CONTENTS

Introduction
Block diagram explanation
Output video explanation
Circuit diagram explanation
Components
Relay
Current transformer
Ac motor
Remote control
IR sensor
Electrical Conductor
Conclusion
References

INTRODUCTION

The project is designed to drive an induction motor for the required application in
forward and reverse directions using wireless technology. For example, an exhaust fan
can be used in both the directions to get fresh air in and throw hot air out. This can be
used in case of conventional exhaust a fan that rotates in one direction only.
This proposed system demonstrates a technology to rotate a squril cage induction motor
in both clockwise and counter clockwise direction. It also has the provision to control the
direction of the motor using a TV remote. When a TV remote button is pressed, it sends
an IR signal in RC5 code which is received by an IR receiver called TSOP-1738. The
microcontroller receives the infrared signal from the IR remote, the code of which is
identified by the receiver to operate a set of relays. The relays switch ON/OFF the
appropriate relay to power a split phase induction motor to achieve desired direction by
interchanging leading supply phase from the main winding to the auxiliary winding.
Output from the TSOP is fed to a microcontroller of 8051 family which is interfaced to a
relay driver IC. Thereafter, the relay switching is done by-stable mode for a split-phase
induction motor to rotate in forward and reverse directions.

Block diagram:
HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS: SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS:

8051 series Microcontroller, Crystal, IR Sensor, Relay Keil Compiler

Driver IC, Relays, Transformer, Diodes, Voltage
Language: Embedded C or Assembly.
Regulator, Capacitors, LED, Resistors, TV Remote.

Block diagram explanation:

The block diagram representing the bidirectional rotation of an induction motor with a
remote control device. The complete block diagram is divided into different sections-
power supply section, control section and the output section. The power supply unit
consists of the step down transformer which attenuates the high voltage AC to low
voltage AC, the rectifier unit along with a filter converts this AC voltage to unregulated
or pulsating DC voltage signal, the regulator produces a regulated DC voltage. Some
parts of the circuit like the microcontroller are given the regulated DC signal whereas the
other devices are given the unregulated DC supply. The output from the regulator is fed
to the relay driver where two relays are connected to the relay driver IC to operate the
motor in either direction. We are giving IR signals from the IR sensors as an input to the
microcontroller and a T.V remote is used to send the signal to the sensor from some
distance. The direction of the motor is observed by the induction motor in the output
section. We have used split phase induction motor in this project.

Circuit diagram explanation:

The project uses a split phase, single phase induction motor of capacitor run type. The
split phase motors have one of the coils that gets direct AC supply while the other gets
the supply through one capacitor and the motor rotates in one particular direction. While
the coils are interchanged, the motor starts rotating in the other direction. This phase
reversal of power is achieved by a pair of relays namely relay 1 & relay 2. While the
neutral of the supply is given directly to the common point of induction motor
windings( main winding and auxiliary winding) the phase is supplied through either
relay 1 (or) relay 2 to change the direct supply situation to main winding and auxiliary in
series with capacitor. While relay 2 is off & Relay 1 is ON then the power to the first
winding is given directly from the supply and the power to the second winding is fed
from capacitor. While relay 2 ON and relay 1 is off the power to the main winding is fed
through the capacitor and the auxiliary windings gets direct supply. Such alternative
operation of the relay is achieved by the program from the MC output driving the relay
through relay driver IC. One infrared sensor is used to receive the coded signals from a
standard T.V Remote. The output of the IR sensor is connected to the MC. While button 1
is pressed from the T.V Remote the logical output from driver IC are such that only one
relay is switched ON resulting the motor to run anti clockwise. While 3 is pressed from
the remote the logic changes the other relay operates to make the motor run clockwise.
The entire ckt is powered by an inbuilt power supply.
Output video explanation:
This project is designed to operate the motor in bidirectional rotation i.e. clockwise
direction and anti clockwise direction which is based on microcontroller. When we switch
ON the device the IR sensors will receive signal and the remote is operated through the
IR sensor signal .we have arranged the complete system in such a way that when we
supply the power to the IR sensor the LED glows. The operation of the motor is
controlled by a standard T.V remote through IR signals. When we press a particular
number in the remote the motor starts to operate. Suppose we pressed 1 on the remote the
motor rotates in clockwise direction and when we press 2 then the motor will stop
rotating and if we want to rotate the motor in anti clockwise direction then we have to
press the number 3 on remote and when we press 4 on remote the motor will stop
rotating. The complete output is done by using induction motor through relays through
relay driver.

COMPONENTS
1. Relay:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to
mechanically operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-
state relays. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a separate low-
power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays
were used in long distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal
coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were used
extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.

Automotive-style miniature relay, dust cover is taken off

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric
motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with
no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with
calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to
protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these
functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

Magnetic latching relays require one pulse of coil power to move their contacts in one
direction, and another, redirected pulse to move them back. Repeated pulses from the
same input have no effect. Magnetic latching relays are useful in applications where
interrupted power should not be able to transition the contacts.
Magnetic latching relays can have either single or dual coils. On a single coil device, the
relay will operate in one direction when power is applied with one polarity, and will reset
when the polarity is reversed. On a dual coil device, when polarized voltage is applied to
the reset coil the contacts will transition. AC controlled magnetic latch relays have single
coils that employ steering diodes to differentiate between operate and reset commands.

Basic design and operation:

Simple electromechanical relay.
Small "cradle" relay often used in electronics. The "cradle" term refers to the shape of the
relay's armature. A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped
around a soft iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic
flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two contacts in
the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or
more sets of moving contacts. The armature is held in place by a spring so that when the
relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of
the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other
relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in
the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of
the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the
printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either
makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the
set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the
contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the
current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half
as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a
spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a
high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would
otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Such
diodes were not widely used before the application of transistors as relay drivers, but
soon became ubiquitous as early germanium transistors were easily destroyed by this
surge. Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case.
If the relay is driving a large, or especially a reactive load, there may be a similar problem
of surge currents around the relay output contacts. In this case a snubber circuit (a
capacitor and resistor in series) across the contacts may absorb the surge. Suitably rated
capacitors and the associated resistor are sold as a single packaged component for this
commonplace use.
If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), some method is used
to split the flux into two out-of-phase components which add together, increasing the
minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle. Typically this is done with a small
copper "shading ring" crimped around a portion of the core that creates the delayed, out-
of-phase component,which holds the contacts during the zero crossings of the control
voltage.

