SeismicLoads

Earthquakesoftenoccurduetoslipbetweentectonicplatesalongageologicalfaultintheearth's
crust.Earthquakesresultinvarioustypesofgroundmotionasseismicwavespropagatethrough
theearth.Asthesewavespassthelocationofastructure,theassociatedgroundmotionsubjects
thestructuretolateralforces(primarily)andverticalforces(toalesserdegree).
Thefollowingisashortanimationthatillustratestheoriginofseismicwavesandtheireffecton
asinglestorystructure.
Groundmotionatthebaseofastructureresultsindynamicloads(forces)distributedthroughout
the structure based on the stiffnesses of structural elements (restoring forces) and the
distribution of mass (inertial forces). The most accurate methods of design for seismic loads
involvecomprehensivedynamicanalysesofstructures.However,simplifiedanalyticaltechniques
(typically referred to as equivalent static force or equivalent lateral force procedures) are
providedinmodelbuildingcodesforthedesignoflowrisebuildingssubjectedtoseismicloads.
Since most wood structures are classified as lowrise buildings, this tutorial focuses on
understandingandutilizingtheequivalentstatic(lateral)forceproceduresspecifiedinthe2000
InternationalBuildingCode(IBC)andthe1997UniformBuildingCode(UBC).
EquivalentStaticLateralForces
Theconceptemployedinequivalentstaticlateralforceproceduresistoplacestaticloadsona
structurewithmagnitudesanddirectionthatcloselyapproximatetheeffectsofdynamicloading
causedbyearthquakes.Concentratedlateralforcesduetodynamicloadingtendtooccuratfloor
and ceiling/roof levels in buildings, where concentration of mass is the highest. Furthermore,
concentratedlateralforcestendtobelargerathigherelevationsinastructure.Thus,thegreatest
lateraldisplacementsandthelargestlateralforcesoftenoccuratthetoplevelofastructure
(particularly for tall buildings). These effects are modeled in equivalent static lateral force
proceduresoftheIBCandUBCbyplacingaforceateachstorylevelinastructure,asshown
below:
whereV=baseshearforceassociatedwithgroundmotionatthebaseofthestructure
Fx=lateralstoryforceappliedateachstorylevelofthestructure
Ft=additionallateralforceappliedatthetoplevelofthestructure(pertheUBC)
Ingeneral,thedistributionoflateralstoryforcesisassociatedwiththefirst(fundamental)mode
ofvibrationofacantileveredstructure.(Inthiscase,atypicalstructureisidealizedasavertical
cantilever rigidly attached to the ground.) The effects of higher modes of vibration are
approximatedintheUBCbyconsideringanadditionallateralforce,Ft,appliedtothetoplevelof
astructure.IntheIBC,theeffectsofhighermodesofvibrationareaddressedwhencalculating
storyforces,Fx,byutilizingadistributionexponent,1<k<2,thatcanvarybasedonthenatural
(fundamental)periodofvibrationofthestructure.
InboththeIBCandtheUBC,thesummationofthelateralstoryforces(plustheadditionallateral
forceatthetop,Ft,intheUBC)mustbeequivalenttothebaseshear(V)forceappliedtothe
structureduetoseismicgroundmotion.

Base shear is an estimate of the maximum expected lateral force that will occur due to seismic
ground motion at the base of a structure. Calculations of base shear (V) depend on:

soil conditions at the site

proximity to potential sources of seismic activity (such as geological faults)

probability of significant seismic ground motion

the level of ductility and over strength associated with various structural configurations
and the total weight of the structure

the fundamental (natural) period of vibration of the structure when subjected to dynamic
loading

