Assessing the Quality of Soils
Modified with Lime Kiln Dust
Measuring Electrical Conductivity with
Time Domain Reflectometry
Radha Krishna Daita, Vincent P. Drnevich, Daehyeon Kim,
and Renpeng Chen
By-product materials such as lime kiln dust (LKD), cement kiln dust,
and fly ash are used for modifying pavement subgrades. It is insufficient
to use density and water content measurements for compaction quality
control on modified soils where chemical reactions occur because the
properties of the modified soil differ from those of the parent materials.
The amount of lime, the clay mineralogy, the soil water content, and the
percentage fines in the soil are important parameters that affect the com-
paction behavior and subsequent properties of the modified soil. Hence,
they should be considered for effective quality control. The behavior of
soils modified with LKD is more complex than that of soils modified with
lime because of the presence of various compounds besides lime in LKD.
Research indicates that the electrical conductivity of soil is strongly
affected by chemically modifying soils and tracks the chemical reactions
with time. Time domain reflectometry (TDR) technology using the Pur-
due TDR apparatus measures the electrical conductivity of soil and is
feasible for use in the laboratory and in the field. This paper describes
the electrical conductivity behavior of an LKD-modified soil for various
compaction conditions. The variation of electrical conductivity with
time for a given cohesive soil is shown to depend on the amount and type
of LKD and the water content. A hyperbolic-type model is proposed to
capture the change in electrical conductivity with time for different
amounts of LKD. Test results indicate that electrical conductivity also
can be correlated to the penetration resistance of modified soil, which is
an indicator of shear strength. Compared with conventional test methods,
TDR is expected to provide better understanding of the rate and extent
of chemical reactions between chemical modifiers such as LKD and soil
and be useful for compaction quality control.
When field conditions are not favorable for compacting subgrades,
soil improvement is frequently employed to facilitate the construc-
tion of pavements and enhance the engineering properties of the
soil to improve subgrade performance. Improving soil by adding
chemical admixtures is a technique that continues to be widely used
R. K. Daita, H. C. Nutting Company, 611 Lunken Park Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45226.
V. P. Drnevich, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall
Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2051. D. Kim, Indiana Department of Transporta-
tion Research Division, 1205 Montgomery Street, P.O. Box 2279, West Lafayette,
IN 47906-2279. R. Chen, Department of Civil Engineering, Zhejiang University,
38 Zheda Road, Hangzhou, 310027, China.
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
No. 1952, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington,
D.C., 2006, pp. 101109.
101
throughout the United States. Traditional chemical admixtures include
quicklime, hydrated lime, and cement. Recently, however, a number
of by-product materials recycled as chemical additives have been
used as stabilizers, including lime kiln dust (LKD), cement kiln dust,
and fly ash. Use of chemicals such as LKD makes stabilization of
subgrades economical and has the added advantage of recycling a
by-product. LKD is being extensively used in the state of Indiana as
the chemical additive for the modification and stabilization of sub-
grades. The addition of lime to soil involves chemical reactions that
have been studied extensively by past researchers. The chemical
reactions are classified into short-term (modification: hydration and
flocculation) and long-term (stabilization) reactions. Usually, engi-
neers and researchers study only the changes in physical and engi-
neering properties of chemically modified soils. Monitoring chemical
changes with time by direct or indirect means has significant merit for
the study of chemically modified soil. Generally, chemical changes
in a system are associated with simultaneous changes in its electri-
cal properties. This paper describes the behavior of LKD-modified
soils in terms of their compaction characteristics and electrical prop-
erties. The electrical conductivity and dielectric constant of a mod-
ified soil were measured with a Purdue TDR apparatus. Attempts
were made to take the past research on chemically modified soils a
step further by testing the potential of the TDR method as a possi-
ble quality control method for modified subgrades. The work also
explored the potential of using TDR to determine the amount of
LKD present in a soil from electrical conductivity measurements.
BACKGROUND
The chemical reactions that occur when lime is added to soil consist
of time-dependent short-term and long-term reactions (1). The short-
term reactions primarily constitute hydration of CaO to Ca(OH)2 and
the agglomerationflocculation of clay particles as a result of cation
exchange. These short-term changes are rapid and are sometimes
referred to as modification because they modify the soil to a relatively
workable state when compared with its original state. These short-
term reactions result in a high pH environment, which facilitates the
dissolution of aluminum and silicon from clay minerals present in
the soil. These elements react with calcium to form pozzolanic com-
pounds; namely, calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and calcium alu-
minate hydrate (CAH). These compounds are cementitious in nature
and crystallize to bind the structure together, providing long-term
strength. The improvement in the properties of lime-stabilized soil
102 Transportation Research Record 1952