Applications
A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging Relays are used wherever it is
necessary to control a high power or high voltage circuit with a low power circuit,
especially when galvanic isolation is desirable. The first application of relays was in long
telegraph lines, where the weak signal received at an intermediate station could control a
contact, regenerating the signal for further transmission. High-voltage or high-current
devices can be controlled with small, low voltage wiring and pilots switches. Operators
can be isolated from the high voltage circuit. Low power devices such as microprocessors
can drive relays to control electrical loads beyond their direct drive capability. In an
automobile, a starter relay allows the high current of the cranking motor to be controlled
with small wiring and contacts in the ignition key.
Electromechanical switching systems including Strowger and Crossbar telephone
exchanges made extensive use of relays in ancillary control circuits. The Relay Automatic
Telephone Company also manufactured telephone exchanges based solely on relay
switching techniques designed by Gotthilf Ansgarius Betulander. The first public relay
based telephone exchange in the UK was installed in Fleetwood on 15 July 1922 and
remained in service until 1959.
The use of relays for the logical control of complex switching systems like telephone
exchanges was studied by Claude Shannon, who formalized the application of Boolean
algebra to relay circuit design in A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits.
Relays can perform the basic operations of Boolean combinatorial logic. For example, the
boolean AND function is realised by connecting normally open relay contacts in series,
the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in parallel. Inversion of a logical
input can be done with a normally closed contact. Relays were used for control of
automated systems for machine tools and production lines. The Ladder programming
language is often used for designing relay logic networks. Early electro-mechanical
computers such as the ARRA, Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3 used relays for
logic and working registers. However, electronic devices proved faster and easier to use.
Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they
are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste-
handling machinery. Electromechanical protective relays are used to detect overload and
other faults on electrical lines by opening and closing circuit breakers.

Relay application considerations

Several 30-contact relays in "Connector" circuits in mid 20th century 1XB switch and
5XB switch telephone exchanges; cover removed on one
Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires evaluation of many
different factors:
Number and type of contacts normally open, normally closed, (double-throw)
Contact sequence "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For example, the old
style telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so that the connection didn't get
dropped while dialing the number.
Contact current rating small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors are rated
for up to 3000 amperes, alternating or direct current
Contact voltage rating typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600 VAC, automotive
types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15,000 V
Operating lifetime, useful life - the number of times the relay can be expected to operate
reliably. There is both a mechanical life and a contact life. The contact life is affected by
the type of load switched. Breaking load current causes undesired arcing between the
contacts, eventually leading to contacts that weld shut or contacts that fail due erosion by
the arc.
Coil voltage machine-tool relays usually 24 VDC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays for
switchgear may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils,
Coil current - Minimum current required for reliable operation and minimum holding
current, as well as, effects of power dissipation on coil temperature, at various duty
cycles. "Sensitive" relays operate on a few milliamperes
Package/enclosure open, touch-safe, double-voltage for isolation between circuits,
explosion proof, outdoor, oil and splash resistant, washable for printed circuit board
assembly
Operating environment - minimum and maximum operating temperature and other
environmental considerations such as effects of humidity and salt
Assembly Some relays feature a sticker that keeps the enclosure sealed to allow PCB
post soldering cleaning, which is removed once assembly is complete.
Mounting sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount, through-panel mount,
enclosure for mounting on walls or equipment
Switching time where high speed is required
"Dry" contacts when switching very low level signals, special contact materials may
be needed such as gold-plated contacts
Contact protection suppress arcing in very inductive circuits
Coil protection suppress the surge voltage produced when switching the coil current
Isolation between coil contacts
Aerospace or radiation-resistant testing, special quality assurance
Expected mechanical loads due to acceleration some relays used in aerospace
applications are designed to function in shock loads of 50 g or more
Size - smaller relays often resist mechanical vibration and shock better than larger relays,
because of the lower inertia of the moving parts and the higher natural frequencies of
smaller parts. Larger relays often handle higher voltage and current than smaller relays.
Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot lamps, and test buttons
Regulatory approvals
Stray magnetic linkage between coils of adjacent relays on a printed circuit board. There
are many considerations involved in the correct selection of a control relay for a
particular application. These considerations include factors such as speed of operation,
sensitivity, and hysteresis. Although typical control relays operate in the 5 ms to 20 ms
range, relays with switching speeds as fast as 100 us are available. Reed relays which are
actuated by low currents and switch fast are suitable for controlling small currents.
As with any switch, the contact current (unrelated to the coil current) must not exceed a
given value to avoid damage. In high-inductance circuits such as motors, other issues
must be addressed. When an inductance is connected to a power source, an input surge
current or electromotor starting current larger than the steady-state current exists. When
the circuit is broken, the current cannot change instantaneously, which creates a
potentially damaging arc across the separating contacts.
Consequently, for relays used to control inductive loads, we must specify the maximum
current that may flow through the relay contacts when it actuates, the make rating; the
continuous rating; and the break rating. The make rating may be several times larger than
the continuous rating, which is itself larger than the break rating.
Derating factors
Type of load % of rated value
Resistive 75
Inductive 35
Motor 20
Filament 10
Capacitive 75
Control relays should not be operated above rated temperature because of resulting
increased degradation and fatigue. Common practice is to derate 20 degrees Celsius from
the maximum rated temperature limit. Relays operating at rated load are affected by their
environment. Oil vapor may greatly decrease the contact life, and dust or dirt may cause
the contacts to burn before the end of normal operating life. Control relay life cycle varies
from 50,000 to over one million cycles depending on the electrical loads on the contacts,
duty cycle, application, and the extent to which the relay is derated. When a control relay
is operating at its derated value, it is controlling a smaller value of current than its
maximum make and break ratings. This is often done to extend the operating life of a
control relay. The table lists the relay derating factors for typical industrial control
applications.
Undesired arcing
Switching while "wet" (under load) causes undesired arcing between the contacts,
eventually leading to contacts that weld shut or contacts that fail due to a buildup of
contact surface damage caused by the destructive arc energy. Inside the 1ESS switch
matrix switch and certain other high-reliability designs, the reed switches are always
switched "dry" to avoid that problem, leading to much longer contact life.
Without adequate contact protection, the occurrence of electric current arcing causes
significant degradation of the contacts, which suffer significant and visible damage.
Every time a relay transitions either from a closed to an open state (break arc) or from an
open to a closed state (make arc & bounce arc), under load, an electrical arc can occur
between the two contact points (electrodes) of the relay. In many situations, the break arc
is more energetic and thus more destructive, in particular with resistive-type loads.
However, inductive loads can cause more destructive make arcs. For example, with
standard electric motors, the start-up (inrush) current tends to be much greater than the
running current. This translates into enormous make arcs.
During an arc event, the heat energy contained in the electrical arc is very high (tens of
thousands of degrees Fahrenheit), causing the metal on the contact surfaces to melt, pool
and migrate with the current. The extremely high temperature of the arc cracks the
surrounding gas molecules creating ozone, carbon monoxide, and other compounds. The
arc energy slowly destroys the contact metal, causing some material to escape into the air
as fine particulate matter. This action causes the material in the contacts to degrade
quickly, resulting in device failure. This contact degradation drastically limits the overall
life of a relay to a range of about 10,000 to 100,000 operations, a level far below the
mechanical life of the same device, which can be in excess of 20 million operations.
2. Current Transformer:
A current transformer (CT) is a type of transformer that is used to measure AC Current. It
produces an alternating current (AC) in its secondary which is proportional to the AC
current in its primary. Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VTs) or
potential transformers (PTs), which are designed for measurement, are known as an
Instrument transformer.

