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UNIT 1

E -MAIL AND INTERNET

E-mail
Electronic mail, often abbreviated as email, e.mail or e-mail, is a method of exchanging
digital messages. E-mail systems are based on a store-and-forward model in which e-mail
computer server systems accept, forward, deliver and store messages on behalf of users,
who only need to connect to the e-mail infrastructure, typically an e-mail server, with a
network-enabled device (e.g., a personal computer) for the duration of message
submission or retrieval. Originally, e-mail was always transmitted directly from one
user's device to another's; nowadays this is rarely the case.

An electronic mail message consists of two components, the message header, and the
message body, which is the email's content. The message header contains control
information, including, minimally, an originator's email address and one or more
recipient addresses. Usually additional information is added, such as a subject header
field.

Header fields

The message header should include at least the following fields:

From: The e-mail address, and optionally the name of the author(s). In many e-
mail clients not changeable except through changing account settings.
To: The e-mail address(es), and optionally name(s) of the message's recipient(s).
Indicates primary recipients (multiple allowed), for secondary recipients see Cc:
and Bcc: below.
Subject: A brief summary of the topic of the message.
Date: The local time and date when the message was written. Like the From:
field, many email clients fill this in automatically when sending. The recipient's
client may then display the time in the format and time zone local to her.
Message-ID: Also an automatically generated field; used to prevent multiple
delivery and for reference in In-Reply-To:

Email is simply the shortened form of electronic mail, a protocol for receiving, sending
and storing electronic messages. Email has gained popularity with the spread of the
Internet. In many cases, email has become the preferred method of communication.

The following sections describe the key features of email.

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Email Is A Push Technology: Email is delivered to the recipient so they don't have to
work to get it -- they just open their Inbox and there it is.

Email Waits For You: Email is particularly convenient because it is asynchronous; it


waits for you and fits into your schedule instead of demanding that you structure your
activities to synchronize with those you communicate with.

Email Has The Power Of One-To-Many : You can send an email to several people in
one simple action. Communications can be divided into four types depending on the
number of parties participating in the information transfer: (1) one-to-one, (2) one-to-

.
many, (3) many-to-one, and (4)many-to-many Each type of communication has its
own attributes and strengths. For example, the typical phone call is one-to-one, and
the typical meeting is many-to-many. Email is the most successful one-to-many
technology, with respect to both sending and receiving:

Sending. You can send an email to more than one person at a time, for example to
everyone in your family, or to a group of friends.

Receiving. You can receive information that has been mailed to more than one
person, for example an announcement sent to hundreds of people on a mailing list.

Free of Cost: Email is by far the most inexpensive form of communication across
global distances. You can send email to anyone in the world, no matter how far
away, at no extra cost to you. Use of regular paper mail, telephone, or telegram

E mail address
E mail address identifies an email box to which email messages are delivered. An
example format of an email address is narendra@example.net which is read
as narendra at example dot net. Many earlier email systems used different address
formats.

Overview

Transport of email across the Internet uses the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),
which is defined in Internet standards RFC 5321 and RFC 5322, while mailboxes are
most often accessed with the Post Office Protocol (POP) and the Internet Message
Access Protocol (IMAP).

Email addresses, such as narendra@gmail.com, have two parts. The part before
the @ sign is the local-part of the address, often the username of the recipient
(narendra), and the part after the @ sign is a domain name to which the email
message will be sent (gmail.com).

An SMTP server looks up the domain name using the Domain Name System, which is a
distributed database. A server queries the DNS for any mail exchanger records (MX

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records) to find the host name of a designated mail transfer agent(MTA) for that address.
That way, the organization holding the delegation for a given domain the mailbox
provider can define which are the target hosts for all email destined to its domain. The
mail exchanger does not need to be located in the domain of the destination mail box, it
must simply accept mail for the domain. The target hosts are configured with a
mechanism to deliver mail to all destination mail boxes. The local-part of an address, is
defined to be opaque to intermediate mail relay systems except the final mailbox host.
For example, it must not be assumed to be case-insensitive.

Multiple email addresses may point to the same mailbox. Conversely, a single email
address may be an alias and have a distribution function to many mailboxes. Email
aliases, electronic mailing lists, sub-addressing, and catch-all addresses, the latter being
mailboxes that receive messages irrespectively of the local part, are common patterns
for achieving such results.