BaseShearUniformBuildingCode(UBC)
The UBC addresses the probability of significant seismic activity in various locations by
categorizinggeographicregionsoftheU.S.asSeismicZones0through4(SeeUBCFigure162).
SeismicZone0indicatesageographiclocationwherenoseismicactivityisexpectedtooccur.
Seismic Zone 4 indicates a geographic location with a high probability of significant seismic
activity.
TheequivalentstaticforceprocedureintheUniformBuildingCode(UBC1630.2)specifiesthe
followingformulaforcalculatingbaseshear(V):
V=CvIW/RT (UBCEquation304)
TheUBCalsospecifiesthefollowingupperandlowerboundsforV:
Upperbound:V<2.5CaIW/R (UBCEquation305)
Lowerbound:V>0.11CaIW/R (UBCEquation306)
An additional lower bound applies in seismic zone 4 (major portions of California, as well as
regionsinAlaska,Arizona,Hawaii,Idaho,Montana,NevadaandWyoming):
V>0.8ZNvIW/R (UBCEquation307)
Theupperboundvalueforbasesheartendstogovernforrelativelystiffstructuresthatexhibita
small(short)fundamentalperiodofvibration(T).Thelowerboundvaluesforbasesheartendto
governforrelativelyflexiblestructuresthatexhibitalarge(long)fundamentalperiodofvibration
(T).
Thetermsusedtocalculatebaseshear(V)inUBCEquation304aredefinedasfollows:
W=totalseismicdeadloadofthestructure(deadloadsplusapplicableportionsofsomestorage
loadsandsnowloads,asspecifiedinUBC1630.1.1)
I=importancefactor(seeUBCTable16K)
Theimportancefactorisessentiallyanextrasafetyadjustmentusedtoincreasethecalculated
loadonastructurebasedonitsoccupancyand/orfunction.Essentialfacilities(suchashospitals,
fireandpolicestations,etc.)andfacilitiesthathousetoxicorexplosivesubstanceshavehigher
seismicimportancefactors(I=1.25)thanotherstructures(I=1.0).Higherimportancefactors
are intended to insure that structural integrity is not compromised and important facilities
remain operational during emergencies and natural disasters. Based on typical occupancy
classifications for most wood structures, wood buildings are frequently designed using an
importancefactorofunity(I=1.0).
Designersshouldnotethattheseismicimportancefactor(I)isnotidenticaltotheimportance
factorforwind(Iw).Furthermore,theUBCprovidestwodistinctseismicimportancefactorsone
(I)forthedesignoftypicalstructuralsystems/assembliessuchasshearwallsanddiaphragms,
andanother(Ip)forthedesignofcriticalelementsthatareattachedtostructuresandmayneed
toresistlargeconcentratedseismicforces(seeUBCSection1632formoredetails).
T=fundamental(natural)periodofvibrationforastructure
TheUBCprovidesthefollowingsimplifiedmethodforestimatingTbasedontheheightofthe
structure(hn):
T=Ct(hn)3/4(UBCEquation308)
whereCt=0.02forwoodstructures
hn=heightofthetoplevelofastructure(ft)
Forstructureswithflatroofs,hnisthedistancefromthegroundtotheroof/ceilingsystem.For
structureswithsloped(pitched)roofs,hnmaybetakenaseithertheheightoftheceilingsystem
abovethegroundorasthemeanroofheight.
R=ductilityandoverstrengthfactor(seeUBCTable16N)
TheRfactorisintendedtoaccountforinelasticstructuralbehaviorandtheabilityofastructure
todisplace/deformanddissipateenergywithoutfailing.SinceallRfactorsspecifiedinUBCTable
16Naregreaterthanunity(R>1.0),theRfactoreffectivelyreducesthecalculatedbaseshear
(V)byvaryingamountsdependingontheductilityofastructure.Ingeneral,ductilestructural
systemsshouldhavehigherRfactorsthanbrittlestructuralsystems.TypicalvaluesofRformany
lowrisewoodstructuresare:

R = 5.5 for light frame wood buildings with shear walls that support gravity loads and
simultaneouslyresistlateralloadsinstructureslessthan4storieshigh
R = 4.5 for light frame wood buildings with shear walls that support gravity loads and
simultaneouslyresistlateralloadsinstructuresmorethan3storieshigh
The following additional R factorsalso apply to wood structures, butare associated with less
commonlyusedstructuralsystems:
R = 6.5 for light frame wood buildings less than 4 stories high in which the frame system
supportsgravityloadsindependentlyoftheshearpanelsthatresistlateralloads
R = 5.0 for light frame wood buildings more than 3 stories high in which the frame system
supportsgravityloadsindependentlyoftheshearpanelsthatresistlateralloads
R = 5.6 for heavy timber braced frames in which the frame system supports gravity loads
independentlyofthebracingthatresistslateralloads
R = 2.8 for heavy timber braced frames in which bracing supports gravity loads and
simultaneouslyresistslateralloads
Cv and Ca are seismic coefficients associated with structural sensitivity to the velocity and
acceleration (respectively) of seismic ground motion. Cv and Ca are based on the geographic
locationofthestructure(seismiczone)andsoilconditionsatthesite.ValuesforCvandCaare
specifiedinUBCTables16Rand16Q.
The additional lower bound for calculating base shear (V) in seismic zone 4 includes factors
associatedwiththemagnitudeofpeakgroundacceleration(Z)andproximitytoknownsources
ofseismicactivity(Nv).ValuesforZandNvareprovidedinUBCTables16Iand16T.
UBCLateralStoryForces
Lateralforcesthatcounteractthebaseshear,V,areassumedtoactateachstorylevelofthe
structure.Themagnitudeofeachstoryforce,Fx,isdeterminedfromthefollowingformula:

(UBCEquation3015)
where:
hxistheheightfromthebaseofthestructuretolevelx
wxistheportionofthebuildingweightassumedtobelumpedatlevelx.wxtypicallyincludes
thetotalweightofthefloororceiling/roofsystematlevelx,plushalftheweightofthevertical
elements(walls;columns)locatedimmediatelybelowlevelxandhalftheweightofthevertical
elementslocatedimmediatelyabovelevelx.
Ftisanadditionallateralforceassumedtoactatthetopofastructure.Thisforceisintendedto
approximate the effects of higher modes of structural vibration. The magnitude of Ft is
determinedbasedonthenatural(fundamental)periodofvibrationofthestructure,T:
Ft=0 whenT<0.7s
Ft=0.07TV when0.7s<T<3.57s(UBCEquation3014)
Ft=0.25V whenT>3.57s
SinceFt=0whenT<0.7s,itisapparentfromUBCEquation308thatFt=0forbuildingsless
than114.5fttall.Thus,designersarenotrequiredtoconsideranadditionallateralforceatthe
top(Ft)formostwoodbuildings.
UBC Simplified Lateral Forces
Analternate(simplified)procedurecanbeusedtodeterminethebaseshear,V,andstoryforces,
Fx,forlowrise,standardoccupancy,lightframewoodstructuresthatare3storiesorlessin
height(seeUBC1629.8.2,1630.2.3,andTable16K):
V=3CaW/R (UBCEquation3011)
Fx=3Cawx/R (UBCEquation3012)
Thissimplifiedprocedureeliminatesexplicitconsiderationofthenatural(fundamental)period
ofstructuralvibration,T,andtheheighttoeachfloorlevel,hx,whencalculatingbaseshear,V,
and story forces, Fx. Furthermore, the extra force at the top of the structure, Ft, for
approximating the effects of complex structural vibrations is not considered in the simplified
methodology.
UBCComparison
Inordertoprovideacomparisonbetweentheequivalentlateralforcemethodandthesimplified
lateralforcemethod,considera3storywoodframestructurewith:
Buildingweightdistributedinequalproportionstothe1stlevel,2ndlevel,and3rd(roof)levelof
the structure (w1 = w2 = w3 = W/3), and Equal distance (height) between each level of the
structure(h1=h;h2=2h;h3=hn=3h).
Sincethetotalheight(hn=3h)ofa3storywoodstructurewillbelessthan114.5ft.,thismeans
thatFt=0.Asillustratedbelow,solvingUBCEquation3015fortheequivalentlateralforceat
eachlevelresultsinlateralforcemagnitudesof:
50%ofthebaseshearatthetop(roof)level(F3=Fn=V/2)
33%ofthebaseshearatthe2ndlevelofthestructure(F2=V/3)
17%ofthebaseshearatthe1stlevelofthestructure(F1=V/6)
Alternatively,solvingUBCEquation3012forthesimplifiedlateralforceateachlevelresultsin:
F1=F2=F3=V/3
UBCDiaphragmForces
Theseismiclateralforceappliedtotheperimeteroffloororroof/ceilingdiaphragmsateachlevel
ofastructureisdeterminedasfollows(UBC1633.2.9):
(UBCEquation331)