Current Transformer
The main tasks of instrument transformers are:
To transform currents or voltages from a usually high value to a value easy to handle
for relays and instruments.
To insulate the metering circuit from the primary high voltage system.
To provide possibilities of standardizing the instruments and relays to a few rated
currents and voltages.
When the current to be measured is too high to measure directly or the system voltage of
the circuit is too high, a current transformer can be used to provide an isolated lower
current in its secondary which is proportional to the current in the primary circuit. The
induced secondary current is then suitable for measuring instruments or processing in
electronic equipment. Current transformers have very little effect on the primary circuit.
Current transformers are the current sensing units of the power system. The output of the
current transformers are used in electronic equipment and are widely used for metering
and protective relays in the electrical power industry.
Function
Basic operation of current transformer
SF6 110 kV current transformer TGFM series, Russia Current transformers used in
metering equipment for three-phase 400-ampere electricity supply Zero-phase-sequence
Current Transformer Like any transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding,
a core and a secondary winding, although some transformers, including current
transformers, use an air core. In principle, the only difference between a current
transformer and a voltage transformer (normal type) is that the former is fed with a
'constant' current while the latter is fed with a 'constant' voltage, where 'constant' has the
strict circuit theory meaning.
The alternating current in the primary produces an alternating magnetic field in the core,
which then induces an alternating current in the secondary. The primary circuit is largely
unaffected by the insertion of the CT. Accurate current transformers need close coupling
between the primary and secondary to ensure that the secondary current is proportional to
the primary current over a wide current range. The current in the secondary is the current
in the primary (assuming a single turn primary) divided by the number of turns of the
secondary. In the illustration on the right, 'I' is the current in the primary, 'B' is the
magnetic field, 'N' is the number of turns on the secondary, and 'A' is an AC ammeter.
Current transformers typically consist of a silicon steel ring core wound with many turns
of copper wire as shown in the illustration to the right. The conductor carrying the
primary current is passed through the ring. The CT's primary therefore consists of a
single 'turn'. The primary 'winding' may be a permanent part of the current transformer,
i.e. a heavy copper bar to carry current through the core. Window-type current
transformers (aka zero sequence current transformers, or ZSCT) are also common, which
can have circuit cables run through the middle of an opening in the core to provide a
single-turn primary winding. To assist accuracy, the primary conductor should be
centered in the aperture.
CTs are specified by their current ratio from primary to secondary. The rated secondary
current is normally standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT secondary
winding will supply an output current of 5 amperes when the primary winding current is
4000 amperes. This ratio can also be used to find the impedance or voltage on one side of
the transformer, given the appropriate value at the other side. For the 4000:5 CT, the
secondary impedance can be found as ZS = NZP = 800ZP, and the secondary voltage can
be found as VS = NVP = 800VP. In some cases, the secondary impedance is referred to
the primary side, and is found as ZS = N2ZP. Referring the impedance is done simply by
multiplying initial secondary impedance value by the current ratio. The secondary
winding of a CT can have taps to provide a range of ratios, five taps being common.
Shapes and sizes vary depending on the end user or switch gear manufacturer. Low-
voltage single ratio metering current transformers are either a ring type or plastic molded
case. Split-core current transformers either have a two-part core or a core with a
removable section. This allows the transformer to be placed around a conductor with
minimum disturbance. Split-core current transformers are typically used in low current
measuring instruments, often portable, battery-operated, and hand-held (see illustration
lower right).
Use
Many digital clamp meters utilize a current transformer for measuring alternating current
(AC). Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring
the operation of the power grid. Along with voltage leads, revenue-grade CTs drive the
electrical utility's watt-hour meter on virtually every building with three-phase service
and single-phase services greater than 200 amperes. High-voltage current transformers
are mounted on porcelain or polymer insulators to isolate them from ground. Some CT
configurations slip around the bushing of a high-voltage transformer or circuit breaker,
which automatically centers the conductor inside the CT window.
Current transformers can be mounted on the low voltage or high voltage leads of a power
transformer. Sometimes a section of a bus bar can be removed to replace a current
transformer. Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses. For example,
protection devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs to provide isolation
between metering and protection circuits, and allows current transformers with different
characteristics (accuracy, overload performance) to be used for the devices.
The burden (load) impedance should not exceed the specified maximum value to avoid
the secondary voltage exceeding the limits for the current transformer. The primary
current rating of a current transformer should not be exceeded or the core may enter its
non linear region and ultimately saturate. This would occur near the end of the first half
of each half (positive and negative) of the AC sine wave in the primary and would
compromise the accuracy.
Safety
Current transformers are often used to monitor hazardously high currents or currents at
hazardously high voltages, so great care must be taken in the design and use of CTs in
these situations. The secondary of a current transformer should not be disconnected from
its burden while current is in the primary, as the secondary will attempt to continue
driving current into an effective infinite impedance up to its insulation break-down
voltage and thus compromise operator safety. For certain current transformers this
voltage may reach several kilovolts and may cause arcing. Exceeding the secondary
voltage may also degrade the accuracy of the transformer or destroy it. Energizing a
current transformer with an open circuit secondary is the dual of energizing a voltage
transformer (normal type) with a short circuit secondary. In the first case the secondary
tries to produce an infinite voltage and in the second case the secondary tries to produce
an infinite current. Both scenarios can be dangerous and damage the transformer.
Accuracy
The accuracy of a CT is affected by a number of factors including:
Burden
Burden class/saturation class
Rating factor
Load
External electromagnetic fields
Temperature
Physical configuration
The selected tap, for multi-ratio CTs
Phase change
Capacitive coupling between primary and secondary
Resistance of primary and secondary
Core magnetizing current
Per the IEC standard, accuracy classes for various types of measurement are defined in
IEC 61869-1 as Classes 0.1, 0.2s, 0.2, 0.5, 0.5s, 1 and 3. The class designation is an
approximate measure of the CT's accuracy. The ratio (primary to secondary current) error
of a Class 1 CT is 1% at rated current; the ratio error of a Class 0.5 CT is 0.5% or less.
Errors in phase are also important especially in power measuring circuits. Each class has
an allowable maximum phase error for a specified load impedance. Current transformers
used for protective relaying also have accuracy requirements at overload currents in
excess of the normal rating to ensure accurate performance of relays during system faults.
A CT with a rating of 2.5L400 specifies with an output from its secondary winding of 20
times its rated secondary current (usually 5 A 20 = 100 A) and 400 V (IZ drop) its
output accuracy will be within 2.5 percent.
Burden
The secondary load of a current transformer is termed the "burden" to distinguish it from
the primary load. The burden in a CT metering circuit is the largely resistive impedance
presented to its secondary winding. Typical burden ratings for IEC CTs are 1.5 VA, 3 VA,
5 VA, 10 VA, 15 VA, 20 VA, 30 VA, 45 VA and 60 VA. ANSI/IEEE burden ratings are B-
0.1, B-0.2, B-0.5, B-1.0, B-2.0 and B-4.0. This means a CT with a burden rating of B-0.2
can tolerate an impedance of up to 0.2 on the secondary circuit before its accuracy falls
outside of its specification. These specification diagrams show accuracy parallelograms
on a grid incorporating magnitude and phase angle error scales at the CT's rated burden.
Items that contribute to the burden of a current measurement circuit are switch-blocks,
meters and intermediate conductors. The most common cause of excess burden
impedance is the conductor between the meter and the CT. When substation meters are
located far from the meter cabinets, the excessive length of cable creates a large
resistance. This problem can be reduced by using thicker cables and CTs with lower
secondary currents (1A), both of which will produce less voltage drop between the CT
and its metering devices.
Knee-point core-saturation voltage
The knee-point voltage of a current transformer is the magnitude of the secondary voltage
above which the output current ceases to linearly follow the input current within declared
accuracy. In testing, if a voltage is applied across the secondary terminals the
magnetizing current will increase in proportion to the applied voltage, until the knee point
is reached. The knee point is defined as the voltage at which a 10% increase in applied
voltage increases the magnetizing current by 50%. For voltages greater than the knee
point, the magnetizing current increases considerably even for small increments in
voltage across the secondary terminals. The knee-point voltage is less applicable for
metering current transformers as their accuracy is generally much higher, but constrained
within a very small range of the current transformer rating, typically 1.2 to 1.5 times rated
current. However, the concept of knee point voltage is very pertinent to protection current
transformers, since they are necessarily exposed to fault currents of 20 to 30 times rated
current.
Phase shift
Ideally, the primary and secondary currents of a current transformer should be in phase.
In practice, this is impossible, but, at normal power frequencies, phase shifts of a few
tenths of a degree are achievable, while simpler CTs may have phase shifts up to six
degrees. For current measurement, phase shift is immaterial as ammeters only display the
magnitude of the current. However, in wattmeters, energy meters, and power factor
meters, phase shift produces errors. For power and energy measurement, the errors are
considered to be negligible at unity power factor but become more significant as the
power factor approaches zero. At zero power factor, any indicated power is entirely due
to the current transformer's phase error. The introduction of electronic power and energy
meters has allowed current phase error to be calibrated out.
Special types
Specially constructed wideband current transformers are also used (usually with an
oscilloscope) to measure waveforms of high frequency or pulsed currents within pulsed
power systems. Unlike CTs used for power circuitry, wideband CTs are rated in output
volts per ampere of primary current. If the burden resistance is much less than inductive
impedance of the secondary winding at the measurement frequency then the current in
the secondary tracks the primary current and the transformer provides a current output
that is proportional to the measured current. On the other hand, if that condition is not
true, then the transformer is inductive and gives a differential output. The Rogowski coil
uses this effect and requires an external integrator in order to provide a voltage output
that is proportional to the measured current.
Standards
Ultimately, depending on client requirements, there are two main standards to which
current transformers are designed. IEC 61869-1 (in the past IEC 60044-1) & IEEE
C57.13 (ANSI), although the Canadian and Australian standards are also recognised.
High voltage types
Current transformers are used for protection, measurement and control in high-voltage
electrical substations and the electrical grid. Current transformers may be installed inside
switchgear or in apparatus bushings, but very often free-standing outdoor current
transformers are used. In a switchyard, live tank current transformers have a substantial
part of their enclosure energized at the line voltage and must be mounted on insulators.
Dead tank current transformers isolate the measured circuit from the enclosure. Live tank
CTs are useful because the primary conductor is short, which gives better stability and a
higher short-circuit current rating. The primary of the winding can be evenly distributed
around the magnetic core, which gives better performance for overloads and transients.
Since the major insulation of a live-tank current transformer is not exposed to the heat of
the primary conductors, insulation life and thermal stability is improved. A high-voltage
current transformer may contain several cores, each with a secondary winding, for
different purposes (such as metering circuits, control, or protection).[4] A neutral current
transformer is used as earth fault protection to measure any fault current flowing through
the neutral line from the wye neutral point of a transformer.
3. AC Motor
An AC motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current (AC). The AC motor
commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils supplied
with alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached
to the output shaft producing a second rotating magnetic field. The rotor magnetic field
may be produced by permanent magnets, reluctance saliency, or DC or AC electrical
windings.
Less commonly, linear AC motors operate on similar principles as rotating motors but
have their stationary and moving parts arranged in a straight line configuration,
producing linear motion instead of rotation.

