Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ABSTRACT
The capability of crops to grow on saline soils varies among species and depends
on the concentration of salts present in the rootzone and on various environmental
and cultural conditions. Information on the relative tolerance of different crops is
essential to the successful management of salt-affected agricultural lands and
waters. Results from over 50 years of research have produced salt tolerance data
that relate yield reductions of over 90 different crops to soil salinity. These data
are presented in tabular form and give threshold salinity values and percent yield
reductions expected at salinities exceeding the threshold. The recommended pro-
cedure to acquire reliable data, the yield response function used to quantify salt
tolerance data, and factors to consider when evaluating or using these data are
also described.
INTRODUCTION
234
PLANT RESPONSE
235
early reproductive stage of cereals. Apparently, most crops become more
tolerant at later stages of growth, but there are some exceptions. For
example, salt stress affects pollination of some rice (Oryza sativa L.) culti-
vars, thereby decreasing seed set and grain yield. (see Maas and Grattan,
1994, for further discussion and references).
ESTABLISHMENT OF EXPERIMENTS
236
methods that measure EC of the soil water directly or indirectly, the reader
is referred to Rhoades and Miyamoto (1990).
Maas and Hoffman (1977) proposed that the yield response curve for
agricultural crops could be represented by two linear lines, one, a horizontal
line depicting no response to increasing salinity at low concentrations, and
the second, a concentration-dependent line whose slope indicates the yield
reduction per unit increase in salinity at higher concentrations. The point
237
at which the two lines intersect designates the threshold, i.e. the maximum
soil salinity that does not reduce yield below that obtained under nonsaline
conditions. Figure 1 shows the two-piece model fitted to actual grain yields
obtained in a salt tolerance experiment on corn (Zea mays L.). This two-piece
linear response function provides a reasonably good fit for commercially
acceptable yields when plotted against time- and depth-averaged salinity in
the rootzone. For soil salinities exceeding the threshold of any given crop,
relative yield (Y,) can be estimated with the following equation:
Y,= lOO-b(EC,-a)
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7
S O I L SALINITY , EC, (dS/m)
Fig.l. The piece-wise linear response function fitted to actual yield data ob-
tained from corn. Data from Hoffman et al. (1983).
238
SALT-RESPONSE THRESHOLDS
Tables 1 and 2 list threshold and slope values for over 90 crops in terms
of EC,. Most of the data were obtained where crops were grown under
conditions simulating recommended cultural and management practices for
commercial production. Consequently, they indicate relative tolerances of
different crops grown under different conditions and not under some stand-
ardized set of conditions. Furthermore, the data apply only where crops are
exposed to fairly uniform salinities from the late seedling stage to maturity.
Where crops have particularly sensitive stages, the tolerance limits are
given in the footnotes. These data are also intended to apply where chloride
is the predominant anion. Plants grown on gypsiferous soils will tolerate
EC,s approximately 2 dS m-l higher than those listed in Table 1. The last
column provides a qualitative salt tolerance rating that is useful in catego-
rizing crops in general terms. The limits of these categories are illustrated
in Figure 2. Some crops are listed with only a qualitative rating because
experimental data are inadequate to calculate the threshold and slope.
Table 1. Salt tolerance of herbaceow crops.
