Sedimentology (1994) 41, 1161-1 169

Clay fabrics in relation to the burial history of shales

MANUEL SINTUBIN
Laboratorium voor Algemene Geologie, Katholieke Universisteit Leuven, Redingenstraat 16, B-3000 Leuven,
Belgium

ABSTRACT
Quantitative appraisal of compaction strain is essential for the study of the burial history of shales in
sedimentary basins. The results of a preliminary fabric analysis of Westphalian and Zechstein shales in the
Campine Basin (Belgium) show that clay fabric analysis, using an X-ray pole figure goniometer, is suitable
for this purpose.
Clay fabrics, in the range studied, are independent of depth and therefore cannot be used as depth
indicators. This suggests that in the early stages of the burial history a stable clay fabric has to develop,
which will basically remain unchanged during the subsequent burial history.
The degree of clay particle preferred orientation not only reflects the compaction strain, but is also
determined by mineralogical parameters: the presence of non-platy particles and the relative concen-
trations of the different clay minerals. This degree of preferred orientation furthermore determines the
degree of fissility of the shales.
These mineralogical factors limit the use of clay fabrics as truly quantitative strain markers. Their use
as semi-quantitative strain markers remains advantageous, mainly because of the common occurrence of
clay fabrics in the geological record. Moreover, the relative ease of measurement and the possibility of
distinguishing compaction from tectonic strains favour the use of clay fabrics in the quantitative strain
analysis of argillaceous rocks.

INTRODUCTION
A typical mesoscopic feature of shales is their
fissility, which is defined as the tendency of argilla-
ceous rocks to exhibit a mechanical cleavage along
smooth planes parallel to the bedding (OBrien, 1970;
Spears, 1976; Ramsay & Huber, 1983). This fissile
nature is commonly considered to be caused by a
statistical preferred orientation of the platy clay
particles, although this has been questioned by some
authors (Gipson, 1965; Spears, 1976; Curtis et al.,
1980), who suggest a relationship between fissility,
the laminated nature of the clay texture (Spears,
1976; Curtis et al., 1980) and the presence of organic
material (Gipson, 1965).
Several authors (Odom, 1967; OBrien, 1970;
Heling, 1970; Byers, 1974; Spears, 1976) see the
development of a clay fabric as the result of a
disperse sedimentation of platy clay particles in a
low energy environment. An anoxic, azoic, depo-
sitional environment, excluding any bioturbation,
assures the preservation of the original finely lami-
nated clay texture. Heling (1970), and Byers (1974),
therefore consider the degree of fissility as a facies
indicator. This parallel, disperse, sedimentation of
clay particles is a rather exceptional deposition
mechanism (Bennet & Hulbert, 1986). Clay sedi-
mentation commonly occurs as flocculated clay
aggregates, internally characterized by a random
orientation of the clay particles. Owing to an
increasing overburden pressure, these aggregates
will eventually collapse, generating a clay particle
preferred orientation. It is therefore fair to assume
that the clay fabric is the reflection of a compaction
strain rather than the result of an exceptional sedi-
mentation process. In the former case a simple
analytical theory, modelling the orientation behav-
iour of tabular marker grains with respect to the
finite strain (March, 1932), allows the use of the
clay fabric for quantifying the compaction strain.