The addresses found in the header fields of an email message are not the ones used by
SMTP servers to deliver the message. Servers use the so-called message envelope to
route mail. While envelope and header addresses may be equal, forged email addresses
are often seen in spam, phishing, and many other internet-based scams. This has led to
several initiatives which aim to make such forgeries easier to spot.

Electronic mailing list


An electronic mailing list is a special usage of email that allows for widespread
distribution of information to many Internetusers. It is similar to a traditional mailing list
a list of names and addresses as might be kept by an organization for sending
publications to its members or customers, but typically refers to four things a list of
email addresses, the people ("subscribers") receiving mail at those addresses, the
publications (email messages) sent to those addresses, and areflector, which is a single
email address that, when designated as the recipient of a message, will send a copy of
that message to all of the subscribers.

Electronic mailing lists work

Electronic mailing lists are usually fully or partially automated through the use of special
mailing list software and a reflector address that are set up on a server capable of
receiving email. Many electronic mailing list servers have a special email address in
which subscribers (or those that want to be subscribers) can send commands to the

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server to perform such tasks as subscribing and unsubscribing, Electronic mailing list
servers can be set to forward messages to subscribers of a particular mailing list either
individually as they are received by the list server

Types

Announcement list

One type of electronic mailing list is an announcement list, which is used primarily as a
one-way conduit of information and can only be "posted to" by selected people. This
may also be referred to by the term newsletter. Newsletter and promotional emailing lists
are employed in various sectors as parts of direct marketing campaigns.

Discussion list

Another type of electronic mailing list is a discussion list, in which any subscriber may
post. On a discussion list, a subscriber uses the mailing list to send messages to all the
other subscribers, who may answer in similar fashion. Thus, actual discussion and
information exchanges can happen. Mailing lists of this type are usually topic-oriented
(for example, politics, scientific discussion, joke contests), and the topic can range from
extremely narrow to "whatever you think could interest us". In this they are similar
to Usenet newsgroups, and share the same aversion to off-topic messages. The term
discussion group encompasses both these types of lists and newsgroups.

Feature of Internet:

The web leverages the key features of the Internet and makes them widely accessible to
the public. Key features of the web in particular are its ease of use, universal
accessibility, and ability to be quickly searched:

Ease of use. The web can be immediately used by anyone already familiar with a
computer window. The only special features are links, which are as natural and intuitive
to use as pressing a button. This ease of use enabled the rapid adoption of the web in the
1990's, and led to the establishment of the Internet around the world.

Universal access. The open design of the web makes it easy to build web browsers for a
wide range of devices. Web browsers have been deployed on cell phones and personal
organizers, and the web is now the standard interface for providing access to information.

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Search capabilities. The development of search sites greatly multiplied the power and
usefulness of the web by providing the capability to effectively search the content of
millions of web pages in seconds.

ISP: (Internet service provider)

An Internet service provider (ISP), also sometimes referred to as an Internet access


provider (IAP), is a company that offers its customers access to the Internet. The ISP
connects to its customers using a data transmission technology appropriate for delivering
Internet Protocol datagrams, such as dial-up, DSL, cable modem, wireless or dedicated
high-speed interconnects.

An ISP (Internet Service Provider) is a company that collects a monthly or yearly fee in
exchange for providing the subscriber with Internet access.

An ISP might provide dial-up service, cable, DSL, or other types of Internet access. Some
ISPs are local while others are national. A national ISP will provide access throughout
most of the nation, while a local ISP will only serve subscribers in a limited geographical
region.

ISPs may provide Internet e-mail accounts to users which allow them to communicate
with one another by sending and receiving electronic messages through their ISP's
servers. ISPs may provide other services such as remotely storing data files on behalf of
their customers, as well as other services unique to each particular ISP.

ISPs employ a range of technologies to enable consumers to connect to their network.

For users and small businesses, the most popular options include dial-up, DSL (typically
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, ADSL), broadband wireless, cable modem, fiber to
the premises (FTTH), and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) (typically basic
rate interface).

For customers with more demanding requirements, such as medium-to-large businesses,


or other ISPs, DSL (often SHDSL or ADSL), Ethernet, Metro Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet,
Frame Relay, ISDN (BRI or PRI), ATM, satellite Internet access and synchronous optical
networking (SONET) are more likely to be used.