depends on various factors, including time and temperature. Various

researchers have reported on the effects of time on strength, com-
paction behavior, and permeability (25). Because the improvement
process involves chemical reactions, it must be temperature dependent.
The long-term and short-term reactions discussed so far corre-
spond to the addition of quicklime (CaO). LKD is mainly composed
of CaO but also contains varying amounts of CaCO3, CaSO4, fly ash,
and limestone (6 ). The reactions of LKD with soil will be complex
because of the presence of these various other compounds along
with available lime in the form of both quicklime and hydrated lime.
It can be assumed, however, that the reactions between soil and the
available free lime would be similar to the reactions between soil
and quicklime.
Recent research on chemically stabilized soils has concentrated
on studying the changes in the electrical properties, such as electri-
cal conductivity and dielectric constant with time. The idea is based
on the application of electrical measurements in concrete technol-
ogy to monitor the hydration of cement and a simultaneous increase FIGURE 1 Purdue TDR apparatus.
in strength. Beek and Hilhorst characterized the microstructural
changes in young concrete based on the dielectric measurements
using microwave frequencies (7). They found that with time, as the conductivity and surface conductivity; however, the apparent dielec-
strength of the concrete increased, its electrical conductivity decreased. tric constant is relatively independent of the conductivity. Based on
These observations enabled them to develop a nondestructive way measurements of dielectric constant and electrical conductivity, the
of testing strength development in concrete based on conductiv- water content and dry unit weight of the soil can be determined fol-
ity measurements. Like concrete, lime-stabilized soils also involve lowing either of two methods: the two-step TDR method (ASTM D
hydration reactions and changes in properties with time. Boardman 6780-02) and the one-step TDR method (13).
et al. found that the electrical conductivity of a lime-modified soil is Yu and Drnevich showed that electrical conductivity was an
higher than that of the natural soil and that it decreases with time (8). accurate and effective indicator of the progress of hydration in lime-
They explained that the initial increase in electrical conductivity is stabilized soils at the I-70 Relocation Project in Indianapolis (14).
caused by Ca+2 ions in the system and that as these ions form the The ultimate goal of this research is to develop a field quality con-
complex pozzolanic compounds CAH and CSH, the conductivity trol procedure for chemically modified subgrades based on the mea-
decreases. They concluded that effective quality control of lime- surements of electrical properties. The developed procedure(s) should
stabilized subgrades can be achieved by electrical conductivity mea- not only provide information related to engineering properties of the
surements. However, they did not develop or propose a procedure subgrade but also take into account the various factors affecting the
for performing in situ monitoring. process of stabilization. The developed procedure should not only test
Research on one-dimensional electromagnetic wave propagation in both the short-term and long-term performance of the subgrade, but
soils introduced time domain reflectometry (TDR) technology to geo- also provide details on the amount of stabilizer, the depth of stabi-
technical engineering (912). TDR involves propagating transverse lization, and the uniformity of mixing, all of which affect performance
electromagnetic waves through soils by means of special soil probes. of the stabilized soil.
During propagation through the medium, the electromagnetic wave
encounters impedance mismatches, and a portion of the wave energy
is reflected back to the TDR device while the remaining portion is EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