1161
1162 M. Sintubin
This clay fabric is measured by use of an X-ray pole
figure goniometer.
The presented work, which is the result of prelimi-
nary fabric research on Westphalian and Zechstein
shales, sampled in three boreholes in the Campine
Basin (Belgium), evaluates the application of clay
fabrics to the quantitative study of shale compaction.
Inferences on the burial history of shales in sedimen-
tary basins and on the relationship between clay
fabrics and fissility, are also drawn.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Campine Basin covers the northern part of the
Lower Palaeozoic Brabant Basement (Fig. 1) and is a
Variscan foreland basin with three distinguishable
sedimentary sequences: the Devono-Carboniferous,
the Permo-Triassic and the Cretaceous-Cainozoic.
Unlike the sedimentary basins south of the Brabant
Basement, the Campine Basin suffered no tangential
deformation during the Variscan Orogeny. The only
major tectonic event which took place in this basin is
associated with the development of the Roerdal Rift
System, of which NE-SW striking, initially synsedi-
mentary, normal faults are found in the Campine
Basin. Important inversion movements, associated
with several tectonic pulses (Kimmeridge, Laramide,
Alpine) along these normal faults, further complicate
the general structural picture of this gently NE
dipping monocline. Consequently, nothing can be
inferred about the maximum depth of burial of the
material.
All deformation within this basin, taking place at a
shallow crustal level, is brittle. The only internal
deformation is a compaction strain as a result of
diagenesis. The argillaceous material in this basin is
therefore suitable for the purpose of this work.
The choice of samples was determined by the
degree of fissility, the variation in depth and the
variation in stratigraphical position.
Borehole KBl88 (Olmen) is situated in the western
part of the coal basin (Fig. 1). The Westphalian
formations directly underlie the Cretaceous-
Cainozoic cover. Eight samples were taken over a
depth interval between - 806 and - 1445 m. These
black shales, Westphalian A (sample W2 to W7) and
Westphalian B (sample WI) in age, were deposited in
a deltaic environment (Goermaere, 1991).
The other two boreholes are nearer the centre of
the basin (Fig. 1). Due to the general NE dip,
Permo-Triassic formations are found between the
Cretaceous-Cainozoic cover and the Westphalian
formations (Westphalian C & D). These two bore-
holes are situated in two separate fault blocks. In
both, a characteristic Zechstein layer was sampled. In
borehole KB169 (Gruitrode - Muisvenner Bemden;
Dusar et al., 1987a) five samples (Zl to Z5) were
taken from this 30m thick layer situated at
- 1086m, while the sixth sample (26) was taken
from the same layer at - 818 m in borehole KB172
(Gruitrode - Ophovender Heide; Dusar et al.,
1987b). Sample ZI is a reddish mudstone, coloured
as a result of a post-depositional oxidation. The five
other samples (22 to 26) are grey-green shales,
originally deposited in a coastal environment under
reducing conditions (Dusar et al., 1987b).
TEXTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
Most of the Westphalian black shales exhibit a
pronounced bedding parallel fissility. Only in samples
W2 and W5 is the fissility poorly developed. Micro-
scopically, the fissile nature is reflected in a continu-
ous cleavage texture (Powell, 1979), accentuated by
very fine films of opaque, organic-rich, material. The
fine grained matrix, made up of quartz and clay
minerals, is homogeneous. Coarser quartz and mica
grains are occasionally present. The mica grains,
detrital in origin, are always orientated parallel to the
bedding. The clay consists of illite, chlorite and
kaolinite, which is characteristic of these Westphalian
deposits (Goemaere, 1991). While the illite is exclu-
sively detrital in origin, the other two clay minerals
have a detrital, as well as a diagenetic origin. The
kaolinite is an early diagenetic product, formed in the
acid environment of paralic swamps. The chlorite, on
the other hand, reflects late diagenetic conditions.
These anchizonal conditions are also shown by the
illite crystallinity. Quartz is present in relatively small
amounts (Table 1).
The Zechstein grey-green shales are also character-
ized by a pronounced fissility, reflecting a continuous
cleavage texture. Sample Z1, the reddish mudstone,
exhibits a poorly developed fissility. The homo-
geneous matrix is more fine grained than that of the
Westphalian shales. Moreover, coarser quartz and
mica grains are absent. Fine opaque films are rare.
Quartz is also present in small amounts (Table 1).
The clay consists almost exclusively of detrital illite.
Both chlorite and kaolinite are- present in very
small concentrations. These shales developed under
diagenetic conditions (Dusar et al., 1987a,b).
 Clay fabrics and burial history 1163

Fig. 1. Geostructurai subcrop map of the pre-Cretaceous sedimentary record in the Campine Basin, showing the location of
boreholes KB188, KB169 and KB172, and stratigraphical columns with location of the sampled range ($=Silurian;
Dv= Devonian; Di=Dinantian; Nm=Namurian; W,= Westphalian A; W,= Westphalian B; W,= Westphalian C;
W,= Westphalian D; PT = Permo-Triassic; J =Jurassic; Cr = Cretaceous: ($ = Cainozoic) (after Langenaecker pers. comm.).

