different
sites. The dominant tool types are simple blade (66), flake (32), fluted cores (21),
chips (18), backed blade (18), points (8) and borers (7) etc. The site Biraka shows the
highest number of microliths and Barkhal shows only one microlithic.

The Kardi locality of Boudh district has resulted in the discovery of six sites
pertaining to prehistoric evidences characterized by lithic tools, ceramics, terracotta
relics, metal objects, and objects on founal remains.

There are 273 mesolithic remains characterized by simple and shaped artefacts
which have been collected from the six sites. Almost all the Mesolithic sites in the
area have yielded microliths characterized by worked nodules, flake, burin, borers,
notches and lunate. This suggests that both non-geometric and geometric forms of
microliths were produced during the Mesolithic period for various functional
purposes. These microliths are generally made of cryptocrystalline and crystalline
rocks of opaque, translucent in natural, and characterized by chert of different shades,
quartzite, jasper, agate, chalcedony and camelian as well as mineral like quartz. It has
been observed that various flakes and blade flakes were primarily made out of
selected cores of different rocks by means of pressure flaking and fluting techniques
(Sahoo 2013).

1.63 Neolithic Culture

In 1958-59, Mitra and Ghosh also reported some Neolithic artefacts in

Keonjhar district (Mitra & Ghosh 1958-59). In the recent years scholars have paid
much attention on the region after 1971 with a herdsman, Shri Somnath Biswal from
the revenue village of Sankerjang, who spotted some curious large and smooth stone
artefacts which protruded out of the side of a small hillock near his home, which now
is displayed in State Museum (Census 1971). In the following years, P.K. Roy,
Superintendent of the State Archaeology, Orissa undertook an excavation and
revealed the material of Neo-chalcolithic culture materials (Ray 1977). The important
Neolithic artefacts are variety of knapped and ground stone adze, which proved the
finest technically and artistically yet to be excavated in South Asia (Yule & Rath
2000; 288).
 44

In 1985, Behera has made extensive survey in Bonaigarh region of Sundargarh

district (Behera 2000), reported 18 major workshop sites and minor workshop site.
Geographically the area is an isolated hilly track, surrounded by rugged forest clad
hill, intersected by a few narrow valleys, which are the only outlet to the neighboring
regions. Most of the sites here are open air sites and locate in two geographical
contexts, viz; sites on the alluvial surface of the river banks and those in the foot hill
or piedmont area.

Out of the 18 sites, the minor workshop sites are confined to southern part of
the Bonai region and are generally found on the cliff surface of the river and foot hills
as well as piedmont areas, usually not very far from the river Baitarani. From these
sites mainly finished and semi-finished celt of different type along with pebble tools,
axes, adze, chopper-chopping, bored-stones, spearhead, grain pounders, elongated
knife on pebble etc and debris were found of these axes of various types and chisels
formed the main tools types in these workshops.

In major workshop sites only one has yielded evidence for mass production of
semi-finished celts, located near village Sulabhdihi. Behera argued that on the basis of
the dimension of the site, it is presumed that this site must have served as a very large
Neolithic celt manufacturing center. In a trial trench near Bargaon village three layers
have been identified. The layer one had a deposit of 30cm and yielded wheel made
pottery and some iron objects. In the second layer yielded wheel made potteries with
red ware, grey ware and few potsherds of black and red ware whereas the third layer
reported shapeless, coarse and gritty red ware sherds, several celt, dressed flakes and a
broken semi-finished chisel were reported.

The result of the excavation suggest that the Neolithic culture complex of the
Bonaigarh sub-division belonged to pre-iron phase and was associated with a coarse
gritty-tempered red ware, a feature also noticed at Kuchai in the Mayurbhanj district
of Orissa (Thapar 1985; 45). Thus the Bonaigarh neolithic is datable to second half of
the 2nd millennium B.C.

Singh (2000) during the course of his survey carried out between 1980-85 in
the district of Angul and Dhenkanal covering a total area of 10,826 sq km had
identified 19 Neolithic sites. The sites are mostly found along river Brahmani and its
tributaries. The Neolithic people of this place generally preferred the locally available
 45

rocks, which are not locally available and it is presumed that they might have been
quarried from the adjoining localities. All together 211 tools have been picked up
from these sites, which includes axes, adzes chisels, bar celts, scrapers, ring stones,
shouldered-celts, chopper and hand made pottery with grain impressions. There imply
about the traits of incipient agricultural and social life of the early man in this region.