TheUBCalsospecifiesthefollowinglowerandupperboundsforFpx,
Lowerbound:Fpx>0.5CaIwpxc
Upperbound:Fpx<CaIwpxc
wherewpxistheportionofthebuildingweightassumedtobe"lumped"withthediaphragmat
levelx.
wpxissimilartowxusedtocalculateequivalentlateralstoryforces,Fx,butdoesnotincludethe
weightoftheshearwallsthatarealignedinthedirectionofthelateraldiaphragmforce,Fpx,
underconsideration.
The diaphragm force, Fpx can be divided by the diaphragm length, L, perpendicular to the
directionofFpxinordertodetermineanequivalentuniformlydistributedlateraldiaphragmload
appliedtotheedge(perimeter)ofthediaphragm.

Direction of Seismic Loading

In order to determine the critical seismic loading for all shear walls, diaphragms and connections
in a wood structure, lateral seismic forces are typically determined for two orthogonal directions.
For a rectangular wood building this means that base shear V, Fx forces, and Fpx forces will be
determined in a direction parallel to the longitudinal exterior walls of the structure, and also in a
direction parallel to the transverse exterior walls of the structure.

Each direction of seismic loading is considered independently, and structural elements must be
designed to resist the maximum applicable load.

BaseShearInternationalBuildingCode(IBC)

TheIBCaddressestheprobabilityofsignificantseismicgroundmotionbyusingmapsofspectral
response accelerations (Ss and S1) for various geographic locations (see IBC Figures 1615(1)
through 1615(10)). These mapped spectral response accelerations are combined with soil
conditions and building occupancy classifications to determine Seismic Design Categories A
throughFforvariousstructures.SeismicDesignCategoryAindicatesastructurethatisexpected
toexperienceveryminor(ifany)seismicactivity.SeismicDesignCategoryFindicatesastructure
withveryhighprobabilityofexperiencingsignificantseismicactivity.
TheequivalentstaticforceprocedureintheInternationalBuildingCode(IBC1617.4)specifies
thefollowingformulaforcalculatingbaseshear(V):
V=CsW (IBCEquation1634)
wheretheseismicresponsecoefficient,Cs,isdefinedas:
Cs=(2/3)FvS1IE/RT (IBCequations1636,1617,and1619)

TheIBCspecifiesthefollowingupperandlowerboundsforCs:
Upperbound:Cs<(2/3)FaSsIE/R (IBCEquations1635,1616,and1618)
Lowerbound:Cs>(0.044)(2/3)FaSsIE (IBCEquations1637,1616,and1618)

An additional lower bound applies for structures in Seismic Design Categories E and F, or
structureswithalargespectralresponseaccelerationforonesecondperiodofvibration,S1>
0.6g:
Cs>0.5S1IE/R (IBCEquation1638)
TheupperboundvalueforCstendstogovernforrelativelystiffstructuresthatexhibitasmall
(short)fundamentalperiodofvibration(T).ThelowerboundvaluesforCstendtogovernfor
relativelyflexiblestructuresthatexhibitalarge(long)fundamentalperiodofvibration(T).
Thetermsusedtocalculatebaseshear(V)inIBCEquations1634through1638aredefinedas
follows:
W=effectiveseismicweightofthestructure(deadloadsplusapplicableportionsofsomestorage
loadsandsnowloads,asspecifiedinIBC1617.4.1)
IE=seismicimportancefactor (seeIBCTable1604.5)
Theimportancefactorisessentiallyanextrasafetyadjustmentusedtoincreasethecalculated
loadonastructurebasedonitsoccupancyand/orfunction.Essentialfacilities(suchashospitals,
fireandpolicestations,etc.)havethehighestseismicimportancefactors(IE=1.5),whilebuildings
wherepeoplecongregate(suchasschools,auditoriums,etc.)alsohaverelativelyhighseismic
importancefactors(IE=1.25).Otherstructureshaveaseismicimportancefactorofunity(IE=
1.0). Higher importance factors are intended to insure that structural integrity is not
compromised and important facilities remain operational during emergencies and natural
disasters.Basedontypicaloccupancyclassificationsformostwoodstructures,woodbuildings
arefrequentlydesignedusinganimportancefactorofunity(IE=1.0).