CLAY FABRICS effectively limits measurements to a tilt of 40". Only

Fabric analysis
The clay fabrics were determined by X-ray pole figure
analysis, using Ni-filtered CuKa-radiation. The
measurements were performed in transmission mode
on sections with an optimum thickness of 100 pm
(Oertel, 1983). This mode reduces surface effects,
which occur during sample preparation of clay-rich
materials, to a minimum (Oertel, 1978).
The measured intensity decreases dramatically
with increasing tilt of the sample in the X-ray
beam, mainly due to an increasing absorption. This
incomplete pole figures can therefore be measured
directly. Complete pole figures are obtained by com-
bining measurements on two mutually perpendicular
sections. As well as a tilt-corrected background sub-
traction, the measured intensities were corrected for
the absorption effect, using an empirical method,
similar to that described by O'Brien et al. (1987)
(Sintubin, 1992). A final normalization allowed the
fabrics to be described in terms of 'multiples of
random distribution' (mrd); The resulting pole fig-
ures are represented as equal area projections. In all
Westphalian and Zechstein shales the (001) illite pole
 1164 M. Sintubin

Table 1. Experimental data. least orthorhombic symmetry; (2) the deformation of

matrix and marker grains must be homogeneous; (3)
Sample Depth Quartz content* E, (ill)
the marker grains must behave passively; (4) the
no. (4 (/I (mrd)
volume must be constant during deformation; and (5)
KB188 the initial orientation distribution of the marker
w1 806.0 23.0 [ - 0.611 [ - 0.551 grains must be random. Moreover, the obtained
w2 912.0 28.0 [ - 0,551 [ - 0.551 March strain represents a total deformation, starting
w3 1048.0 21.0 [ - 0.611 [ - 0.551 from the initial, randomly orientated, aggregate of
w4 1125.0 17.0 [ - 0.571 [ - 0.521 marker grains. Although few clay-rich materials com-
W5 1194.0 26.0 [ - 0,531 [ - 0.491
W6 1364.0 12.0 ply with these conditions, reasonable correlations
[ - 0.611 [ - 0.581
w7 1365.7 13.0 [ - 0.631 [ - 0.601 with independent strain markers (Oertel, 1970; Tullis
W8 1445.0 15.0 [ - 0541 [ - 0.521 & Wood, 1975; Oertel et al., 1989) show that the
KB169 March values can still be considered as acceptable
z1 1058.9 21.0 [ - 0.571 estimates of the real strains. Finally, because compac-
22 1066.0 22.0 [ - 0,621 tion is not an isovolumetric deformation, a special
23 1069.7 17.0 [ - 0.571
24 1084.3 17.0 [ - 0.561 formula has been derived to make the model appli-
Z5 1086.5 12.0 [ - 0.551 cable to compaction fabrics (Oertel & Curtis, 1972).
KB172 While the qualitative interpretation of the clay
26 818.7 12.5 [ - 0,561 fabrics is based on the orientation distribution
symmetry and on its geometric relationship with
*Determined by the gravimetric method of Trostel & Wyne the mesoscopic structural elements (Sintubin, 1994),
(1940)
the quantitative interpretation is based solely on the
fabric intensity.
figure ( d = l nm) was measured. In the Westphalian
shales the pole figure, representing a d spacing of RESULTS
0.7nm, was measured. This pole figure reflects the
combined orientation distribution of the (002) planes 1. The clay fabrics in both the Westphalian and
of chlorite and the (001) planes of kaolinite. the Zechstein shales are axially symmetrical, with the
Using the clay fabric as a strain marker is based on symmetry axis parallel to the bedding pole. The
the March (1932) model, which proposes a unique fabric intensity is low to moderate (4.3 to 7.4mrd;
relationship between the normalized (001) pole den- Fig. 3). These fabrics are exclusively the result of a
sity distribution and the finite strain ellipsoid (Fig. 2). compaction strain (Sintubin, 1944).
However, the application of this simple fabricktrain 2. The fabric intensity, and consequently the March
relationship is subject to a series of constraints: (1) compaction strain, has a limited range (Table I),
the orientation distribution must be unimodal with at both for the illite and chlorite/kaolinite fabrics in the