Pallahara, a small town is the sub divisional head quarters of the Angul
district. In the exploration carried out in the Mankara river valley which is a major
tributary to the river Brahmani (Mohanta 1995, Basa et.al. 2000). The survey resulted
in the discovery of pre-historic sites yielding artefacts belonging to the Palaeolithic,
Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures. Of these the Neolithic were found at Somiapalli,
Subamapalli, Pallahara College area, Bajpur, Muktapur, Illisuan, opposite S.E.D.P.
office and Udaypur.

In all 205 Neolithic artefacts were recovered from the surface exploration and
the excavation. The main tool types of the Neolithic culture are axe, chisel and
dimple-scarred rubber, flakes and chips. The axes were usually made with rectangular
butt, but a few are also found with irregular butt. Their working edges are beveled and
made sharp ended. Chisel both finished and unfinished along with blank of
quadrilateral shape are found. The dimple-scarred rubber stone have shallow marks on
one side and also on both the sides. The raw material used for making the tools here is
predominantly dolerite.

The trial trench at Bajpur revealed habitation deposit upto 85 cm. and divided
into three distinct layers. The 1st layer is 13cm thick and is yellow reddish in colour.
The layer 2nd is 30 cm thick; layer 3rd is 42 cm thick and is reddish in colour. The first

two layers belong to the Neolithic culture, and the third one has yielded microliths.
The Neolithic artefacts include Neolithic flakes, Neolithic chips without any finished
tool, whereas the Mesolithic tool assemblage consists of blade-lets, blade and
crescents made on chert. Another important trait i.e. potsherds also recovered from
the surface as well as excavation are prepared in slow wheel in coil method with two
main types identified as coarse red ware and black and red ware. The potteries found
here can be compared with those found at Kuchai (the first ever excavated Neolithic
site in Orissa), scholars have tentatively tried to date them on the basis, of chronology
of the Early Metal Age sites in the same region to around 2nd millennium B.C.
 46

Another important site Sankeijang was visited by members from the

Excavation Branch IV, Bhubaneswar and reported a few Neolithic tools which
comprised ring stones and small celts.

In Boudh district, the Neolithic phase has not been firmly established.
However the excavations at Manamunda also yielded some implements of Neolithic
culture, but the main problem lies in the fact that without a clear cut cultural phase
one cannot ascertained a particular nomenclature to a cultural phase. Only one site
named Salekata, 30 km south from the Boudh town properly yielded some polished
stone implements and a variety of crude red ware (Tripathy. 1996).

In the 1997-98, an intensive exploration in the Telkoi region has resulted 532
artefacts, out which 221 are of Neolithic period. Typologically, the ring stone, axe,
chisel are important one. In a trail trench Tl, near Telkoi resulted potsherds of red
ware and another trench T2, exposed west to the previous resulted 4 flake, 1 axe in
upper layer, whereas the lower layer reported microlithic tools (Dehuri.1998, 2004).

Ranjana Ray of Calcutta University reported a neo-chalcolithic site near

Kanjipani locally known as Kuanr which is located on the right bank of Masani nallah
and surrounded by another nallah i.e. Ghumura nallahs. The northern side of the
mound is highly dissected. There are a number of channels on this side, in which a
large quantity of tools and potsherds are coming out. The findings were axe, adze,
saddle quern, ring stone, hammer stone, various type of scraper, blade, points, awls,
borers, knives as well as large quantity of flakes and chips. All the celts were made by
chipping, pecking and grinding technique. But the Kuanr celts are chipped and ground
and very much akin to what had been found from Barudih and Dugui (Ghosh et al
1982,1984a, 1984b).

Apart from these the Department of Anthropology, Utkal University explored

the central as well as north-central Orissa and reported a number of Neolithic sites
specifically in Malikhojha area (Sankerjang locality) in Angul district. The Pallahara
region has also yielded a number of Neolithic sites in which adze, axe, ring stone are
dominant varieties (Mohanta 1995, Mishra 1997).

An exploration in Sankeijang region of Angul district was made by the

Department of Anthropology, Utkal University in 1999 (Mohanty 1999). The sites
 47

have resulted neo-chalcolithic artefacts and yielded 196 specimens out of which lithic
artefacts are 194 and 2 copper objects. The lithic remains include axe, adze, chisel,
ring stone, muller, hammer cum polisher, bar axes and bar adzes. The waste products
of neo-chalcolithic tools are flakes and chips. Among the neo-chalcolithic materials
groove marked flake (54), simple flake (40), chisel (26), axe (16), ringstone (14) are
dominant varieties. The Bar axe (7) and bar celt (2) are collected from the Sankeijang
localites.