Designersshouldnotethattheseismicimportancefactor(IE)isnotidenticaltotheimportance
factorforwind(Iw)northeimportancefactorforsnow(Is).
T=fundamental(natural)periodofvibrationforastructure
TheIBCprovidesthefollowingsimplifiedmethodforestimatingTbasedontheheightofthe
structure(hn):
T=Ct(hn)3/4(IBCEquation1639)
whereCt=0.02forwoodstructures
hn=heightofthetoplevelofastructure(ft)
Forstructureswithflatroofs,hnisthedistancefromthegroundtotheroof/ceilingsystem.For
structureswithsloped(pitched)roofs,hnmaybetakenaseithertheheightoftheceilingsystem
abovethegroundorasthemeanroofheight.
R=structuralresponsemodificationfactor (seeIBCTable1617.6)
TheRfactorisintendedtoaccountforinelasticstructuralbehaviorandtheabilityofastructure
todisplace/deformanddissipateenergywithoutfailing.SinceallRfactorsspecifiedinIBCTable
1617.6aregreaterthanunity(R>1.0),theRfactoreffectivelyreducesthecalculatedbaseshear
(V)byvaryingamountsdependingontheductilityofastructure.Ingeneral,ductilestructural
systemsshouldhavehigherRfactorsthanbrittlestructuralsystems.AtypicalvalueofRformany
lowrisewoodstructuresis:
R = 6 for light frame wood buildings with shear walls that support gravity loads and
simultaneouslyresistlateralloads
The following additional R factor also applies to wood structures, but is associated with less
commonlyusedstructuralsystems:
R = 6.5 for light frame wood buildings in which the frame system supports gravity loads
independentlyoftheshearpanelsthatresistlateralloads
Ss and S1 are maximum spectral response accelerations for short (0.2 second) periods of
vibrationandforlonger(1.0second)periodsofvibration,respectively.ValuesforSsandS1are
providedascontourlinessuperimposedonmapsoftheUnitedStates(seeIBCFigures1615(1)
through1615(10)),inunitsofpercentaccelerationduetogravity(%g).
Fv and Fa are seismic coefficients associated with structural sensitivity to the velocity and
acceleration (respectively) of seismic ground motion. Fv and Faare based on the spectral
responseaccelerations(SsandS1)associatedwiththegeographiclocationofthestructureand
soil conditions at the site. Values for Fv and Fa are specified in IBC Tables 1615.1.2(1) and
1615.1.2(2).
IBCLateralStoryForces
Lateralforcesthatcounteractthebaseshear,V,areassumedtoactateachstorylevelof
thestructure.Themagnitudeofeachstoryforce,Fx,isdeterminedfromthefollowingformula:
(IBCEquations1641and1642)