Tolerance Threshold0 Slope (%
Common name Botanical nameb b a s e d on: (EC.)dS/m per dS/m) FtaUngd
Fiber, grain, and special crops
Artichoke, Jerusalem Hellanthus tuberosus L. Tuber yield 0.4 9.6 MS
Baw Hordeum vulgare L. Grain yield 8.0 5.0 T
Canola o r rapeseed Brassica campestris L [syn. B. rapa L.] Seed yield - T
Canola or rapeseed B.napus L Seed yield - T
Chick pea Clcer arietinum L Seed yield MS
Corn Zea mays L. Ear FW 1.7 12 MS
Cotton Gossyplum hirsutum L Seed cotton 7.7 52 T
yield
Crambe Crambe abyssinica Hochst. ex R.E. Fries Seed yield 2.0 8.5 MS
Flax Unum usitatissimum L seed yield 1.7 12 MS
Guat Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L). Taub. Seed yield 8.8 17 T
Kenal Hibiscus cannabinus L stem DW 8.1 11 .6 T
Mllet. channel Echinochloa tumerana (Domln) J.M. Black Grain yield T
Millet, pearl Pennisetum gloucum (L) R.Br Seed yield - MT
Oats Avena sativa L Grain yield - - T
Peanut Arachis hypogaea L. Seed yield 3.2 29 MS
Rice Oryza sativa L Grain yield 3.09 1P S
Roselle Hibiscus sabdaniffa L. Stem DW - - MT
Rye Secale cereale L. Grain yield 11.4 10.8 T
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius L. Seed yield - - MT
Sesameh Sesamum indicum L. PodDW - S
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench Grain yield 6.8 16 MT
Soybean Glycine max (L.) Merrill Seed yield 5.0 20 MT
SUgaMi Beta vulgaris L. Storage root 7.0 5.0 T
Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum L Shoot DW 1.7 5.9 MS
Sunflower Hellanthus annuus L. Seed yield - - MT
Triticate X Triticosecale Wittmack Grain yield 6.1 2.5 T
239
Tolerance ThreshddO Slope(%
Comm on name Botanical naineb based on: ( E C . ) dS/m per dS/m) lMJngd
Wheat Triticum aestivum L Grdn yield 6.0 7.1
Wheat (samI& T. aestivum L Grdn yldd 8.6 3.0
Wheat, Durum T. turgidum L var. durum Dest. Grain yield 5.9 3.6
Grasses and forage crops
Medicago sativa L shoot DW 2.0 79
Puccinella alroldes (N ats. & Coult shoot DW -
Sporobolus alroides To Shoot DW
Hordeum vulgare L. Shoot DW 6.0 7.1
Agrostis stolonifera L Shoot DW - _ -
Cynodon dactylon (L) Pem. Shoot DW 6.9 6.4
Dichanthium aristatum (Polr.) C.E. Hubb. Shoot DW
[syn. Andropogon nodosus (Willem) Nash]
Broadbean Vida faba L. Shoot DW 1.0 9.6
Brome, mountain Bromus marginatus Nees ex Steud. Shoot DW -
Brome. smooth B. Inermls Leyss Shcat DW -
Buffelgrass Pennisetum cilare (L). Unk. shoot DW -
ISyll. CenchnrS dlarisj
Bumet Pofeffum smgwhfba I_ Shoot DW -
Canarygrass, read lTduls arundlnec8a L Shoot DW - -
Clover, alsike TMMum hybtfdum L Shoot DW 1 . 5 12
Clover, Berseem 7. akwanddnumL . Shoot DW 1.5 5.7
Clover, Hubam hfdlotus dba Dost. var. annua H.S. Coe Shoot DW -
Clover, ladino TMddmrepensL Shoot DW 1.5 12
Clover, Persian T. msupfnahrm L Shoot DW -
Clover, red T. pmtense L Shoot DW 1.5 12
Clover, strawberry T. r?r4@ferum L Shoot DW 1.5 12
Clover, sweet MtJlotus sp. Ml. Shoot DW - -
Clover, white Dutch Trfmum repens L Shoot DW -
Corn (forage) lea mays L Shoot DW 1.6 7.4
Cowpea(forage) Mgna ungukzviata (I_) Walp. Shoot DW 2.5 11
Dallsgrass Paspalum dllelalum Pdr. Shoot DW -
Dhalncha Sac&n/a MSptwsa (IJnn.) W.F. Wlght Shoot DW - -
[syn. Se&an/a actdeal (Wild.) Pdr)
Fescue. tall Fesruca danor L shoot DW 3.9 5.3
[syn. F. awwuwa]
Fescue. meadow Fastuca prawn& Htids. SMotDw
Foxtail. meadow Alopearrus prafensls L Shoot DW 1.5 9.6
Glycine Neonotonia MgM shoot DW -
[syn. Glydne wfgM/ or j~vankzi]
Gram, black Vrgne mungo (L.) Heppar Shoot DW -
or Urd bean [syn. Phasedus mung0 I_]
Grama. blue &u?e/oua grad/k (HBK) Lag. ox Steud. Shoot DW -
Guinea grass P&cum mazdmt!m Jaoq. Shmt DW -
HardInggrass wwaris fubamsa L var. slcm~lara Shoot DW 4.6 7.6
(H&c) AS. Hltchc.