transmitted. Some of the energy is dissipated within the soil.
Figure 1 shows the Purdue TDR apparatus. The test can be per- The experimental program had the following objectives:
formed both in the lab and in situ, and the configuration requires a
coaxial cable with a center probe to transmit the electromagnetic Characterize the chemical composition of LKD,
wave. A standard Proctor compaction mold can be used in the lab- Examine the effects of the amount of LKD on the compaction
oratory, where the mold acts as the shield in a coaxial cable and a behavior of a stabilized soil,
steel rod driven through a template acts as the center lead. In the Study the time-dependent behavior in electrical properties of
field, four spikes are used: Three spikes are driven in a pattern so as stabilized soil, and
to simulate a shield, and the center spike acts as the center lead of a Examine the feasibility of developing a method to estimate the
coaxial cable. A multiple rod probe (MRP) head placed over this amount of LKD in the modified soil.
coaxial cable allows an electromagnetic wave to be propagated
through the soil to the depth of the probe. In either the lab or field case,
the dielectric medium between the center rod and the shield is soil Materials
whose dielectric constant (Ka) can be calculated based on the time
elapsed between the portion of the signal reflected from the soil sur- The research project used several locally collected soils. Tests with
face and another portion reflected from the end of the probe. Voltage one of the soils, Orchard clay, will be featured in this paper. It was
measurements of the applied and reflected signals allow the bulk tested for basic index properties of grain size distribution, Atterberg
electrical conductivity (ECb) of the soil to be determined. The appar- limits, compaction characteristics, and pH following the relevant
ent dielectric constant and the electrical conductivity of a soil are ASTM standards. Two LKDs, Buffington LKD (BLKD) and South
strongly affected by the water content and dry unit weight of the soil. Chicago LKD (CLKD), provided by Mount Carmel Sand and Gravel,
The bulk electrical conductivity is strongly affected by the pore fluid were used. LKD was added by dry weight of soil solids and the opti-
Daita, Drnevich, Kim, and Chen
mum amount of stabilizer was determined following the standard
ASTM D 6276-99 pH test. Table 1 provides the chemical composi-
tion of the LKDs used in this research. The BLKD has more available
lime than the CLKD. As shown in Table 1, the chemical composition
of LKDs is not detailed; hence, X-ray diffraction experiments were
performed on both the LKDs in their natural and hydrated states.
These experiments helped to characterize the chemical composition
and to study the hydration products of LKD. Diffraction patterns
were obtained with a PANalytical XPert PRO MPD X-ray dif-
fraction system equipped with a PW3050/60 - goniometer and
a Co-target X-ray tube operated at 40 KeV and 35 mA. For testing
hydrated specimens, LKD was initially mixed with water and air-dried
for 2 days. The samples were pulverized, and powdered specimens
were prepared and tested in a similar way as those in the natural state.
Tests on LKD-Modified Soils
Compaction Tests
In the field, the mixing procedure of LKD and natural subgrade soil
is not very uniform, and hence it is possible that the stabilized sub-
grade may contain varying amounts of stabilizer at different loca-
tions and different depths. To account for this variability and also
to study the compaction behavior of stabilized soil with different
amounts of LKD, Orchard clay was modified and compacted with
varying amounts of BLKD and CLKD. BLKD was mixed in even-
numbered percentages (i.e., 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%), and CLKD was mixed
in odd-numbered percentages (i.e., 3%, 5%, 7%, 9%). The lime mod-
ification optimum (LMO) for BLKD is 4%, and for CLKD, 7%. The
electrical conductivity and the dielectric constant of the compacted
specimen were determined using the Purdue TDR apparatus just