Operating principles
When an AC motor is in steady-state rotation (motion), the magnetic fields of the rotor
and stator rotate (move) with little or no slippage (near synchrony). The magnetic forces
(repulsive and attractive) between the rotor and stator poles create average torque,
capable of driving a load at rated speed. The speed of the stator rotating magnetic field
( {\displaystyle \omega _{s}} \omega _{s}) and the speed of the rotor rotating magnetic
field ( {\displaystyle \omega _{r}} \omega _{r}), relative to the speed of the mechanical
shaft ( {\displaystyle \omega _{m}} \omega_m), must maintain synchronism for average
torque production by satisfying the synchronous speed relation (i.e., {\displaystyle \pm
\omega _{s}\pm \omega _{r}=\omega _{m}} \pm\omega_s \pm\omega_r = \omega_m).
[1] Otherwise, asynchronously rotating magnetic fields would produce pulsating or non-
average torque.
The two main types of AC motors are classified as induction and synchronous. The
induction motor (or asynchronous motor) always relies on a small difference in speed
between the stator rotating magnetic field and the rotor shaft speed called slip to induce
rotor current in the rotor AC winding. As a result, the induction motor cannot produce
torque near synchronous speed where induction (or slip) is irrelevant or ceases to exist. In
contrast, the synchronous motor does not rely on slip-induction for operation and uses
either permanent magnets, salient poles (having projecting magnetic poles), or an
independently excited rotor winding. The synchronous motor produces its rated torque at
exactly synchronous speed. The brushless wound-rotor doubly fed synchronous motor
system has an independently excited rotor winding that does not rely on the principles of
slip-induction of current. The brushless wound-rotor doubly fed motor is a synchronous
motor that can function exactly at the supply frequency or sub to super multiple of the
supply frequency.
Other types of motors include eddy current motors, and also AC/DC mechanically
commutated machines in which speed is dependent on voltage and winding connection.

Three-phase system with rotating magnetic fields.