Typical home user connection

Dial-up
DSL
Broadband wireless access
Cable Internet
FTTH
ISDN
Wi-Fi

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ISP services range in price according to the package offered, and type of service. Dial-up
is least expensive, and perks will vary greatly between ISPs. Some offer multiple email
accounts, others vast amounts of webspace, and still others discounts for paying in
advance. DSL and cable companies will also differ, so carefully read through offerings
before deciding. If you are getting an ISP other than cable, you will likely have choices.
There are many websites that offer reviews from present subscribers of various ISPs,
which might be helpful in making a decision.

FTP: (File Transfer Protocol):


File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to exchange and
manipulate files over a TCP/IP based network, such as the Internet. FTP is built on a
client-server architecture and utilizes separate control and data connections between the
client and server applications. Applications were originally interactive command-line
tools with a standardized command syntax, but graphical user interfaces have been
developed for all desktop operating systems in use today. FTP is also often used as an
application component to automatically transfer files for program internal functions. FTP
can be used with user-based password authentication or with anonymous user access

The key definition to remember is the term "protocol," which means a set of rules or
standards that govern the interactions between computers. It is a key component in many
terms that are now taken for granted: Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol or
TCP/IP, the governing standards for internet communications; Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol or HTTP, which established the benchmarks for internet addresses and
communications between two computers in the internet; and File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
which, as has been said, sets the rules for transferring files between computers.

The primary objective in the formulation of File Transfer Protocols was to make file
transfers uncomplicated and to relieve the user of the burden of learning the details on
how the transfer is actually accomplished. The result of all these standards and rules can
be seen in today's web interactions, where pointing-and-clicking (with a mouse) initiates
a series of actions that the typical internet user does not see or even remotely understand.

Purpose

To promote sharing of files (computer programs and/or data).


To encourage indirect or implicit use of remote computers.
To shield a user from variations in file storage systems among different hosts.
To transfer data reliably, and efficiently.

Data format

While transferring data over the network, several data representations can be used. The
two most common transfer modes are:

ASCII mode
Binary mode: In "Binary mode", the sending machine sends each file byte for
byte and as such the recipient stores the bytestream as it receives it. (The FTP
standard calls this "IMAGE" or "I" mode)
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In ASCII mode, any form of data that is not plain text will be corrupted. When a file is
sent using an ASCII-type transfer, the individual letters, numbers, and characters are sent
using their ASCII character codes. The receiving machine saves these in a text file in the
appropriate format (for example, a Unix machine saves it in a Unix format, a Windows
machine saves it in a Windows format). Hence if an ASCII transfer is used it can be
assumed plain text is sent, which is stored by the receiving computer in its own format.

HTTP: (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

HTTP or Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the communications protocol


which enables browsing the Web.

Short for HyperText Transfer Protocol, the underlying protocol used by the World Wide
Web. HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web
servers and browsers should take in response to various commands. For example, when
you enter a URL in your browser, this actually sends an HTTP command to the Web
server directing it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page.

The other main standard that controls how the World Wide Web works is HTML, which
covers how Web pages are formatted and displayed.

HTTP is called a stateless protocol because each command is executed independently,


without any knowledge of the commands that came before it. This is the main reason that
it is difficult to implement Web sites that react intelligently to user input. This
shortcoming of HTTP is being addressed in a number of new technologies, including
ActiveX, Java, JavaScript and cookies.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application-level protocol for distributed,


collaborative, hypermedia information systems.Its use for retrieving inter-linked
resources, called hypertext documents

HTTP session

An HTTP session is a sequence of network request-response transactions. An HTTP


client initiates a request. It establishes a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
connection to a particular port on a host

Computers on the World Wide Web use the HyperText Transfer Protocol to talk with
each other. The HTTP provides a set of instructions for accurate information exchange.
The communication between the client (your browser) and the server (a software located
on a remote computer) involves requests sent by the client and responses from the server.

Each client-server transaction, whether a request or a response, consists of three main


parts

1. A response or request line

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2. Header information
3. The body

A client connects to the server at port 80 (unless it has been changed by the system
administrator) and sends a request. The request line from the client consists of a request
method, the address of the file requested and the HTTP version number.

WORLD WIDE WEB

WWW: The World Wide Web, abbreviated as WWW and W3 and commonly known
as The Web, is a system of interlinked hypertext documents contained on the
Internet. With a web browser, one can view web pages that may contain text,
images, videos, and other multimedia and navigate between them using hyperlinks.
Using concepts from earlier hypertext systems.