Kallargrass Leprochke h~sa (L) Kunfh Shoot DW - -
[syn. Dlplechne tisca Beaw.]
Lablab bean Lablab purporeus (L) Sweet Shun DW - -
[syll. Dolkhas lab/& L]
Lovegrasd Efagrusfis sp. NM Wdf Shoot DW 2.0 6.4
Mikvetch, Clcer Asbegalu,ckarL shoot DW - -
Millet, Foxtail SoMa /blnm (L.) l3oauwis Dry matter -
Millet, pearl Pwnlsetum g&urn (L) R. Br Dry matter - - MT
240
Tolerance mtedalff sope(x
cmlrnm name eotml& nameb based m: ( E C . ) dS/m psrdSlm) FiaUngd
oatgmss. alI Antwnamefum e/abkrs (L) Bsauvds 8X shoot DW - - MS
J. PresI 6 K. PI&
Oat3 @we) Avena saliva L Staw DW - - T
Orchardgrass Dactyik gbmerata L shoot DW 1.5 6.2 MS
Panicgrass. blue Pa/Jcum ahk~t% ReQ. shoot DW - - MS
Plem pee Ca/anus aJan (L.) Hum Shoot DW - - s
[syn. C . /ndlcus(K..) Sprc .
Repe (me) Brcrsslca nqnis L - MT
Rescuegrass Bfomus unblohjes HBK ShcotDW - - MT
Rhodesgrass Ch/or/s Gayana Kunth. ShootDW - - MT
Rye (fo%Is) SckXkCeresltlL * shoot DW 7.8 4.9 T
Ryegrass. lmMul Ldlum muMotum Lam. Shoot DW - - MT
Ryegrass, parsnnlal Ldkrm perenne l_ Shcot DW 5.6 7.8 MT
fiyegrass. Wlmmsm L rlgldum Gaud. - MT
SalQrass. desert LYsUcMs spcxa L var. sb?de (Ton.) EetUe Shoot DW - - i
Sesbmla Sesbanle exaltala (Raf.) V.L Cory Shmt DW 2.3 7.0 MS
Slrato Msuopl/um afmpurpufeum (DC.) Urb. shoot DW - - MS
Sphs=FhYsa Sphearophysa selsufa (P&l.) DC shmt DW 22 7.0 MS
sudangrass Sot@um bkdor (L) Moench Shoot DW 2.9 4.3 MT
[syn. S. sudanense (Plper) Stapfl
Timothy . Phum pfafense L Shoot DW - - MS
Trefoil. Mg Lotus peduna#atus C Shoot DW 2.3 19 ;Ms
Trefull. nanuwleal L umi&afua var tenfiifdlum L shoot DW 5.0 10 MT
Mrdsfuot
Trefoil. broadleaf L cunfaJafus L var ervstis(ScJ-~k~hr) Ser.ex Shcat DW - - MS
Mrdsfoot DC
Vet&. common Mda angusltblla L shoot OLY 3.0 11 MS
Wheat (fora& Trltkum aesdvum L Shoot DW 4.5 2.0 MT
Wheat Durum (forage) 7. fut@dum L. var durum Desk Shoot DW 2.1 2.5 MT
Wheatgrass, standard Agfwjrcf~ slblrlcum (Wild.) Beauvds shoot DW 3.5 4.0 MT
CESWd
Wheatgrass, f&way A alslafum (L.) Gaerm. Shmt DW 7.5 9.9 T
crested
WhtkJtJpSS. A lnfemtedlum (Host) t3aawols Shoot DW - MT
lntermedlate
WheaQrass, slender A tra&yca~um(Unk) Mte shoot DW - - MT
Wheatgrass. Bll A e/ongarum (Ho@ Beawds Shoot DW 7.5 42 T
Wheatgrass. westem A. srnllhll Rydb. Shoot DW - - MT
Wldrye. Altal Elymus angushts TM. Shcat DW - - T
Wldrye, beardass E. tdikddes Budd. Shoot DW 2.7 6.0 MT
Wldrye. Canadlan E. cana&ns/s L. Shoot DW - - MT
Wldrye. RussIan E. ~UnaXlS flsch. Shoot DW - - T
Vqstst4.s and fruit CIUPS
Atichdts Cynam S~~TVJS L _ Head yield - - MT