after compaction.
Monitoring Tests
A test program was planned to study the changes in the electrical
properties of an LKD-modified soil with time in both short- and
long-term conditions. Orchard clay modified with the LMO amount
for BLKD (4%) at three different water contentsoptimum mois-
ture content (OMC) and 2% of OMCwas compacted in a stan-
dard Proctor mold. Two specimens were prepared for every test. The
first specimen was used for monitoring the electrical properties with
time, and the second specimen was used to test penetration resis-
tance with the apparatus described in ASTM C 403-05. The test with
water content equal to OMC was repeated three times (4%L_OMC1,
4%L_OMC2, and 4%L_OMC3). The surface of the 4%L_OMC1
specimen was not sealed and was monitored for 1 week. Specimen
drying was thought to contribute to the observed behavior. To validate
TABLE 1 Chemical Composition of BLKD and CLKD as Provided
by Supplier
Buffington South Chicago
LKD Characteristic % Value % Value
Available lime 32.2 11.3
Ca(OH)2 calculated 42.52 14.94
Magnesium 1.65 27.73
Hydroxide equivalent 3.03 50.98
Total equivalents as Ca(OH)2 30 45.55 65.92
103
this supposition, the surface of the 4%L_OMC2 and 4%L_OMC3
specimens were sealed with wax and were monitored for 28 days.
The conductivity was measured every hour for the first week, and
thereafter every day for 28 days. The second specimen prepared in
each trial was used to find the penetration resistance just after com-
paction, 24 h after compaction, and 1 week after compaction. Only
one trial was performed for tests with water contents 2% OMC. Sim-
ilar tests were conducted on Orchard clay modified with 2% BLKD
at its OMC and 6% BLKD at water contents equivalent to OMC and
OMC+2%. These specimens were monitored for only 1 week.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Material Properties
Table 2 presents the basic engineering properties of Orchard clay.
From Table 2 we can observe that LMO with CLKD is higher than
that with BLKD, which proves again that BLKD has a greater
amount of available lime than does CLKD. The X-ray diffraction
patterns for BLKD in both its dry and hydrated forms are pre-
sented in Figure 2. The chemical composition of the LKD based
on the d-values of diffraction peaks is also shown in Figure 2. In
Figure 2 that intensity of the quicklime peaks (peaks 1) decreased
in hydrated specimens, whereas the peaks of Ca(OH)2 (peaks 2)
increased at the same time and indicates that the hydration of avail-
able quicklime. X-ray diffraction tests performed with CLKD also
yielded similar results.
Compaction Behavior
Figure 3 shows the compaction behavior of Orchard clay modified
with various amounts of BLKD. From Figure 3 we can observe that
the addition of 2% and 4% of BLKD resulted in an increase in OMC
and a decrease in dmax when compared with the natural soil. With the
addition of 6% BLKD, the OMC decreased back toward the OMC of
the natural soil, and the dry unit weight further decreased. On addi-
tion of 8% BLKD, a significant additional decrease in OMC occurs,
and there is an increase in dry unit weight when compared to 6%
BLKD. Tests conducted on Orchard clay modified with various
amounts of CLKD yielded similar results. It can be concluded from
these observations that the compaction behavior of modified soils is
a function of the amount of LKD.
The OMC of the soil is affected by the fraction of clay-sized par-
ticles. The larger the fraction of these particles, the higher the OMC
becomes. The soil tends to behave more like a granular soil with the
addition of lime as a result of hydration, flocculation, and agglom-
TABLE 2 Properties of Orchard Clay
Property Orchard Clay
Particle size analysis Sand = 28%, silt = 47%, clay = 25%
Liquid limit 35
Plasticity index 19
AASHTO classification A-6 (11)
USCS classification Lean clay (CL)
Compaction characteristics dmax = 113 lb/ft3, OMC = 16.5 %
Soil pH In distilled water = 7.74; in 0.01M CaCl2
LMO BLKD = 4%, CLKD = 7%
104 Transportation Research Record 1952