"The World-Wide Web (W3) was developed to be a pool of human knowledge, which
would allow collaborators in remote sites to share their ideas and all aspects of a common
project." [4] If two projects are independently created, rather than have a central figure
make the changes, the two bodies of information could form into one cohesive piece of
work.

Classification of Computer:
Computers are classified according to their data processing speed, amount of data that
they can hold and price. Generally, a computer with high processing speed and large
internal storage is called a big computer. Due to rapidly improving technology, we are
always confused among the categories of computers.
Depending upon their speed and memory size, computers are classified into following
four main groups.

1. Supercomputer.
2. Mainframe computer.
3. Mini computer.
4. Microcomputer.

1.Supercomputer: Supercomputer is the most powerful and fastest, and also very
expensive. It was developed in 1980s. It is used to process large amount of data and to
solve the complicated scientific problems. It can perform more than one trillions
calculations per second. It has large number of processors connected parallel. So parallel
processing is done in this computer. In a single supercomputer thousands of users can be
connected at the same time and the supercomputer handles the work of each user
separately. Supercomputer are mainly used for:

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Weather forecasting.
Nuclear energy research.
Aircraft design.
Automotive design.
Online banking.

2. Mainframe Computers: Mainframe computers are also large-scale computers but


supercomputers are larger than mainframe. These are also very expensive. The
mainframe computer specially requires a very large clean room with air-conditioner. This
makes it very expensive to buy and operate. It can support a large number of various
equipments. It also has multiple processors.

3. Minicomputers: These are smaller in size, have lower processing speed and also have
lower cost than mainframe. These computers are known as minicomputers because of
their small size as compared to other computers at that time. The capabilities of a
minicomputer are between mainframe and personal computer. These computers are also
known as midrange computers.
The minicomputers are used in business, education and many other government
departments. Although some minicomputers are designed for a single user but most are
designed to handle multiple terminals.

5. MicrocomputerThe microcomputers are also known as personal computers or


simply PCs. Microprocessor is used in this type of computer. These are very small
in size and cost. The IBMs first microcomputer was designed in 1981 and was
named as IBM-PC. After this many computer hardware companies copied the
design of IBM-PC. The term PC-compatible refers any personal computer
based on the original IBM personal computer design.

There are many characteristics of a computer system

1. Speed:-
A computer is a very high speed device they can perform or execute more than
100 millions of attraction for per second. Thus result high speed performance is
performance is very fast.

2. Accuracy:-
The accuracy of a computer is high and the degree of a particulars computer
depend upon its designed but for a computer accuracy calculation with the same
accuracy error accuracy in a computer there are many to human gather than
technological or by the program due to accurate data in a wrong direction.

3. Diligence:-
A human being get boar and tired and loss of efficiency and securely in
repeated task but a computer never get and tired it will perform a calculation with scene
speed same accuracy for any number of times.

4. Storage:-

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The high speed of calculation of computer reserve into requires more and
more internal memory. The storage memory capacity of interred to megabyte and beg
byte a good computer score
100 megabyte and beg byte.

5. Versatility:-
The computer are reliable very accurate and can be used to solve the
program related to difference field at one moment it may solve a computer stymie
program and next it may be playing a game and may busy in other database problem.

6. Reliable:-
The computer e reliable very accuracy and do not mistake in earth mastic
calculation the reason is not hard ware level it does not require human interfere between
its processing operations.

7. Reductions in paper work:-


The use of computer for data processing has help for
business organization with the increasing problem of papers handling.

8. Reduction in cost:-
The investment of installing is high with after that it reduce the
cost of an operation.

9. Retrieval capacity:-
A computer has not a high storage capacity rather then it can
between the storage there in second accuracy it.

Limitation of a computer system

1. A computer has no brain intelligence of its on it does what is ask to does any
sequence.
2. Computer can only do a job which can be express.
3. The computer can work in a particular entailments temperature of 15-35 and free
at heart.
4. It has no emotions of fillings life human being in other words it has no hearts and
sow being a simple machine.

Operating system
An operating system (OS) is an interface between hardware and user which is responsible
for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of a
computer that acts as a host for computing applications run on the machine. As a host,
one of the purposes of an operating system is to handle the details of the operation of the
hardware. This relieves application programs from having to manage these details and
makes it easier to write applications

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Operating systems offer a number of services to application programs and users.
Applications access these services through system calls or, when available, application
programming interfaces (APIs). By executing these system calls, or invoking these
interfaces, the operating system can manage parameters in the background, or negotiate
exchanges of signals or processes, relieving programs or processes in the foreground
from the tedium of scrutinizing low level matters. Users may also interact with the
operating system with some kind of software user interface like typing commands by
using command line interface (CLI) or using a graphical user interface (GUI).