Asparagus Asparagus omdnells L Spear yield 4.1 2.0 T
Bean. commm Pha.9edus MJgalis L Seed yield 1.0 19 S
Bs3n. lima P. lunarus L. Seed v&d - - MT
Bean. mung Mgna radara (L.) A. Wllu Seed yteld 1.9 20.7 s
Cassava &k&hot eX?J/@Xa CrMQ Tuber yield - - MS
Beet, red &la vu@rls L Storage mot 4.0 9.0 MT
Broccdl Bfasska olefacea L. (SotryUs Group) ShaltFw 2.8 9.2 MS
BNSSd E?+fWtS B. domcsa L (Gornmlkwa Group) - MS
Cabbage 8. okmcea L. (Capltata Group) HeadFW 1.9 9.7 MS
241
Tokena, Threshok? Sope(%
cmlmon name Botanlcd nanleb basedon: (EC.)dS/m perd.Ym) RaUngd
carrot Damus mmra L Storage mot 1.0 14
C.flUlln~ 8msska ohxscsa L (Botr@ Group) - -
CfJerY A@urn gravedens L var &a, (Mill.) Pen. Pedole Fw 1.6 62
Corn, sweet Zaaf7laySL EarFW 1.7 12
Mgna ungukufafa (L)u Seed yield 4.9 12
Cucumber clmJmf9 sauws L Frultyield 2.5 13
Eggplant SoknummelongenaLvar ~r~dentumNetu. FnltyieId 1.1 6.9
Garlk Mum sahvm L Blrlb yield 1.7 10
Gram. Made @ma mww (L) Hw Shoot DW
OrUldbean [syn. Phaseolus mung0 L]
Kale 8rasska okacea L (Acephafa Group) -
Kohlrabi Brasslca ohwcea L (Gongylodeo Group) - -
LettlJCe LsaucaSaffWL Top Fw 1.3 13
MUSbllelOll Cucumls me/o L. (Retlalatus Group) Fnlt yieId 1.0 6.4
Oka AMmosdrw 8~/emlJ9 (L) Moendl pod yield - -
Onlon (bulb) Allurn ospa L Btib yield 1.2 16
OnkM (Sead) Seed yield 1 .o 6.0
ParSnIp Pastkraca sauw L - -
Pm Usum saUwm L Seed Fw 3.4 10.0
Pepper wrn annuum L Ftit yield 1.5 14
PkJ==n pea Ca@ws caJan (L) Huth . Shoot DW - -
[syn C. /rtd/cus (K.) Spteng.]
Potato Sdsnum fubemsum L Tuber yield 1.7 12
Pumpkin CucurtJla pep0 L Van Pep0 - -
Purslane pwtuf.9CfIOk?raCeaL ShootFW 6.3 9.6
Ftadlsh Rsphanum satiws L Storage mot 1.2 13
Spln=Jl Spnada ohwama L Top FW 2.0 7.6
Squash. =Mop Cucutita pep0 L var melcpepo (L) AM. Fnltyield 3.2 16
Squash. zuozhlnl C. peps L ~81 mdcpsp (L) Alef. Ftityield 4.7 9.4
StrawberIy fmgarfa x Ananassa Duch. Fruit yield 1.0 33
Sweet potato @moea hafafas (L) Lam. Flashy root 1.5 11
Teparybean Phaseolus acufiR~Ikfs Gray - -
Tomato LycopersrcOn lympers/wm (L) Karst ex Farw. Felt yield 2.5 9.9
[syn. Ly~skon esahnfum MI .] _
Tomato, cherry L /yooperScumvar. Ceraslfwme (Dunal) Alef. Flit y&M 1.7 9.1
Tumlp Brasskza mpa L (Raplfera Group) Storage root 0.9 9.0
Tumlp (greans) Top FW 3.3 4.3
Watermelon UfnMus ktnafus (Thunb.) Matsum. & NaM Fruit @Id - -
WInged bean fses mfmgonobbus L. D.C. Siwot DW - - MT
Vhese data swye mly as a guidelIne to relative Merances amrng mops. Absolute tolarances vary. depandlng MI dlmate.