40000
BLKD_1

Ca C O3

Ca O; Ca Mg (C O3)2
30000

Ca Mg (C O3)2
20000

Ca C O3; Ca S O4

Ca Mg (C O3)2; Ca S O4
Ca O

Ca C O3; Si O2
Ca C O3; Ca S O4
Ca (OH)2

Ca Mg (C O3)2

Ca S O4

Ca C O3
Ca (OH)2
10000

Ca S O4
Si O2

Ca S O4
Ca S O4
Counts

BLKD_Hydrated-Cycle1
Ca C O3

40000
Ca (OH)2
Ca (OH)2

Ca Mg (C O3)2; Ca S O4 !2 H2 O

Ca C O3; Si O2; Ca S O4 !2 H2 O
Ca C O3; Ca S O4 !2 H2 O
Ca C O3; Ca S O4

Ca (OH)2; Ca S O4

20000

20 30 40 50
Position (2Theta)

FIGURE 2 X-ray diffraction patterns for dry and hydrated BLKD.

eration. With the addition of small amounts of LKD, the reactions
between LKD and the clay particles are not complete. The increase of
effective particle size (flocculation and agglomeration) is not signifi-
cant, but the addition of LKD increases the fraction of fine particles,
causing the OMC to increase. With further addition of LKD, the reac-
tions between LKD and soil are more pronounced, the effective par-
ticle size changes are significant, and the soil tends to behave more
like a granular soil and causes the OMC to decrease. In addition,
the higher pH environment in the modified soil changes the surface
charge distribution in the clay soil particles, resulting in an increase
in repulsion between particle layers. This, along with changes in the
particle size distribution, causes a decrease in maximum dry density.
From the plots in Figure 3, it is clear that the use of density and
water content measurements for compaction quality control on mod-
ified soils is insufficient because the properties of the modified soil
are different from those of the parent materials.
Daita, Drnevich, Kim, and Chen 105

114

113 0%LKD
2%LKD
0%LKD 4%LKD
112
6%LKD
8%LKD 2%LKD 8%LKD
111
Dry Unit Weight, d (lb/ft3)

4%LKD

110 6%LKD

109

108

107

106

105
1 lb/ft3 = 0.16 kN/m3
104
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Water Content, w (%)

FIGURE 3 Compaction behavior of BLKD-modified Orchard clay.

Electrical Properties ing amounts of LKD. The hydration of LKD provides more free ions
in the pore water, which increases the electrical conductivity of the
TDR measurements were conducted after compaction. Figure 4 soil. The higher the amount of LKD, the higher will be the electrical
shows the electrical conductivity measured just after compaction conductivity.
for different water contents of Orchard clay modified with various The initial conductivity will decrease with time as a result of the
amounts of BLKD. The electrical conductivity increases with increas- physicochemical reactions shown in Figure 5, where the variation

200 8% LKD
0%BLKD
y = 13.11x - 84.92
180 4%BLKD 6% LKD
R2 = 0.96
6%BLKD
y = 14.79x - 84.39
160 8%BLKD
R2 = 1.00
Electrical Conductivity, ECb (mS/m)

140
4% LKD
120
y = 10.53x - 55.31
R2 = 0.96
100

80

60 0% LKD
y = 2.96x + 5.68
40
R2 = 0.88
20

0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Water Content, w (%)