DOS:
Microsoft Disk Operating System) is an operating system for x86 based personal
computers, which was purchased by Microsoft. It was the most commonly used member
of the DOS family of operating systems, and was the main operating system for personal
computers during the 1980s and 1990s.

Originally MS-DOS was designed to be an operating system that could run on any
8086-family computer. Each computer would have its own distinct hardware and its own
version of MS-DOS,

UNIX Operating System:


is a computer operating system originally developed in 1969 by a group of AT&T
employees at Bell Labs, including Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Brian Kernighan,
Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna. Today the term Unix is used to describe any
operating system that conforms to Unix standards, meaning the core operating system
operates the same as the original Unix operating system. Today's Unix systems are split
into various branches, developed over time by AT&T as well as various commercial
vendors and non-profit organizations.

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Unix operating systems are widely used in both servers and workstations. The
Unix environment and the client-server program model were essential elements in the
development of the Internet and the reshaping of computing as centered in networks
rather than in individual computers.

Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing


configuration. Unix systems are characterized by various concepts: the use of plain text
for storing data; a hierarchical file system; treating devices and certain types of inter-
process communication (IPC) as files; and the use of a large number of software tools,

Feature:

Multitasking is a method by which multiple tasks, also known as processes, share


common processing resources such as a CPU. In the case of a computer with a single
CPU, only one task is said to be running at any point in time, meaning that the CPU is
actively executing instructions for that task.

Multi-user is a term that defines an operating system or application software that allows
concurrent access by multiple users of a computer

Time-sharing is sharing a computing resource among many users by means of


multiprogramming and multi-tasking.

Representation of Data Inside Computer:

computer

works with binary number system that is consist of only two digits zero and one. Inside
the computer binary number is represented by an electrical pulse. One means a pulse of
electricity and zero means no pulse. All the data enters into the computers first converts
into the binary number system. One digit in binary number system is called bit and
combination of eight bits is called byte. A byte is the basic unit that is used to represent
the alphabetic, numeric and alphanumeric data.

Data is the combination of characters, numbers and symbols collected fro a specific
purpose. Data is divided into three types; alphabetic data, numeric data and alphanumeric
data. Numeric data consist of ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, two signs + and and
decimal point . There are different types of number system that are used to represent
numeric data. These number systems are decimal number system, binary number system,
octal number system and hexadecimal number system.

Alphabetic data is used to represent 26 alphabetic. It consist of capital letters from A to Z,


small letters from a to z and blank space. Alphabetic data is also called non numeric
data. Alphanumeric data used to represent alphabetic data, numeric data, special
character.

Computer is a system to manipulate data. Monitor, where we see data, is not the place to
store them (though one of the police team had ceased the monitor to investigate a case of

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data theft!). It is the secondary storage devices (hard disk, floppy disk, CD, DVD, etc.)
where the data are stored. Whatever we write through the keyboard or try to push
through the various input devices, the corresponding input devices convert them first into
digital signals to produce 0 or 1 (bits). These continuous streams of bits are then stored or
represented signifying the non-availability or availability of the voltage. To avoid further
ambiguity in retrieval, these bits are stored and accessed in a group, say 8 bits together.
The group of 8 bits is called byte and thus the higher units of bit calculation are the KB (1
KB = 1024 bytes), MB (1 MB = 1024 KB), GB (1 GB = 1024 MB), etc.

There exist several kinds of data such as Textual, Numerical, Alphanumerical, logical,
Pictorial or Audiovisual. Each type of data has some pre-defined way of representation
and other behaviour inside the computer. The textual data are the alphabetic character set
of any language whereas the digits constitute the numeric part of the data. The mixture of
alphabetic and numeric data together form the alphanumeric character sets. The logical
data are those that help to analyse the comparison concept. Pictures and sounds create the
pictorial and audiovisual data for the computer.

Digital Computer:
A computer that stores data in terms of digits (numbers) and proceeds in discrete steps
from one state to the next. The states of a digital computer typically involve binary digits
which may take the form of the presence or absence of magnetic markers in a storage
medium (see memory), on-off switches or relays. In digital computers, even letters,
words and whole texts are represented digitally.