Induction motor
Slip
If the rotor of a squirrel cage motor were to run at the true synchronous speed, the flux in
the rotor at any given place on the rotor would not change, and no current would be
created in the squirrel cage. For this reason, ordinary squirrel-cage motors run at some
tens of RPM slower than synchronous speed. Because the rotating field (or equivalent
pulsating field) effectively rotates faster than the rotor, it could be said to slip past the
surface of the rotor. The difference between synchronous speed and actual speed is called
slip, and loading the motor increases the amount of slip as the motor slows down slightly.
Even with no load, internal mechanical losses prevent the slip from being zero.
The speed of the AC motor is determined primarily by the frequency of the AC supply
and the number of poles in the stator winding, according to the relation:
{\displaystyle N_{s}=120F/p} N_{{s}}=120F/p
where
Ns = Synchronous speed, in revolutions per minute
F = AC power frequency
p = Number of poles per phase winding
Actual RPM for an induction motor will be less than this calculated synchronous speed
by an amount known as slip, that increases with the torque produced. With no load, the
speed will be very close to synchronous. When loaded, standard motors have between 2-
3% slip, special motors may have up to 7% slip, and a class of motors known as torque
motors are rated to operate at 100% slip (0 RPM/full stall).
The slip of the AC motor is calculated by:
{\displaystyle S=(N_{s}-N_{r})/N_{s}} S=(N_{{s}}-N_{{r}})/N_{{s}}
where
Nr = Rotational speed, in revolutions per minute.
S = Normalised Slip, 0 to 1.
As an example, a typical four-pole motor running on 60 Hz might have a nameplate
rating of 1725 RPM at full load, while its calculated speed is 1800 RPM.
The speed in this type of motor has traditionally been altered by having additional sets of
coils or poles in the motor that can be switched on and off to change the speed of
magnetic field rotation. However, developments in power electronics mean that the
frequency of the power supply can also now be varied to provide a smoother control of
the motor speed.
This kind of rotor is the basic hardware for induction regulators, which is an exception of
the use of rotating magnetic field as pure electrical (not electromechanical) application.

Polyphase cage rotor

Most common AC motors use the squirrel-cage rotor, which will be found in virtually all
domestic and light industrial alternating current motors. The squirrel-cage refers to the
rotating exercise cage for pet animals. The motor takes its name from the shape of its
rotor "windings"- a ring at either end of the rotor, with bars connecting the rings running
the length of the rotor. It is typically cast aluminum or copper poured between the iron
laminates of the rotor, and usually only the end rings will be visible. The vast majority of
the rotor currents will flow through the bars rather than the higher-resistance and usually
varnished laminates. Very low voltages at very high currents are typical in the bars and
end rings; high efficiency motors will often use cast copper to reduce the resistance in the
rotor.

In operation, the squirrel-cage motor may be viewed as a transformer with a rotating

secondary. When the rotor is not rotating in sync with the magnetic field, large rotor
currents are induced; the large rotor currents magnetize the rotor and interact with the
stator's magnetic fields to bring the rotor almost into synchronization with the stator's
field. An unloaded squirrel-cage motor at rated no-load speed will consume electrical
power only to maintain rotor speed against friction and resistance losses. As the
mechanical load increases, so will the electrical load - the electrical load is inherently
related to the mechanical load. This is similar to a transformer, where the primary's
electrical load is related to the secondary's electrical load.
This is why a squirrel-cage blower motor may cause household lights to dim upon
starting, but does not dim the lights on startup when its fan belt (and therefore mechanical
load) is removed. Furthermore, a stalled squirrel-cage motor (overloaded or with a
jammed shaft) will consume current limited only by circuit resistance as it attempts to
start. Unless something else limits the current (or cuts it off completely) overheating and
destruction of the winding insulation is the likely outcome.Virtually every washing
machine, dishwasher, standalone fan, record player, etc. uses some variant of a squirrel-
cage motor.

Polyphase wound rotor

An alternate design, called the wound rotor, is used when variable speed is required. In
this case, the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator and the windings are made
of wire, connected to slip rings on the shaft. Carbon brushes connect the slip rings to a
controller such as a variable resistor that allows changing the motor's slip rate. In certain
high-power variable-speed wound rotor drives, the slip-frequency energy is captured,
rectified, and returned to the power supply through an inverter. With bidirectionally
controlled power, the wound rotor becomes an active participant in the energy conversion
process, with the wound rotor doubly fed configuration showing twice the power density.
Compared to squirrel cage rotors, wound rotor motors are expensive and require
maintenance of the slip rings and brushes, but they were the standard form for variable
speed control before the advent of compact power electronic devices. Transistorized
inverters with variable-frequency drive can now be used for speed control, and wound
rotor motors are becoming less common.

Several methods of starting a polyphase motor are used. Where a large inrush current and
high starting torque can be permitted, the motor can be started across the line, by
applying full line voltage to the terminals (direct-on-line, DOL). Where it is necessary to
limit the starting inrush current (where the motor is large compared with the short-circuit
capacity of the supply), the motor is started at reduced voltage using either series
inductors, an autotransformer, thyristors, or other devices. A technique sometimes used is
star-delta (Y) starting, where the motor coils are initially connected in star configuration
for acceleration of the load, then switched to delta configuration when the load is up to
speed. This technique is more common in Europe than in North America. Transistorized
drives can directly vary the applied voltage as required by the starting characteristics of
the motor and load.
This type of motor is becoming more common in traction applications such as
locomotives, where it is known as the asynchronous traction motor[citation needed].

Two-phase servo motor

A typical two-phase AC servo-motor has a squirrel cage rotor and a field consisting of
two windings:
a constant-voltage (AC) main winding.
a control-voltage (AC) winding in quadrature (i.e., 90 degrees phase shifted) with the
main winding so as to produce a rotating magnetic field. Reversing phase makes the
motor reverse.
An AC servo amplifier, a linear power amplifier, feeds the control winding. The electrical
resistance of the rotor is made high intentionally so that the speed/torque curve is fairly
linear. Two-phase servo motors are inherently high-speed, low-torque devices, heavily
geared down to drive the load.