FIGURE 4 Linear regressions between electrical conductivity measured immediately after compaction
and water content for BLKD-modified Orchard clay.
106
200
6%_19%w
180
6%L_OMC
160
4%L_19%w
Electrical Conductivtiy, ECb (mS/m)
140 4%L_OMC2
4%L_OMC3
120 4%L_15%w
2%L_OMC
100
80
60
40
20
0
1 10
FIGURE 5 Variation in electrical conductivity with time for LKD-modified Orchard clay.
in electrical conductivity is plotted versus the log of time for all the
specimens tested. It is evident from Figure 5 that electrical conduc-
tivity at any time is a function of both water content and the amount
of LKD. The electrical conductivity decreases with time for all the
modified specimens. The data for the 4%L_OMC1 specimen without
any wax seal decrease faster in comparison with data for other sealed
specimens with the same initial water content and amount of LKD.
The difference can be explained by the drying of the soil specimen
during monitoring.
The electrical conductivity of the natural soil at similar water con-
tents, as seen in Figure 4, is very low (about 40 to 60 mS/m) and
does not change with time. The decrease in the electrical conduc-
tivity with time for modified soils is caused by both short-term reac-
tions (flocculation and cation exchange) and long-term reactions.
Figure 6 shows a plot between normalized net decrease of electrical
conductivity and time, where the normalized net change of electri-
cal conductivity is defined as ECb(t) = [ECb1 ECb(t)]/ECb1 where
ECb1 is the initial electrical conductivity (the first measurement after
compaction) and ECb(t) is the electrical conductivity measured
with time. The net change in electrical conductivity appears to be a
measure of the pozzolanic activity of a modified soil at any given
time. From Figure 5 we observe that plots of specimens with 4% LKD
all follow the same trend and merge into a single curve. The plots for
2% and 6% LKD follow different paths. For the same amount of
LKD, the pozzolanic activity of a soil with a higher percentage of
fines would be significant in comparison with that of a soil with a
very small amount of fines.
The apparent dielectric constants of all the specimens with the
same water content are very close to each other. The apparent dielec-
tric constant decreases slightly, but not significantly during monitor-
ing. Apparent dielectric constant measured by TDR is an indicator
of free water in the soil. The curing process in stabilized soil appar-
ently does not change the free water content. The observation of
Transportation Research Record 1952
4%L_OMC1
4%L_OMC2
4%L_OMC3
4%L_15%w
4%L_19%w
2%L_OMC
6%L_OMC
6%L_19%w
4%L_OMC1
100 1000 10000 100000
Time, t (min)
apparent dielectric constant agrees well with the measurement of
oven-dried water content. There is no decrease in water content for
sealed specimens before and after monitoring.
Strength Increase
The plot between the penetration resistance obtained from the needle
penetrometer test ASTM D1558-04 and the electrical conductivity
for all the specimens tested is shown in Figure 7. From Figure 7 we
observe that the curve between resistance and conductivity is linear
for high electrical conductivities (which corresponds to times shortly
after compaction) and then flattens as the rate of increase in strength
decreases with time. For 4% BLKD-modified Orchard clay, at a
given value of electrical conductivity, the penetration resistances fall
within a narrow range of values. In comparison, the penetration resis-
tance of specimens with 2% and 6% BLKD at a given value of elec-
trical conductivity are lower and higher than that of specimens with
4% LKD. With the knowledge of the amount of LKD, this graph
works as a tool for estimating the penetration resistance of modi-
fied Orchard clay from the measured values of electrical conduc-
tivity. Further testing on other soils should check whether a unique
relationship exits between electrical conductivity and penetration
resistance.
Estimate LKD Percentage with
Electrical Conductivity
The percentage of LKD in the soil is important for quality control in
the field. The results of the monitoring tests indicate that electrical
conductivity can be used to estimate the amount of LKD present in
a modified soil. Generally, field quality control testing will be done
Daita, Drnevich, Kim, and Chen 107

Time, t (min)
1 10 100 1000 10000
0

0.1
4%L_OMC2
Normalized ECb = (ECbt=0-ECbt)/ECbt

4%L_OMC3
0.2
4%L_15%w
4%L_19%w
0.3 2%L_OMC
6%L_OMC

0.4 6%L_19%w

0.5

0.6

0.7

FIGURE 6 Normalized electrical conductivity of BLKD-modified Orchard clay with time.

within 1 or 2 days after chemical modification. The conductivity where ECb(t) is the conductivity at time t after the first measurement,
measured in the compacted specimens with time was fitted with the and B and A are fitting constants.
hyperbolic equation Figure 8 shows how A and B vary with the amount of LKD. The
calibration constant B denotes the maximum decrease of electrical
Bt conductivity, and B/A denotes the initial gradient of the decrease of
ECb (t ) = ECb1 (1)
A+t conductivity. B increases with the amount of LKD. The mean value

7000
6%L_OMC
4%L_15%w 4%L_OMC2
4%L_OMC3
6000 4%L_OMC3
4%L_OMC2 4%L_15%w
Penetration Resistance (psi)

4%L_19%w
5000
2%L_OMC
6%L_OMC
4%L_19%w
4000

3000
2%L_OMC

2000

1 lb/in.2 =6.89 kN/m2

1000
60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Electrical Conductivtiy, ECb (mS/m)