sdl amdlIJons, and altural prackes. Scurca: Maas and Gtattan (1994).
bBotanlcal and common names Mbw conventim of Hortus TNrd (Llbefty Hyde Bailey Hortorlum Staff,l976) If posslbie.
In gypslferous s&s. plants will werate EC,Z about 2 dS/m hlghar than Indicated.
dFtatlngs are dalned by the boundarlas In Flgure 2. Ratfngs with an * are eatlmates.
*Less tierant during swdllng stage, EC, at this stage sharld not exceed 4 of 5 dSJm.
Grain and forwe yleids of DeKaJb XL-75 grown m an orgmlc mu& sdl deuaased abcut 26% per dSim above a
thresMd of 1.9 d.Ym (Hoffman et al.. 1963).
gEecause paddy rlca Is grown under lloaled cmdltfms. values refer to the ala~Mcd ConductMy of the sdl water tille the
plants are submerged. Less tolerant during seedling stage.
hSesame altfvars. Sesaa~ 7 and 6. may be mwe Merant than lndlcated by the S radng.
SmsiUve during gwmlnadm and ernwgenca. EC, should not excsad 3 dSlm.
i Data from me wltlvar. Pr&r&.
hAverage of sovend culthws. Suwannee and Coasl are about 20% more tokant, md mmmon and Greewleld are about
20% less Merant than the average.
Averwe for Boor. Wlman. Sand. ard Weeping cultlvars. Lehmann seems akut 50% mwe kiarant.
242
Table 2. Salt tolerance of woody cropff.
Td -e Thresholds Slope%
ccmmon name Bobwllcd nameb based on: per dS/m Ranngd
243
Tderanw ThreshddO S!qx %
commcfl name Botanlcel nemeb based on: FE: par &S/m Ranngd
??wse date SWYB cnly as a guklallne lo relative kAwances among sops. Absolute tdetancw vary. depending on dlmate.
sdl axdMons, and arlturd preckas. The data are appkable when rmxstocks are used tit do not ermmulafe Na or
bC1 taddly o( when rhffse ions do not predomlnale In the soll. Sourca: Maas and Grartan (1994).
Botakel and o~mmon names Mow the axwentlon of Hortuo Third (Uberty Hyde Salley Hwkxium Staff. 1976) where
posswe.
iln gypslfamus sdls. plants will Mat-ate EC.3 about 2 dS/m hlghar than Indlcatad.
RaUngs are daIInad by the boundarIas In figure 2. Ratings WIUI an l are estlmatas.
YIELDS UNACCEPTABLE
60 FOR MOST CROPS
5 IO 15 20 25 30 i
ECe, d!S/m
244
The salt tolerance of trees, vines, and other woody crops is complicated
because of additional detrimental effects caused by specific ion toxicities.
Many perennial woody species are susceptible to foliar injury caused by the
toxic accumulation of Cl- and/or Na in the leaves. Because different cul tivars
and rootstocks absorb C1 and Na at different rates, considerable variation
in tolerance occurs within anindividual species. In the absence ofspecific-ion
effects, the salt tolerance data for woody crops are reasonably accurate.
Because of the cost and time required to obtain fruit yields, tolerances of
several crops are based on vegetative growth. In contrast to other crop
groups, most woody species are salt sensitive, even in the absence of specific
ion effects. Guayule (Parthenium argentatum A.Gray) and date palm
(Phoenix dactylifera L.) are relatively salt tolerant and olive (Olea europaea
L.) and a few others are believed to be moderately tolerant.