AC Motor with sliding rotors

Single-phase induction motor
Single-phase motors do not have a unique rotating magnetic field like multi-phase
motors. The field alternates (reverses polarity) between pole pairs and can be viewed as
two fields rotating in opposite directions. They require a secondary magnetic field that
causes the rotor to move in a specific direction. After starting, the alternating stator field
is in relative rotation with the rotor. Several methods are commonly used:
Shaded-pole motor
A common single-phase motor is the shaded-pole motor and is used in devices requiring
low starting torque, such as electric fans, small pumps, or small household appliances. In
this motor, small single-turn copper "shading coils" create the moving magnetic field.
Part of each pole is encircled by a copper coil or strap; the induced current in the strap
opposes the change of flux through the coil. This causes a time lag in the flux passing
through the shading coil, so that the maximum field intensity moves higher across the
pole face on each cycle. This produces a low level rotating magnetic field which is large
enough to turn both the rotor and its attached load. As the rotor picks up speed the torque
builds up to its full level as the principal magnetic field is rotating relative to the rotating
rotor.
A reversible shaded-pole motor was made by Barber-Colman several decades ago. It had
a single field coil, and two principal poles, each split halfway to create two pairs of poles.
Each of these four "half-poles" carried a coil, and the coils of diagonally opposite half-
poles were connected to a pair of terminals. One terminal of each pair was common, so
only three terminals were needed in all. The motor would not start with the terminals
open; connecting the common to one other made the motor run one way, and connecting
common to the other made it run the other way. These motors were used in industrial and
scientific devices.
An unusual, adjustable-speed, low-torque shaded-pole motor could be found in traffic-
light and advertising-lighting controllers. The pole faces were parallel and relatively close
to each other, with the disc centred between them, something like the disc in a watthour
meter. Each pole face was split, and had a shading coil on one part; the shading coils
were on the parts that faced each other. Both shading coils were probably closer to the
main coil; they could have both been farther away, without affecting the operating
principle, just the direction of rotation.
Applying AC to the coil created a field that progressed in the gap between the poles. The
plane of the stator core was approximately tangential to an imaginary circle on the disc,
so the travelling magnetic field dragged the disc and made it rotate.
The stator was mounted on a pivot so it could be positioned for the desired speed and
then clamped in position. Keeping in mind that the effective speed of the travelling
magnetic field in the gap was constant, placing the poles nearer to the centre of the disc
made it run relatively faster, and toward the edge, slower.
It is possible that these motors are still in use in some older installations.
Split-phase motor
Another common single-phase AC motor is the split-phase induction motor, commonly
used in major appliances such as air conditioners and clothes dryers. Compared to the
shaded pole motor, these motors provide much greater starting torque.
A split-phase motor has a secondary startup winding that is 90 electrical degrees to the
main winding, always centered directly between the poles of the main winding, and
connected to the main winding by a set of electrical contacts. The coils of this winding
are wound with fewer turns of smaller wire than the main winding, so it has a lower
inductance and higher resistance. The position of the winding creates a small phase shift
between the flux of the main winding and the flux of the starting winding, causing the
rotor to rotate. When the speed of the motor is sufficient to overcome the inertia of the
load, the contacts are opened automatically by a centrifugal switch or electric relay. The
direction of rotation is determined by the connection between the main winding and the
start circuit. In applications where the motor requires a fixed rotation, one end of the start
circuit is permanently connected to the main winding, with the contacts making the
connection at the other end.
Capacitor start motor
Schematic of a capacitor start motor.
A capacitor start motor is a split-phase induction motor with a starting capacitor inserted
in series with the startup winding, creating an LC circuit which produces a greater phase
shift (and so, a much greater starting torque) than both split-phase and shaded pole
motors.
Resistance start motor
A resistance start motor is a split-phase induction motor with a starter inserted in series
with the startup winding, creating reactance. This added starter provides assistance in the
starting and initial direction of rotation. capacitor (or PSC) motor. Also known as a
capacitor-run motor, this type of motor uses a non-polarized capacitor with a high voltage
rating to generate an electrical phase shift between the run and start windings. PSC
motors are the dominant type of split-phase motor in Europe and much of the world, but
in North America, they are most frequently used in variable torque applications (like
blowers, fans, and pumps) and other cases where variable speeds are desired.
A capacitor with a relatively low capacitance, and relatively high voltage rating, is
connected in series with the start winding and remains in the circuit during the entire run
cycle. Like other split-phase motors, the main winding is used with a smaller start
winding, and rotation is changed by reversing the connection between the main winding
and the start circuit. There are significant differences, however; the use of a speed
sensitive centrifugal switch requires that other split-phase motors must operate at, or very
close to, full speed. PSC motors may operate within a wide range of speeds, much lower
than the motor's electrical speed. Also, for applications like automatic door openers that
require the motor to reverse rotation often, the use of a mechanism requires that a motor
must slow to a near stop before contact with the start winding is re-established. The
'permanent' connection to the capacitor in a PSC motor means that changing rotation is
instantaneous.
Three-phase motors can be converted to PSC motors by making common two windings
and connecting the third via a capacitor to act as a start winding. However, the power
rating needs to be at least 50% larger than for a comparable single-phase motor due to an
unused winding.
Synchronous motor
Three-phase system with rotating magnetic fields.
Polyphase synchronous motor
If connections to the rotor coils of a three-phase motor are taken out on slip-rings and fed
a separate field current to create a continuous magnetic field (or if the rotor consists of a
permanent magnet), the result is called a synchronous motor because the rotor will rotate
synchronously with the rotating magnetic field produced by the polyphase electrical
supply. Another synchronous motor system is the brushless wound-rotor doubly fed
synchronous motor system with an independently excited rotor multiphase AC winding
set that may experience slip-induction beyond synchronous speeds but like all
synchronous motors, does not rely on slip-induction for torque production. The
synchronous motor can also be used as an alternator.
Nowadays, synchronous motors are frequently driven by transistorized variable-
frequency drives. This greatly eases the problem of starting the massive rotor of a large
synchronous motor. They may also be started as induction motors using a squirrel-cage
winding that shares the common rotor: once the motor reaches synchronous speed, no
current is induced in the squirrel-cage winding so it has little effect on the synchronous
operation of the motor, aside from stabilizing the motor speed on load changes.
Synchronous motors are occasionally used as traction motors; the TGV may be the best-
known example of such use.
Huge numbers of three phase synchronous motors are now fitted to electric cars. They
have a Nd or other rare earth permanent magnet. One use for this type of motor is its use
in a power factor correction scheme. They are referred to as synchronous condensers.
This exploits a feature of the machine where it consumes power at a leading power factor
when its rotor is over excited. It thus appears to the supply to be a capacitor, and could
thus be used to correct the lagging power factor that is usually presented to the electric
supply by inductive loads. The excitation is adjusted until a near unity power factor is
obtained (often automatically). Machines used for this purpose are easily identified as
they have no shaft extensions. Synchronous motors are valued in any case because their
power factor is much better than that of induction motors, making them preferred for very
high power applications.
Some of the largest AC motors are pumped-storage hydroelectricity generators that are
operated as synchronous motors to pump water to a reservoir at a higher elevation for
later use to generate electricity using the same machinery. Six 500-megawatt generators
are installed in the Bath County Pumped Storage Station in Virginia, USA. When
pumping, each unit can produce 642,800 horsepower (479.3 megawatts).
Single-phase synchronous motor
Small single-phase AC motors can also be designed with magnetized rotors (or several
variations on that idea; see "Hysteresis synchronous motors" below). If a conventional
squirrel-cage rotor has flats ground on it to create salient poles and increase reluctance, it
will start conventionally, but will run synchronously, although it can provide only a
modest torque at synchronous speed. This is known as a reluctance motor.
Because inertia makes it difficult to instantly accelerate the rotor from stopped to
synchronous speed, these motors normally require some sort of special feature to get
started. Some include a squirrel-cage structure to bring the rotor close to synchronous
speed. Various other designs use a small induction motor (which may share the same field
coils and rotor as the synchronous motor) or a very light rotor with a one-way mechanism
(to ensure that the rotor starts in the "forward" direction). In the latter instance, applying
AC power creates chaotic (or seemingly chaotic) jumping movement back and forth; such
a motor will always start, but lacking the anti-reversal mechanism, the direction it runs is
unpredictable. The Hammond organ tone generator used a non-self-starting synchronous
motor (until comparatively recently), and had an auxiliary conventional shaded-pole
starting motor. A spring-loaded auxiliary manual starting switch connected power to this
second motor for a few seconds.
Hysteresis synchronous motor
These motors are relatively costly, and are used where exact speed (assuming an exact-
frequency AC source) as well as rotation with a very small amount of fast variations in
speed (called 'flutter" in audio recordings) is essential. Applications included tape
recorder capstan drives (the motor shaft could be the capstan), and, before the advent of
crystal control, motion picture cameras and recorders. Their distinguishing feature is their
rotor, which is a smooth cylinder of a magnetic alloy that stays magnetized, but can be
demagnetized fairly easily as well as re-magnetized with poles in a new location.
Hysteresis refers to how the magnetic flux in the metal lags behind the external
magnetizing force; for instance, to demagnetize such a material, one could apply a
magnetizing field of opposite polarity to that which originally magnetized the material.
These motors have a stator like those of capacitor-run squirrel-cage induction motors. On
startup, when slip decreases sufficiently, the rotor becomes magnetized by the stator's
field, and the poles stay in place. The motor then runs at synchronous speed as if the rotor
were a permanent magnet. When stopped and restarted, the poles are likely to form at
different locations. For a given design, torque at synchronous speed is only relatively
modest, and the motor can run at below synchronous speed. In simple words, it is lagging
magnetic field behind magnetic flux.
4. Remote control
For other uses, see Remote control (disambiguation). For other uses of "Remote", see
Remote (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Teleoperation or radio control. Siri
Remote (Bluetooth & Infrared) next to an old Apple Macintosh TV remote An air
conditioning unit remote control
A standard remote control symbol used on many TVs, video equipment and remote
controls
In electronics, a remote control is a component of an electronic device used to operate the
device wirelessly from a distance. For example, in consumer electronics, a remote control
can be used to operate devices such as a television set, DVD player, or other home
appliance, from a short distance. A remote control is primarily a convenience feature for
the user, and can allow operation of devices that are out of convenient reach for direct
operation of controls. In some cases, remote controls allow a person to operate a device
that they otherwise would not be able to reach, as when a garage door opener is triggered
from outside or when a Digital Light Processing projector that is mounted on a high
ceiling is controlled by a person from the floor level.
Early television remote controls (1956-1977) used ultrasonic tones. Present-day remote
controls are commonly consumer infrared devices which send digitally-coded pulses of
infrared radiation to control functions such as power, volume, tuning, temperature set
point, fan speed, or other features. Remote controls for these devices are usually small
wireless handheld objects with an array of buttons for adjusting various settings such as
television channel, track number, and volume. For many devices, the remote control
contains all the function controls while the controlled device itself has only a handful of
essential primary controls. The remote control code, and thus the required remote control
device, is usually specific to a product line, but there are universal remotes, which
emulate the remote control made for most major brand devices.
Remote control has continually evolved and advanced in the 2000s to include Bluetooth
connectivity, motion sensor-enabled capabilities and voice control.
Technique
The main technology used in home remote controls is infrared (IR) light. The signal
between a remote control handset and the device it controls consists of pulses of infrared
light, which is invisible to the human eye, but can be seen through a digital camera, video
camera or a phone camera. The transmitter in the remote control handset sends out a
stream of pulses of infrared light when the user presses a button on the handset. A
transmitter is often a light emitting diode (LED) which is built into the pointing end of
the remote control handset. The infrared light pulses form a pattern unique to that button.
The receiver in the device recognizes the pattern and causes the device to respond
accordingly.
5. IR Sensor
IR sensors use infra red light to sense objects in front of them and gauge their distance.
The commonly used Sharp IR sensors have two black circles which used for this process,
an emitter and a detector (see image right).
A pulse of infra red light is emitted from the emitter and spreads out in a large arc. If no
object is detected then the IR light continues forever and no reading is recorded.
However, if an object is nearby then the IR light will be reflected and some of it will hit
the detector. This forms a simple triangle between the object, emitter and detector. The
detector is able to detect the angle that the IR light arrived back at and thus can determine
the distance to the object. This is remarkably accurate and although interference from
sunlight is still a problem, these sensors are capable of detecting dark objects in sunlight
now.