FIGURE 7 Penetration resistance and electrical conductivity for LKD-modified Orchard clay.
108 Transportation Research Record 1952

100 is dependent on the parent soil and characteristics of the LKD used.
The validation of the method needs to be verified with other soils
B: mS/m
and types of chemical stabilizers.
80 A: hours
A and B Value

60 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

X-ray diffraction tests identified the chemical composition of LKD

40
20
0 conductivity measured with a TDR apparatus is directly correlated to
0 1 2 3 4 5
LKD Percent, %
FIGURE 8 Fitting constants for electrical conductivity with time.
of A is 5.56 with a deviation of 1.0. Normalizing Equation 1 with B
and A results in
T of modified soils. Therefore, simple electrical conductivity measure-
ECb (T ) =
1+ T
where ECb(T) = (ECb1 ECb(T))/B and T = t/A.
The normalized curves are plotted in Figure 9. The hyperbolic
function fits all the curves very well and is quite independent of the
amount of LKD in the soil.
Because the B value is strongly related to the LKD percentage in
the soil, it can be used to estimate the LKD percentage. If two TDR
measurements are taken at the same place and at different times after
construction in the field and assume that A = 5.56, the initial electri-
cal conductivity and the B value can be calculated with Equation 1.
With the B value and the calibration plot (e.g., Figure 8), it is possi-
ble to find the percentage of LKD. The calibration plot of the B value
and also justified its use as a chemical modifier. The compaction
behavior of LKD-modified soils is dependent on the amount of LKD,
the water content of the modified soil, and various other factors. From
the results of the long-term monitoring tests, the relationship between
normalized electrical conductivity and time validate that electrical
6 7 both the amount of LKD and the water content. In addition, electri-
cal conductivity is strongly correlated with the needle penetration
resistance of an LKD-modified soil. Dynamic cone penetration tests
should be performed along with TDR tests in the field to develop
similar correlations between electrical conductivity and penetration
resistance for field quality control.
The test results presented here validate that electrical conductiv-
ity is dependent on various key parameters affecting the properties
(2)
ments can be used for field quality control of chemically modified
soils. The authors are currently working on extending these obser-
vations to various soils by testing subgrades modified with LKD.
Future research will attempt to develop a model that relates the elec-
trical conductivity, time, and amount of lime or LKD of a modified
soil based on the field test results.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Joint Transportation Research Pro-
gram administered by the Indiana Department of Transportation and
Purdue University. The authors are grateful to the FHWAIndiana

0.8 4%L_OMC2 4%L_OMC3

4%L_15%w 4%L_19%w

0.6 2%L_OMC 6%L_OMC

ECb(T)

T/(1+T)

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
T

FIGURE 9 Hyperbolic model fit for normalized electrical conductivity with time.
Daita, Drnevich, Kim, and Chen
Department of TransportationJoint Transportation Research Proj-
ect for supporting this research. They appreciate the input of the
Study Advisory Committee members: Nayyar Zia Siddiqui, P. A.;
Ron Heustis; Greg Pankow (INDOT); Mark Behrens (Schneider
Corp.); Doug McPherson (Mt. Carmel Sand and Gravel); and Val
Straumins (FHWA). The authors acknowledge the assistance pro-
vided by lab manager Janet Lovell, Adam Prochaska, Joon Ho
Hwang, and Uma Shankar Balunaini in this research.
REFERENCES
1. State of Art Report 5: Lime Stabilization. TRB, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C., 1987.
2. Thompson, M. R. Soil Stabilization of Pavement Systems: State of the Art.
Technical Report. Department of the Army, Construction Engineering
Research Laboratory, Champaign, Ill., 1970.
3. Dumbleton, M. J. Investigations to Assess the Potentialities of Lime for
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The contents of this paper reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible
for the facts and the accuracy of the data presented here and do not necessarily
reflect the official views or policies of the FHWA or the Indiana Department of Trans-
portation. Furthermore, the contents do not constitute a standard, specification,
or regulation.
The Cementitious Stabilization Committee sponsored publication of this paper.