where:
hxistheheightfromthebaseofthestructuretolevelx
wxistheportionofthebuildingweightassumedtobelumpedatlevelx.wxtypicallyincludes
thetotalweightofthefloororceiling/roofsystematlevelx,plushalftheweightofthevertical
elements(walls;columns)locatedimmediatelybelowlevelxandhalftheweightofthevertical
elementslocatedimmediatelyabovelevelx.
k is an exponent that affects the distribution of lateral forces to various story levels. The
magnitude of k is determined based on the natural (fundamental) period of vibration of the
structure,T:
k=1 whenT<0.5s
1<k<2 when0.5s<T<2.5s
k=2 whenT>2.5s
When k = 1 the equivalent lateral story forces (Fx) vary linearly with height. When k > 1 the
equivalentlateralstoryforcesvarynonlinearlywithheighttoapproximatetheeffectsofhigher
modesofstructuralvibration.Sincek=1whenT<0.5s,itisapparentfromIBCEquation1639
thatk=1forbuildingslessthan73.1fttall.Thus,k=1formostwoodbuildings.
EXCEPTION:Inregionsoflowseismicactivity(SeismicDesignCategoryA)itisnotnecessaryto
calculatethebaseshear,V.Furthermore,lateralstoryforces(Fx)aresimplyassumedtobe1%
ofthelumpedweightatlevelx:
Fx=0.01wx (IBCEquation1627)
IBCSimplifiedLateralForces
Analternate(simplified)procedurecanbeusedtodeterminethebaseshear,V,andstoryforces,
Fx,forlowrise,standardoccupancylightframewoodstructuresthatare3storiesorlessin
height(seeIBC1616.6.1,1617.5,andTable1604.5):
V=(1.2)(2/3)FaSsW/R (IBCEquations1649,1616,and1618)
Fx=(1.2)(2/3)FaSswx/R (IBCEquations1650,1616,and1618)
Thissimplifiedprocedureeliminatesexplicitconsiderationofthenatural(fundamental)period
ofstructuralvibration,T,andtheheighttoeachfloorlevel,hx,whencalculatingbaseshear,V,
andstoryforces,Fx.

IBCComparison
Inordertoprovideacomparisonbetweentheequivalentlateralforcemethodandthesimplified
lateralforcemethod,considera3storywoodframestructurewith:Buildingweightdistributed
inequalproportionstothe1stlevel,2ndlevel,and3rd(roof)levelofthestructure(w1=w2=
w3=W/3),andEqualdistance(height)betweeneachlevelofthestructure(h1=h;h2=2h;h3
=hn=3h).
Sincethetotalheight(hn=3h)ofa3storywoodstructurewillbelessthan73.1ft,thismeans
thatk=1.Asillustratedbelow,solvingIBCEquation1641and1642fortheequivalentlateral
forceateachlevelresultsinlateralforcemagnitudesof:
50%ofthebaseshearatthetop(roof)level(F3=Fn=V/2)
33%ofthebaseshearatthe2ndlevelofthestructure(F2=V/3)
17%ofthebaseshearatthe1stlevelofthestructure(F1=V/6)

Alternatively,solvingIBCEquation1650,1616and1618forthesimplifiedlateralforceateach
levelresultsin:F1=F2=F3=V/3
IBCDiaphragmForces
Theseismiclateralforceappliedtotheperimeteroffloororroof/ceilingdiaphragmsateachlevel
ofastructureisdeterminedasfollows(IBC1620.3.3):
(IBCEquation1665)

TheIBCalsospecifiesthefollowinglowerandupperboundsforFpx:
Lowerbound:Fpx>(0.15)(2/3)FaSsIEwpx
Upperbound:Fpx<(0.30)(2/3)FaSsIEwpx
wherewpxistheportionofthebuildingweightassumedtobe"lumped"withthediaphragmat
levelx.
wpxissimilartowxusedtocalculateequivalentlateralstoryforces,Fx,butdoesnotincludethe
weightoftheshearwallsthatarealignedinthedirectionofthelateraldiaphragmforce,Fpx,
underconsideration.
The diaphragm force, Fpx, can be divided by the diaphragm length, L, perpendicular to the
directionofFpxinordertodetermineanequivalentuniformlydistributedlateraldiaphragmload
appliedtotheedge(perimeter)ofthediaphragm.
Direction of Seismic Loading

In order to determine the critical seismic loading for all shear walls, diaphragms and connections
in a wood structure, lateral seismic forces are typically determined for two orthogonal directions.
For a rectangular wood building this means that base shear V, Fx forces, and Fpx forces will be
determined in a direction parallel to the longitudinal exterior walls of the structure, and also in a
direction parallel to the transverse exterior walls of the structure.

Each direction of seismic loading is considered independently, and structural elements must be
designed to resist the maximum applicable load.