Fig. 2. March model: the unique relationship between the normalized (001) pole density distribution of tabular marker grains
(p,) and the strain ellipsoid (E,).
 Clay fabrics and burial history
Westphalian shales (Fig. 4), and for the illite fabrics
in the Zechstein shales. The variation in fabric inten-
sities between the Westphalian and Zechstein forma-
tions is very small, notwithstanding their different
textural characteristics and burial history.
3. The fabric variation is independent of depth,
with no significant increase in intensity over the range
of 645 m (Fig. 4). The fabric intensity decreases with
increasing quartz content of the shales (Fig. 4).
4. There is a systematic intensity difference between
illite and chloritelkaolinite fabrics in the Westphalian
shales (Fig. 4).
5 . Oxidation in sample Z1 does not influence the
fabric intensity (Table 1).
6. The fabric intensity is directly related to the
degree of fissility. A high degree of clay particle
preferred orientation is reflected in the highly fissile
nature of the shale.
DISCUSSION
Fabric variation
Both the axial symmetry of the pole figures and the
parallelism of the symmetry axis and bedding pole
indicate that the argillaceous material in the Campine
Basin has, as anticipated, only undergone compac-
tion deformation. The absence of any fabric gradient
implies that at the sampling depth the clay fabric had
become insensitive to any increase in overburden
pressure, so that compaction had ceased. It is there-
fore fair to assume that in the early stages of burial
history a stable clay fabric developed and did not
subsequently change a great deal. This initial fabric
development was most probably caused by the col-
lapse of the original, depositional, clay texture, char-
acterized by a cardhouse microstructure (OBrien &
Slatt, 1990).
Tullis (1976) low temperature experiments on
fluorophlogopite powders agree with these observa-
tions. Tullis found that, as strain increases, the fabric/
strain relationship increasingly deviates from that
predicted (Fig. 5). This is due to the increasing grain
interference on the mechanical, grain shape induced,
rotation process responsible for fabric development
in these circumstances.
This model also seems applicable to the shales.
As compaction proceeds, mechanical rotation of the
platy clay particles becomes progressively more
difficult owing to increasing grain interference. Ulti-
mately, a stable clay fabric is formed. A further fabric
development will take place only if crystallization
processes reduce the grain interference (Tullis, 1976).
1165
This non-linear behaviour further implies that the
clay fabric cannot be used as a depth indicator
beyond the point at which this stable fabric configu-
ration is reached. It is therefore necessary to deter-
mine the stage in the burial history at which this
stable clay fabric is formed. This stable clay fabric
develops in the initial stages of the burial history,
making clay fabrics unsuitable for any burial depth
determination.
Fabric intensity
The chloritelkaolinite fabric intensity is systemati-
cally lower than that of illite (Fig. 4). This intensity
difference seems often to have been overlooked in the
literature (e.g. Oertel, 1970, 1983).
Several elements possibly play a part in this inten-
sity difference. First, the fabrics, representing a d
spacing of 0.7 nm, are the result of mixing orientation
distributions of two minerals, each with a diRerent
reorientation behaviour. Such an average of different
orientation populations may ultimately lead to a
lower fabric intensity. However, in samples contain-
ing negligible amounts of kaolinite (W5, W6, W7 &
W8) the intensity difference is also observed. Not
only the mineralogical composition, but also the
origin of the clay minerals may contribute to the
intensity difference. Both diagenetic chlorite and
kaolinite partly grew on an existing fabric. The initial
part of the compaction is therefore not recorded in
the chlorite/kaolinite fabric, eventually causing a
lower fabric intensity. On the other hand, the fabric
intensity for illite is overestimated, owing to the
presence of coarser mica grains, deposited parallel to
bedding. Finally, concentration differences of the
different clay minerals may also be significant. Oertel
et al. (1989) suggest that a lower phyllosilicate con-
centration causes fabric intensities to be too low.
However, this concentration difference affects all
intensities, and is consequently eliminated during the
normalization of the pole figures (Oertel & Curtis,
1972). The measured intensity difference must there-
fore be real. Nevertheless, fabric research on other
shales and slates supports the last explanation
(Sintubin, 1992). However, further studies are
required before a decisive answer can be given.
The negative correlation between the fabric inten-
sity and the quartz content (Fig. 4) is due to obstruc-
tion of the reorientation of the platy clay particles by
non-platy quartz grains, resulting in a more random
orientation distribution of the clay particles (Curtis
et al., 1972; OBrien & Slatt, 1990).
 1166 M. Sintubin

d Illfte pole figures K 8 788

b. Ch[orrte/Kao[mite pole frgures KB 788

Fig. 3. (a) and (b). For caption see Fig. 3(c).