The salt tolerance data in Table 1 apply to crops irrigated with surface
methods, such as furrow or basin-type flooding. Sprinkler-irrigated crops
are subject to additional damage from salt spray on the foliage (Maas, 1985).
Salts may be directly absorbed by the leaves, resulting in injury and loss of
leaves. In crops that normally restrict salt movement from the roots to the
leaves, foliar salt absorption can cause serious problems not normally
encountered with surface irrigation systems. For example, compared to
nonsaline water (EC = 0.6 dS/m), water with an EC = 4.5 dS/m reduced
pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) yields by over 50% when applied by sprinkler,
but only 16% when applied to the soil surface (Bernstein and Francois, 1973).
Susceptibility based on direct accumulation of salts through the leaves. Source: Maas and Grattan (1994).
bFollar injury is Influenced by cultural and environmental conditions. These data are presented only as general
guidelines for daytime sprinkling.
ENVIRONMENTALINTERACTXON
Generally, salt tolerance data are only valid for the climatic conditions in
which the data were obtained. Temperature, relative humidity, and air
pollution all significantly affect plant responses to salinity. Most crops
tolerate more salinity stress if the weather is cool and humid than if it is hot
and dry. The combined effects of salinity and conditions of high evaporative
demand, whether caused by high temperature, low humidity, wind, or
drought, are more stressful than salinity alone. Because climate has a
pronounced effect on plant response to salinity, the time of year salt toler-
ance experiments are conducted can affect the outcome. For example, if the
of
salt tolerance cool-season vegetable crops was assessed in hot, dry cli-
mates, results may underestimate the level of salinity they can tolerate
when grown in their normal environment, which is cooler with a lower
evaporative demand. Conversely, crops tested in cooler and damper (high
humidity) environment than they normally grow in would appear more
tolerant than normal.
246
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
Bernstein, L. and L.E. Francois. 1973. Comparisons of drip, furrow and sprinkler irrigation.
Soil Sci. 115:73-86.
Francois, L.E., T. Donovan, and E.V. Maas. 1984. Salinity effects on seed yield, growth, and
germination of grain sorghum. Agron. J. 76:741-744.
Hoffman, G.J., E.V. Maas, T. Prichard, and J.L. Meyer. 1983. Salt tolerance of corn in the
Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta of California. Irrig. Sci. 4:31-44.
Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third. A concise dictionary of plants
cultivated in the United States and Canada. MacMillian Publishing Co., Inc., New York.
Maas, E.V. 1985. Crop tolerance to saline sprinkling waters. Plant Soil 89:273-284.
Maas, E.V. and S.R Grattan. 1994. Crop yields as affected by salinity. In: J. van Schilfgaarde
and RW. Skaggs (eds.). Agricultural Drainage, Chapt. 3, ASA monograph. Amer. Soc.
Agron., Madison, WI. (In press)
Maas, E.V. and GJ. Hoffman. 1977. Crop salt tolerance - current assessment. J. Irrig. and
Drainage Div., ASCE 103(IR2):115-134.
Maas, E.V., and JA Poss. 1989a. Salt sensitivity of wheat at various growth stages. Irrig.
sci. 10:29-40.
Maas, E.V., and J.A. Poss. 1989b. Sensitivity of cowpea to salt stress at three growth stages.
Irrig. Sci. l0:313-320.
Maas, E.V., JA Poss, and G.J. Hoffman. 1986. Salinity sensitivity of sorghum at three growth
stages. Irrig. Sci. 7:1-11.
Rhoades, J.D. and S. Miyamoto. 1990. Testing soils for salinity and sodicity. p. 299-336. In:
RL. Westerman (ed). Soil Testing and Plant Analysis. Chapt. 12, SSSA Book Series No.
3. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer., Madison, WI.
Singh, TN. and Chandra, S. 1979. Salt tolerance of some hybrids of Pennisetum typhoides S.
& H. Indian J. Plant Physiol. 22:181-185.
247