Altogether only three Neolithic artefacts have been yielded from the Kardi
region. All these three are chisel and remnant of chisel, made out of dolerite rock. The
tool types found from the study area have typo technological similarities with the
Bonai and Pallahara Material (Sahoo 2013).

1.6.4 Chalcolithic Culture

The site Kuanr reported chalcolithic remains which consist of large quantity of
potsherds, terracotta pieces, brunt clay pellets, charcoals and metal ornaments.
Potsherds are too fragmentary. They are red and buff in colour but some are with
slips, coarse to medium fabric. Metal objects found from the site are ornaments. These
include nine bangles and two rings. Apparently the ornaments are made up of bronze.
The bangles are of design with parallel lines engraved at equal intervals along the
width of the bangle.

The site is very rich one. It suggests the presence of chalcolithic culture in
Orissa in a wider scale. The archaeo-metallurgy points out to the possibilities of great
antiquity for brass as an alloy in this region. The findings from Kuanr may broadly be
placed after Neolithic and before the Iron age (Ghosh et al 1984)

In the survey during the field session (1999) of Department of Anthropology,

Utkal University around the Sankeijang has reported neo-chacolithic remains have
been reported in the form of copper objects. The copper objects are identified as
bangles (Mohanty 1999).

1.6.5 Historical Period

Unlike the other aspect of archaeology, the historical perspective has played
an important role to shape history with the help of textual sources and archaeological
 48

remains located in the geographical context. In last century, scholars have attempted
to map out the historical significance at regional level and to highlight its cultural
evidences.

A cave shelter inscription in Sitabinjhe is an eye opener to the north-central

and north Orissa, in which referring to Maharaja Sri Disabhanja and Brahmi script
belonging to 5th century A.D. (Senapati 1986:42). A natural rock shelter locally
known as Ravanachhaya contains an ancient rock painting depicting a royal
procession where a king riding on an elephant holding water lily in his left hand and a
goad in right hand along with well decorated attendant, horse man, dress of the
soldiers, ornaments and floral motifs are important. Apart from these the other
reported archaeological finds of the site include female figurines, bronze ornaments,
beads, ear studs, terracotta, copper cast Puri-Kushana coins, lamp stand, elephant
figures and brunt bricks. Another important evidence of the site is the Chaturmukha
Sivalinga that shows the ancient Shiva shrine at the site. (Ramachandran 1951:5-25;
Panigrahi 1981:369, Mohanti 1988; Senapati 1986: 42 and 433-434; Mohapatra 1986:
173-174).

In recent years an early historical site has been reported at Telkoi on the left
bank of river Somakoi, a tributary of the river Brahmani. The mound covered an area
of 150x100 square metres and height is about 6 metre from the water level. It is
undisturbed and scattered with a large quantity of potsherds, a few iron artefacts, a
dimple scar rubber, spout, dish on stand and flake of deprival fine grained granite
(Dehuri-1998). A large amount of iron slag is noticed to the west of the site across the
stream with a distance of about 500 meter. Along with brick bats a good number of
polished quartzite pieces have also noticed.

The excavated early historic sites of Manmunda, Asurgarh, 50 km west of

Boudh town yielded cultural material dating back to 3rd century BC to 1st century AD.
The findings, especially pottery helped in reconstructing the trade activity of the
region. The finding of black polished ware and lids with knob in a large quantity is
significant for the comparison and dating of the sites. Apart from these the site has
also yielded pig iron slag (Tripathy-2000).

Out of nine sites reported from Kardi region of Boudh district only four sites
have yielded early Historical evidence which includes various types of ceramics
 49

remains, terracotta remains and metal object. The forms of the ceramic remains
include those of vase / Handi, bowl, dish, basin, vase, lids. The other terracotta
remains include smoke stand, toy wheel, Hopscotch/discs, leg of animal figurine and
unidentified cylindrical objects. The metal objects in the collection include an
interesting female figurine made of copper (Sahoo 2013).

Sankerjang has been well known as neo-chalcolithic site from 1970. However
the present survey by Department of Anthropology, Utkal University in around the
Sankeq'ang and from trial trenches yielded evidence of Iron artefacts. Besides the iron
evidence the site has yielded the evidence of secondary mortuary practice belonging
to the Iron age. In all such cases iron artefacts have been unearthed (Nayak 1999).

With this background it is appropriate to discuss the study area and its present
environment which is the content of the next chapter.