IR Sensor Circuit

How to wire them up

These sensors have three pins, generally with a red, black and yellow wire coming out of
them. Red is connected used to power the sensor, black is ground and yellow is the
analogue output of the sensor. This can be attached to one of the analogue in pins on the
mbed(p15-p20) or suitable micro-controller and the distance can be read as a voltage with
low voltages corresponding to close objects and high voltages corresponding to distant
objects. For mbed use please see the Mbed Using Sensors documentation.
Limitations
These sensors are far from perfect and have quite a small range. They are usually most
effective (though this depends on particular makes) at between 10cm to a maximum of
about 1m. However, complex scenery (many different objects) will cause a problem as
the sensor will see all objects within the arc created by the IR emitter. It is recommended
that you search for the relevant data sheet or conduct simple tests to find ideal values
beyond which your robot acknowledged the obstacle. Sunlight or flames also present a
problem as they emit a lot of IR light and thus interfere with the IR sensor providing false
readings. However, these sensors are suitable for indoor use. Interference from other
sensors can also be a problem if there are multiple robots or parallel sensors. As with all
analogue signals, noise will exist in the readings taken from the sensor.
360 view
For simple obstacle avoidance it is sufficient to simply see the obstacles in front of you.
However, for more advanced avoidance or for searching it is advantageous to see all
around your robot, or to at least have a larger view angle. This could be achieved using
two sensors, facing away from one another, pointing left forwards and right forwards.
This would allow a robot to identify which direction the obstacle was in and thus turn
away from it in the correct direction.
However, this approach is inefficient and can be limiting. Installing further IR sensors
also throws up problems of interference. Another solution is to use a servo to turn your IR
sensor as you would swivel your head or eyes. The servo can be set to many different
angles and IR readings can be taken from each of them. This can be extremely effective
at building up a 3D map of the area around the robot.

6. Electrical conductor
Overhead conductors carry electric power from generating stations to customers.
Electromagnetism
Solenoid
Electricity Magnetism
Electrostatics
Electric charge Static electricity
Electric field Conductor
Insulator Triboelectricity
Electrostatic discharge Induction
Coulomb's law Gauss's law
Electric flux / potential energy
Electric dipole moment
Polarization density
Magnetostatics
Electrodynamics
Electrical network
Covariant formulation
Scientists

A piece of resistive material with electrical contacts on both ends.

