Mesoamerican

Mesoamerican civilization, the complex of indigenous cultures that developed in parts of Mexico and
Central America prior to Spanish exploration and conquest in the 16th century. In the organization of its
kingdoms and empires, the sophistication of its monuments and cities, and the extent and refinement of its
intellectual accomplishments, the Mesoamerican civilization, along with the comparable Andean
civilization farther south, constitutes a New World counterpart to those of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia,
and China.

Archaeologists have dated human presence in Mesoamerica to possibly as early as 21,000 bce (though the
dating of the Valsequillo finds on which that early date is based remains controversial). By 11,000 bce,
hunting-and-gathering peoples occupied most of the New World south of the glacial ice cap covering
northern North America. The cooler climate of this period as compared with that of the present day
supported a grassland vegetation, especially in the highland valleys, that was ideal for large herds of
grazing animals. The shift toward sedentary agriculture apparently began after about 7000 bce, when a
dramatic global warming caused the glaciers to retreat and tropical forests to overtake the Mesoamerican
grasslands.
The gradual domestication of successful food plantsmost notably a mutant corn (maize) with husks,
dating to c. 5300 bceover succeeding millennia gave rise to more or less permanent village farming life
by about 1500 bce. In addition to corn, crops included beans, squashes, chili peppers, and cotton. As
agricultural productivity improved, the rudiments of civilization emerged during the period designated by
archaeologists as the Early Formative (1500900 bce). Pottery, which had appeared in some areas of the
region as early as 2300 bce, perhaps introduced from Andean cultures to the south, took on varied and
sophisticated forms. The idea of the temple-pyramid seems to have taken root during this period.
Corn cultivation in one areathe humid and fertile lowlands of southern Veracruz and Tabasco, in Mexico
was sufficiently productive to permit a major diversion of human energy into other activities, such as
the arts and commerce. Struggles for control of this rich but limited farmland resulted in a dominant
landowning class that shaped the first great Mesoamerican civilization, the Olmec.
San Lorenzo, the oldest known Olmec centre, dates to about 1150 bce, a time when the rest of
Mesoamerica was at best on a Neolithic level. The site is most noted for its extraordinary stone
monuments, especially the colossal heads measuring up to 9 feet (nearly 3 metres) in height and
possibly representing players in a ritual ball game (see tlachtli).
The period known as the Middle Formative (900300 bce), during which the La Venta urban complex rose
and flourished, was one of increased cultural regionalism. The Zapotec people, for example, attained a
high level of development at Monte Albn, producing the first writing and written calendar in
Mesoamerica. However, at this site, as well as in the Valley of Mexico, the Olmec presence can be widely
detected.
In the subsequent Late Formative and Classic periods, lasting until about 700900 ce, the well-known
Maya, Zapotec, Totonac, and Teotihuacn civilizations developed distinctive variations on their shared
Olmec heritage. The Maya, for example, brought astronomy, mathematics, calendar making, and
hieroglyphic writing, as well as monumental architecture, to their highest expression in the New World. At
the same time, Teotihuacn, in the Valley of Mexico, became the capital of a political and commercial
empire encompassing much of Mesoamerica.
Teotihuacn power diminished after about 600, and for the next several centuries numerous states vied for
supremacy. The Toltecs of
Tula, in central Mexico,
prevailed from about 900
to 1200 (the Early
Postclassic Period).
Following Toltec decline,
a further period of unrest
in the Late Postclassic
Period lasted until 1428,
when the Aztec defeated
the rival city of
Azcapotzalco and became
the dominant force in
central Mexico. This last
native Mesoamerican
empire fell to the
Spaniards, led by Hernn
Corts, in 1521.
Egypt
Egypt is officially known as the Arab Republic of Egypt.
In 2012, the population of Egypt was just over 83 million (83,688,164).
Egypt is bordered by the Gaza Strip, Israel, Libya and Sudan as well as the Mediterranean Sea and the
Red Sea.
The Sinai Peninsula in Egypt spans across two continents, Africa and Asia.
Mount Catherine is the highest mountain in Egypt, standing 2,629m high (8625 ft).
The official language of Egypt is Arabic, but others languages such as English and French are also
understood by many.
The capital city is Cairo, which also has the largest population. Other major cities include Alexandria
and Giza.
Egypt is a very dry country. The Sahara and Libyan Desert make up most of the area of Egypt.
Egypt experiences natural hazards such as droughts, earthquakes, flash floods, landslides, windstorms
(called khamsin), dust storms and sandstorms.
The longest river in the world, the Nile, runs through Egypt.
Egypt is famous for its ancient civilization, the Ancient Egyptians, who date back to around 3150 B.C.
Egypt is home the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
The most popular sport in Egypt is football (soccer).