Computer capable of solving problems by processing information expressed in discrete


form. By manipulating combinations of binary digits (see binary code), it can perform
mathematical calculations, organize and analyze data, control industrial and other
processes, and simulate dynamic systems such as global weather patterns

A digital computer is an electronic computing machine that uses the binary digits (bits) 0
and 1 to represent all forms of information internally in digital form. Every computer has
a set of instructions that define the basic functions it can perform. Sequences of these
instructions constitute machine-language programs that can be stored in the computer and
used to tailor it to an essentially unlimited number of specialized applications.
Calculators are small computers specialized for mathematical computations. General-
purpose computers range from pocket-sized personal digital assistants (notepad
computers), to medium-sized desktop computers (personal computers and workstations),
to large, powerful computers that are shared by many users via a computer network. The
vast majority of digital computers now in use are inexpensive, special-purpose
microcontrollers that are embedded, often invisibly, in such devices as toys, consumer
electronic equipment, and automobiles.

A device that processes numerical information; more generally, any device that
manipulates symbolic information according to specified computational procedures. The
term digital computeror simply, computerembraces calculators, computer
workstations, control computers (controllers) for applications such as domestic
appliances and industrial processes, data-processing systems, microcomputers,
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microcontrollers, multiprocessors, parallel computers, personal computers, network
servers, and supercomputers.

The main data-processing elements of a computer reside in a small number of electronic


integrated circuits (ICs) that form a microprocessor or central processing unit (CPU).
Electronic technology allows a basic instruction such as add two numbers to be
executed many millions of times per second. Other electronic devices are used for
program and data storage (memory circuits) and for communication with external devices
and human users (input-output circuits). Nonelectronic (magnetic, optical, and
mechanical) devices also appear in computers. They are used to construct input-output
devices such as keyboards, monitors (video screens), secondary memories, printers,
sensors, and mechanical actuators.

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Computer Memory
Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer
components, devices, and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for
some interval of time. Computer data storage provides one of the core functions of the
modern computer, that of information retention. It is one of the fundamental components
of all modern computers, and coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor),
implements the basic computer model used since the 1940s.

n contemporary usage, memory usually refers to a form of semiconductor storage known


as random-access memory (RAM) and sometimes other forms of fast but temporary
storage. Similarly, storage today more commonly refers to mass storage optical discs,
forms of magnetic storage like hard disk drives, and other types slower than RAM, but of
a more permanent nature. Historically, memory and storage were respectively called
main memory and secondary storage. The terms internal memory and external memory
are also used.

A digital computer represents data using the binary numeral system. Text, numbers,
pictures, audio, and nearly any other form of information can be converted into a string of
bits, or binary digits, each of which has a value of 1 or 0. The most common unit of
storage is the byte, equal to 8 bits. A piece of information can be handled by any
computer whose storage space is large enough to accommodate the binary representation
of the piece of information, or simply data. For example, using eight million bits, or about
one megabyte, a typical computer could store a short novel.

Primary storage

Primary storage (or main memory or internal memory), often referred to simply as
memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads
instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is
also stored there in uniform manner.

RAM:- RAM is the random memory. It is the internal memory of C.P.U for
storing data. It is read write memory & it is volatile in nature. It is also called random
excess memory. Then is randomly. It is fast & very expenses. The information in ram. It
retain as there is power splay . When the power is swift off information store in the ram is
last.

Static RAM: - .Static RAM contain more than one transjector & capacitor there
for more expensive. But it does not lose its charge.

Dynamic Ram:- every cell of dynamic ram is made up of one trajectory & one
capacitor on transjector were as a switch device that give to & status on & off the
dynamic Ram store information in the form of charge on a capacitor. When transjector
is on current is pass & capacitor get charge forming a one bit otherwise zero bit. But there
is a leakage in the capacitor & the information get lost if the capacitor is not charge again

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the contain must be refresh reguralarly to ratfish in the memory so it is called dynamic
Ram. Dynamic ram are cheap having high pack aging density & speed.

Rom:- Rom is the read only memory. The memory from which we can only read. But
cannot write. It is called Rom. This is non volatile in nature the information is store
permanently in Rom. During manufacture the Rom spared interactions. That Rom started
instructions. Those are required to start computer. When electricity is fast time on. This
operation is referring to as bootstrap its size & costs both are lower than Ram. The
contained of Rom are not lost when power supply is terminated like Ram. There are
various types of rom.