Both these factors indicate that the fabric intensity
is determined by mineralogical parameters as well as
by the compaction strain. Oertel et al. (1989) suggest
that grain size also has an influence on the fabric
intensity, whereas Spears (1976) emphasizes that the
presence of organic matter enhances the parallel
deposition of clay minerals. The fabric similarity
between Westphalian and Zechstein shales, which
differ on both grain size and organic matter content,
suggests that neither grain size nor the presence
 Clay fabrics and burial history 1167

c.Ilifte pole figures KB 769/172

Fig. 3. Compaction fabrics (contour lines=intervals of 1 mrd; dashed contour linez0.5 mrd; W =bedding pole): (a) illite pole
figures of Westphalian shales (KB188); (b) chlorite/kaolinite pole figures of Westphalian shales (KB188); (c) illite pole figures
of Zechstein shales (KB169/KB172)

- 0.60
Ec
0.50 I
I
10
Quartz%
I
15
I
20
I
25
-

3nl /
/
/
I'

chlorife/kooiinife

Fig. 4. March compactions (cc; illite & chloritelkaolinite)

and quartz content versus depth, for the Westphalian shales
from borehole KB188.
of organic matter has any influence on the fabric
development.
Finally, the degree of fissility can be related to the
fabric intensity. At this point it is, however, not at all
Fig. 5. Results of the low temperature experiments on
fluorophlogopite powders (Tullis, 1976): comparison
between measured ( 0 )and predicted (March model) fabric/
strain relationship.
clear to what extent the mineralogical characteristics,
which partly control the degree of clay particle
1168 M. Sintubin
preferred orientation, also determine the degree of
shale fissility.
March compaction
The compaction strain, calculated by means of the
formula of Oertel & Curtis (1972), ranges from 49 to
63%. In the light of the previous discussion, the
values for illite (53-63%) are probably too high, while
the values for chlorite/kaolinite (49-60%) represent a
minimal estimate.
These values are only valid if the theoretical con-
straints of the March model are met, as appears to be
the case in the present work. However, the initial
orientation distribution of the clay particles is
unknown, but it is reasonable to assume, taking
into account the depositional environment of both
Westphalian and Zechstein shales, that the clay
minerals were deposited as randomly orientated
flocculated aggregates (Bennet & Hulber, 1986;
Bennet et al., 1991). A second reservation concerns
the intensity differences between illite and chlorite/
kaolinite fabrics. In the model, the marker grains are
considered as geometrical elements, so that their
material properties can be ignored. The observed
intensity differences indicate that this assumption can
only be made if the specific influence of the detrital
mica and the diagenetic chlorite and kaolinite are
taken into account.
Keeping in mind these reservations, it is clear that
the March calculations alone do not justify the
compaction strains obtained. A comparison with
independent strain markers remains necessary. No
such classical strain markers are, however, present in
the studied sedimentary record.
CONCLUSIONS
This work has shown that, once the clay particles
have achieved a stable orientation distribution, the
clay fabric is no longer sensitive to overburden pres-
sure and remains substantially unchanged during the
subsequent burial history, mainly because grain inter-
ference makes the grain shape induced rotation pro-
cess impossible. This stable clay fabric most probably
develops in the initial stages of the burial history,
implying that clay particle preferred orientation can
by no means be related to depth of burial. Only if the
stress field changes by tectonism or if metamorphic
conditions reduce the grain interference, so that
crystallization processes may enhance further fabric
development, can further changes in the clay fabric
occur.
The degree of clay particle preferred orientation is
not only dependent on the compaction strain but also
on mineralogical parameters. Both the presence of
non-platy particles and the relative amounts and
types of clay minerals affect the fabric intensity. The
resulting March compactions are therefore only esti-
mates. An evaluation with regard to independent
strain markers, notwithstanding their rarity in the
sedimentary record, remains necessary before clay
fabrics become applicable as truly quantitative strain
markers.
It is clear that the shale fissility is related to the
degree of clay particle preferred orientation rather
than to the organic matter content (Gipson, 1965;
Spears, 1976) or to the laminated nature of the clay
texture (Curtis et al., 1980).
Although the clay fabric cannot be used as a depth
indicator, it is the only three-dimensional strain
marker available in shales, which helps to indicate a
deformation due to compaction strain. This unique
possibility of determining deformation type, together
with its common occurrence in the sedimentary
record, and the relative ease of measurement, makes
clay fabric analysis indispensable for the quantitative
study of the burial history of shales in sedimentary
basins. Moreover, the quantitative fabric analysis,
using an X-ray pole figure goniometer, can be an
important contribution to the fabric classification of
argillaceous rocks (cf. Sokolov & OBrien, 1990).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank the reviewers, N. R. OBrien and G. Oertel,
for their constructive remarks. I also thank G. S. D.
King for his grammatical advice. This work was
made possible by financial support of the N.F.S.R.
(Belgium). The material was provided by the Belgian
Geological Survey.
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