Prehistoric Egypt pre3100 BC

Ancient Egypt
Early Dynastic Period 31002686 BC
Old Kingdom 26862181 BC
1st Intermediate Period 21812055 BC
Middle Kingdom 20551650 BC
2nd Intermediate Period 16501550 BC
New Kingdom 15501069 BC
3rd Intermediate Period 1069664 BC
Late Period 664332 BC
Achaemenid Egypt 525332 BC
Classical antiquity
Macedonian and Ptolemaic Egypt 33230 BC
Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC641 AD
Sasanian Egypt 619629
Middle Ages
Arab Egypt 641969
Fatimid Egypt 9691171
Ayyubid Egypt 11711250
Mamluk Egypt 12501517
Early modern
Ottoman Egypt 15171867
French occupation 17981801
Egypt under Muhammad Ali 18051882
Khedivate of Egypt 18671914
Modern Egypt
British occupation 18821922
Sultanate of Egypt 19141922
Kingdom of Egypt 19221953
Republic 1953presen
Indus
Indus (nds), chief river of Pakistan, c.1,900 mi (3,060 km) long, rising in the Kailas range
in the Tibetan Himalayas, and flowing W across Jammu and Kashmir, India, then SW through
Pakistan to the Arabian Sea SE of Karachi. The upper Indus, fed by snow and glacial
meltwater from the Karakorum, Hindu Kush, and Himalayan mts., flows through deep gorges
and scenic valleys. The turbulence of its rushing waters makes it unsuitable for navigation.

The Indus then flows onto the dry Punjab plains of Pakistan and becomes a broad, slow-
moving, silt-laden stream. There it receives the combined waters of the five rivers of the
Punjab (Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej), its chief affluent. In Pakistan the Indus is
extensively used for irrigation and hydroelectric-power generation. The Jinnah, Sukker, and
Kotri barrages feed the main Indus canals in W Punjab and Sind. The irrigated plain is
Pakistan's most densely populated region and its main agricultural area; wheat, corn, rice,
millet, dates, and fruits are the chief crops.

The lower Indus is navigable for small boats but is little used for transportation, at least
since the development of railroads. The extensive use of the Indus's waters for irrigation has
greatly reduced the flow of freshwater in the lower Indus, leading to the encroachment of
saltwater up the lower river and the loss to the Sind of millions of acres of surrounding
farmland to the sea or salt and of hundreds of thousands of acres of ecologically important
mangrove swamp.

The river valley was the site of the prehistoric Indus valley civilization, and the Indus was
once considered to be the western boundary of India. The use of the Indus and its tributaries
has been a source of conflict between Pakistan and India, although a treaty by which the
waters were to be shared was signed in 1960; the use of the river system's waters also is an
issue between the provinces of Punjab and Sind within Pakistan.
China
China is a populous nation in East Asia whose vast landscape encompasses grassland, desert, mountains,
lakes, rivers and more than 14,000km of coastline. Capital Beijing mixes modern architecture with historic
sites such as the Forbidden City palace complex and Tiananmen Square. Shanghai is a skyscraper-studded
global financial center. The iconic Great Wall of China runs east-west across the country's north.
Capital: Beijing
President: Xi Jinping
Population: 1.357 billion (2013) World Bank
Currency: Renminbi
Official language: Standard Mandarin

China is officially known as the People's Republic of China.

China has the largest population in the world, with over 1.3 billion people (1,343,239,923) as of
July 2012.

China is the 3rd largest country by area at 9,706,961 sq km (3,747,879 sq miles).

China belongs to the continent of Asia. Bordering countries include Afghanistan, Bhutan, Burma,
India, Kazakhstan, North Korea, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan,
and Vietnam.

The summit of Mt Everest marks the border between China and Nepal.

There are many different languages spoken in China, including Mandarin, Yue, Wu, Minbei,
Minnan, Xiang, Gan and Hakka.

The capital city is Beijing, while the most populated city is Shanghai. Other major cities include
Chongqing, Shenzhen and Guangzhou.

47% of the population live in urban areas.

China experiences typhoons every year and also suffers from floods, tsunamis, earthquakes and
droughts.

China has the fourth longest river in the world, the Yangtze River, which reaches 5,797km (3,602
miles) in length. It also has the sixth longest, the Yellow River, stretching 4,667km (2,900 miles).

China is the second largest economy in the world, after the United States of America.

In 2003, China became the third country to successfully send a person to space.

The Great Wall of China is the largest man made structure in the world, stretching an incredible
8,850 kilometres (5,500 miles).

The famous Giant Panda is found near the Yangtze River in China.

China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympic Games in Beijing.