In physics and electrical engineering, a conductor is an object or type of material that
allows the flow of an electrical current in one or more directions. Materials made of metal
are common electrical conductors. Electrical current is generated by the flow of
negatively charged electrons, positively charged holes, and positive or negative ions in
some cases.
In order for current to flow, it is not necessary for one charged particle to travel from the
machine producing the current to that consuming it. Instead, the charged particle simply
needs to nudge its neighbor a finite amount who will nudge its neighbor and on and on
until a particle is nudged into the consumer, thus powering the machine. Essentially what
is occurring here is a long chain of momentum transfer between mobile charge carriers;
the Drude model of conduction describes this process more rigorously. This momentum
transfer model makes metal an ideal choice for a conductor as metals, characteristically,
possess a delocalized sea of electrons which gives the electrons enough mobility to
collide and thus effect a momentum transfer.
As discussed above, electrons are the primary mover in metals; however, other devices
such the cationic electrolyte(s) of a battery, or the mobile protons of the proton conductor
of a fuel cell rely on positive charge carriers. Insulators are non-conducting materials
with few mobile charges that support only insignificant electric currents.
Resistance and conductance
A piece of resistive material with electrical contacts on both ends. The resistance of a
given conductor depends on the material it is made of, and on its dimensions. For a given
material, the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. For example,
a thick copper wire has lower resistance than an otherwise-identical thin copper wire.
Also, for a given material, the resistance is proportional to the length; for example, a long
copper wire has higher resistance than an otherwise-identical short copper wire. The
resistance R and conductance G of a conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, can be
computed as
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}R&=\rho {\frac {\ell }{A}},\\[6pt]G&=\sigma {\frac {A}
{\ell }}.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}R&=\rho {\frac {\ell }{A}},\\
[6pt]G&=\sigma {\frac {A}{\ell }}.\end{aligned}}} where {\displaystyle \ell } \ell is the
length of the conductor, measured in metres [m], A is the cross-section area of the
conductor measured in square metres [m], (sigma) is the electrical conductivity
measured in siemens per meter (Sm1), and (rho) is the electrical resistivity (also
called specific electrical resistance) of the material, measured in ohm-metres (m). The
resistivity and conductivity are proportionality constants, and therefore depend only on
the material the wire is made of, not the geometry of the wire. Resistivity and
conductivity are reciprocals: {\displaystyle \rho =1/\sigma } \rho=1/\sigma. Resistivity is
a measure of the material's ability to oppose electric current.
This formula is not exact: It assumes the current density is totally uniform in the
conductor, which is not always true in practical situations. However, this formula still
provides a good approximation for long thin conductors such as wires.
Another situation this formula is not exact for is with alternating current (AC), because
the skin effect inhibits current flow near the center of the conductor. Then, the
geometrical cross-section is different from the effective cross-section in which current
actually flows, so the resistance is higher than expected. Similarly, if two conductors are
near each other carrying AC current, their resistances increase due to the proximity effect.
At commercial power frequency, these effects are significant for large conductors
carrying large currents, such as busbars in an electrical substation, or large power cables
carrying more than a few hundred amperes.
Aside from the geometry of the wire, temperature also has a significant effect on the
efficacy of conductors. Temperature affects conductors in two main ways, the first is that
materials may expand under the application of heat. The amount that the material will
expand is governed by the thermal expansion coefficient specific to the material. Such an
expansion (or contraction) will change the geometry of the conductor and therefore its
characteristic resistance. However, this effect is generally small, on the order of 106. An
increase in temperature will also increase the number of phonons generated within the
material. A phonon is essentially a lattice vibration, or rather a small, harmonic kinetic
movement of the atoms of the material. Much like the shaking of a pinball machine,
phonons serve to disrupt the path of electrons, causing them to scatter. This electron
scattering will decrease the number of electron collisions and therefore will decrease the
total amount of current transferred

Conductor materials
Further information: Copper wire and cable and Aluminum wire
Material
[m] at 20C
[ S/m] at 20C
Silver, Ag 1.59 108 6.30 107
Copper, Cu 1.68 108 5.96 107
Aluminum, Al 2.82 108 3.50 107
Conduction materials include metals, electrolytes, superconductors, semiconductors,
plasmas and some nonmetallic conductors such as graphite and Conductive polymers.
Copper has a high conductivity. Annealed copper is the international standard to which all
other electrical conductors are compared. The main grade of copper used for electrical
applications, such as building wire, motor windings, cables and busbars, is electrolytic-
tough pitch (ETP) copper (CW004A or ASTM designation C100140). This copper has an
electrical conductivity of at least 100% IACS (International Annealed Copper Standard).
If high conductivity copper must be welded or brazed or used in a reducing atmosphere,
then oxygen-free high conductivity copper (CW008A or ASTM designation C10100)
may be used. Because of its ease of connection by soldering or clamping, copper is still
the most common choice for most light-gauge wires.
Silver is more 'conductive' than copper, but due to cost it is not practical in most cases.
However, it is used in specialized equipment, such as satellites, and as a thin plating to
mitigate skin effect losses at high frequencies. Aluminum wire, which has 61% of the
conductivity of copper, has been used in building wiring for its lower cost. By weight,
aluminum has higher conductivity than copper, but it has properties that cause problems
when used for building wiring. It can form a resistive oxide within connections that
makes wiring terminals heat. Aluminum can "creep", slowly deforming under load,
eventually causing device connections to loosen, and also has a different coefficient of
thermal expansion compared to materials used for connections. This accelerates the
loosening of connections. These effects can be minimized by using wiring devices
approved for use with aluminum.
Aluminum wires used for low voltage distribution, such as buried cables and service
drops, require use of compatible connectors and installation methods to prevent heating at
joints. Aluminum is also the most common metal used in high-voltage transmission lines,
in combination with steel as structural reinforcement. Anodized aluminum surfaces are
not conductive. This affects the design of electrical enclosures that require the enclosure
to be electrically connected.
Organic compounds such as octane, which has 8 carbon atoms and 18 hydrogen atoms,
cannot conduct electricity. Oils are hydrocarbons, since carbon has the property of
tetracovalency and forms covalent bonds with other elements such as hydrogen, since it
does not lose or gain electrons, thus does not form ions. Covalent bonds are simply the
sharing of electrons. Hence, there is no separation of ions when electricity is passed
through it. So the liquid (oil or any organic compound) cannot conduct electricity.
While pure water is not an electrical conductor, even a small portion of impurities, such
as salt, can rapidly transform it into a conductor.
Wire size
Wires are measured by their cross sectional area. In many countries, the size is expressed
in square millimetres. In North America, conductors are measured by American wire
gauge for smaller ones, and circular mils for larger ones. The size of a wire contributes to
its ampacity. The American wire gauge article contains a table showing allowable
ampacities for a variety of copper wire sizes.
Conductor ampacity
The ampacity of a conductor, that is, the amount of current it can carry, is related to its
electrical resistance: a lower-resistance conductor can carry a larger value of current. The
resistance, in turn, is determined by the material the conductor is made from (as described
above) and the conductor's size. For a given material, conductors with a larger cross-
sectional area have less resistance than conductors with a smaller cross-sectional area.
For bare conductors, the ultimate limit is the point at which power lost to resistance
causes the conductor to melt. Aside from fuses, most conductors in the real world are
operated far below this limit, however. For example, household wiring is usually
insulated with PVC insulation that is only rated to operate to about 60 C, therefore, the
current in such wires must be limited so that it never heats the copper conductor above 60
C, causing a risk of fire. Other, more expensive insulation such as Teflon or fiberglass
may allow operation at much higher temperatures.
Isotropy
If an electric field is applied to a material, and the resulting induced electric current is in
the same direction, the material is said to be an isotropic electrical conductor. If the
resulting electric current is in a different direction from the applied electric field, the
material is said to be an anisotropic electrical conductor.
 CONCLUSION

The project bidirectional rotation of an induction motor with a remote control device has
been successfully designed and tested. This project has been developed to rotate an induction
motor for the required application in forward a well as in reverse directions using wireless
technology, the complete operation of this project is based on 8051 microcontroller. This
project gave us confidence and practical knowledge and makes us to learn about good things.
This project is a low-cost, reliable, effective and more efficient system in practice.

Future scope:
In future, it can further be enhanced by controlling the operation of induction motor using
thyristors in place of relays for noise free operation.

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