Types of Rom

1- E. Rom (Erasable read only memory)- E. Rom is the types of Rom. The contain of
which can be erase. Making the Rom reusable. How ever the enraging remove of the
chip from the C.P.U such chip are hardly suitable for use by the application
programmer.

2- P. Rom (programmable read only memory) The P. Rom is a field of programmable


device. It can be program only once & is not erasing.

3- E. P. Rom( erasable & programmable read only memory)- E. P. Rom can be erase by
exposing it to ultraviolet light for a direction up to 40 minutes & E. P. Rom eraser
achieved to device. Programming & electrical charge is tape & the charge is retain
for than ten year. Because the charge has no leakage path.

4- E. E. P. Rom( electrically erasable & programmable read only memory)- E. E. P.


Rom can be erase & reprogram about ten thousand times bought erasing &
programming take about to ten second. The bought advantage of E. E. P. Rom is
that. It is non volatile memory & can not update easily. While disadvantage are the
high cost & at present. They are not completely non vale tile & the write operations
take more time.

Secondary memory- the main drop at primary memory is that it is volatile & its
capacity is limited to manage this problem it is sport by addition memory. Which is more
permanent nonvolatile & can grow to a limit of infinite? This memory is outside in
C.P.U. but it sport main memory. So it is called secondary memory. Or external memory.
The cost per bit of storage for this memory is very low & its operating speed is slow as
compare to main memory. The auxiliary memory can store as much data required by the
user at as long as its need. The secondary storage device are easy to handle & transport
that is not possible with primary key.

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Types of secondary storage device.
Take & disk is the two principal storage devices in a computer system. These storage
device also non as bat the storage device & are use for a veracity of purpose such as to
store file for data temporary storage of program. Main advantage of basic. These devices
are external to C.P.U 7 the main memory are also term as secondary storage device.
These are many secondary storage device are.

1:- magnetic tape:- magnetic tape is a popular & least expenses for storing data &
files. The magnetic tape made is of plastic base coated path with on iron oxide coating.
the wield of a tape can according to the particular system. The length of a reel of tape
may from 1200 to 3600 feet. The data are store in a magnetic tape according their size a
character is store along with width of the take in the formed of vertical frame with
entered a with return at a time. One standard of a computer is 1600 & 16250 bit per inch.

Advantage of magnetic tape.


1:-storage capacity: - the storage capacity of magnetic tape is very large.
2:- portable: - it is portable.
3:- cost: - magnetic tape is one of the cheap storage media. The cost per feet storing data
on take is very fast.
4:- reusable: - the particular data can be deleted & other data can be store at the same
place. The space can be using any number of times.

Disadvantage.
1: - Non flexible magnetic tap is not flexible media.
2:- Transmission speed:- The rate of data transfer is very slow in magnetic tap due
serial nature of the device.
3:- Access time:- All the report prior to the requirement record access time is very large
in magnetic tape.
4:- Interment problem:- The problem of dust humidity 7 high temphracer cause input
output error.

Magnetic disk: - Magnetic disk is a storage device. Which make be as the shape of
gramophone record this disk is coated on box side with a fill of magnetic martial has the
properly that can store ether 1 & 0 permanently. The disk mounted on a spindle
connected to a motor rotate is very fast speed of the order of 3600 per second. Each disk
is divided into number of & each track divided sector. There are per surface. Top surface
of fast bottom of the last are not use for reading & writing. Then surface are used for
storage purpose each surface has five hundred per tracks & each track has forty sectors.

Advantage of magnetic disk:-


1:-storage capacity: - It can store a large volume of data.
2:- Transmission speed:- The rate of data transmission is fast magnetic disk.
3:- Access time:- access time with magnetic disk it is possible to access a record directly.
So access time is less in this space magnetic disk.

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4:- reusable: Reusable in this we can delete a particular data & store another data at the
same place.
5:- flexible:- It is flexible . because it can use seqnencilly direct access storage device.

Dis advantage.
1:- Cost:- cost of character storage. It hailer as compare to magnetic tape.
2:- Non human readable:- Non human readable data store in magnetic disk. It is non
human readable from their form manual encoding not possible in
magnetic disk.
3:- Non portable:- Non portable is very less is compare to magnetic tap.
4:- limited size record:- length of record which can be be store on it is limited by the
size of disk track of disk sector.

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