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∂B ∂
∇× E = −
∂t C∫ E i d = − ∂t ∫∫S B i da
∂D ∂
∇× H =
∂t
+J C∫ H i d = ∂t ∫∫S D i da + ∫∫S J i da
∇i D = ρ ∫∫ D i da = ∫∫∫ ρ dv = Qenclosed
S V
∇i B = 0 ∫∫ B i da = 0
S
Differential Integral
Form Form
J Current Density Amps/meter ( A/m ) 2 2
Q Charge Coulombs C ( )
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 4
Constitutive Relations: D = ε ( f ) E
B = µ( f ) H
ε( f ) dielectric permittivity Farads/meter
µ ( f ) dielectric permeability Henrys/meter
ε , µ , can be tensors, i.e., ε , µ , depend on field orientation
Both are generally a function of frequency f
10−9
Free Space Permittivity: ε o = = 8.854 × 10−12 (Farads/meter)
36π
−7
µ
Free Space Permeability: o = 4 π × 10 (Henrys/meter)
Ohm’s Law: J =σ ( f )E
5
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers
Constitutive Relations:
ε
Dielectric Constant: = εr
εo
µε
Index of Refraction: n=
µ oε o
∂B ∂D
∇× E = − , ∇× H =
∂t ∂t
∂B ∂µ H ∂
∇ × ∇ × E = −∇ ×
∂t
= −∇ ×
∂t
= −µ
∂t
∇× H ( )
∂ ∂D ∂E2
∇ × ∇ × E = −µ = − µε 2
∂t ∂t ∂t
( )
∇ × ∇ × E = ∇ ∇ i E − ∇ E = − µε 2
2
∂t
∇ i D = ρ = 0, D = ε E, ε = ε ( r )
( )
∇ i D = 0, ∇ i ε E = ε∇ i E + ∇ε i E = 0
∇ε
∇ i E = −E i
ε
∂ E
2
⎛ ∇ε ⎞
∇ E − µε 2 = −∇ ⎜ E i
2
∂t ⎝ ε ⎟⎠
=0
ε ≠ ε (r )
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 9
Single Mode Optical Fiber Multi Mode Graded Index Optical Fiber
Core Core ∇ε ≠ 0
Cladding
Buffer Cladding
Air Air ∇ε = 0
∇ε = 0
ε ε
r r
Not to scale!
∇ε = 0
∂ E
2
∇ 2 E − µε 2 = 0
∂t
∂ H 2
∇ H − µε 2 = 0
2
∂t
∂ E 2
∇ E − µε 2 = 0
2
∂t
E = x̂Ex + ŷE y + ẑE z
∇ E = x̂∇ 2 Ex + ŷ∇ 2 E y + ẑ∇ 2 E z
2
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ = 2+ 2+ 2
2
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂t
∂ 2
Ex
x-component: ∇ 2 Ex − µε =0
∂t 2
∂2 E y
y-component: ∇ 2 E − µε =0
y
∂t 2
∂ 2
E
z-component: ∇ 2 E z − µε 2 z = 0
∂t
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
2
( ) () ( ) ()
∇ Ex + ω µε Ex = 0, Ex x, y, z = X x Y y Z z , ∇ = 2 + 2 + 2
2
∂x ∂y ∂z
2
∇ 2 Ex + ω 2 µε Ex = 0
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
() ( ) () () ( ) ()
⇒ 2X x Y y Z z + 2X x Y y Z z + 2X x Y y Z z
∂x ∂y ∂z
() ( ) ()
+ω 2 µε X ( x )Y ( y ) Z ( z ) = 0
( ) ( ) ∂x
Y y Z z
( ) + X ( x ) Z ( z ) ∂ Y ( y ) + X ( x )Y ( y ) ∂ Z ( z ) + ω
∂2 X x 2 2
µε X ( x )Y ( y ) Z ( z ) = 0
2
2
∂y 2
∂z 2
Y ( y) Z ( z) ∂ X ( x)
2
X ( x) Z ( z) ∂ Y ( y) X ( x )Y ( y ) ∂ Z ( z )
2 2
+ + + ω µε = 0 2
X ( x )Y ( y ) Z ( z ) ∂x2
X ( x )Y ( y ) Z ( z ) ∂y X ( x )Y ( y ) Z ( z ) ∂z
2 2
d2
1 1 d2 1 d2
⇒
X x dx()
2
X x +
Y y dy 2()
Y y +
Z z dz ()
2
Z z = −ω 2
µε () () ()
1 d2 1 d2 1 d2
⇒
X ( x ) dx 2
X ( x ) +
Y ( y ) dy 2
Y ( y ) +
Z ( z ) dz 2
Z ( z ) = −ω 2
µε
1 d2
X ( x ) dx 2
X ( x ) = −k 2
x
1 d2
Y ( y ) dy 2
Y ( y ) = −k 2
y
kx, ky, and kz are known as
Separation Constants
1 d2
Z ( z ) dz 2
Z ( z ) = −k 2
z
1 d2 d 2
X ( x ) dx 2
X ( x ) = −k 2
x
⇒
dx 2
X ( x ) + k 2
x
X ( x ) = 0 ⇒ X ( x ) = X ox
e ± jk x x
1 d2 d 2
Y ( y ) = −k y ⇒ 2 Y ( y ) + k y Y ( y ) = 0 ⇒ Y ( y ) = Yo e
2 2 ± jk y y
Y ( y ) dy 2
dy x
1 d2 d 2
Z ( z ) dz 2
Z ( z ) = −k 2
z
⇒
dz 2
Z ( z ) + k 2
z
Z ( z ) = 0 ⇒ Z ( z ) = Z ox
e ± jk z z
⇒ Ex ( x, y, z ) = X ( x ) Y ( y ) Z ( z ) = X o Yo Z o e
± jk x x ± jk y y ± jk z z
e e
x x x
= Eo e
(
± j k x x+k y y+k z z )
x
Note from:
1d2 1 d2 1 d2
⇒
()
X x dx 2
X x + ()
Y y dy 2
Y y +
()
Z z dz 2
Z z = −ω 2
()
µε
() ()
−k x2 −k y2 −k z2
⇒ k x2 + k y2 + k z2 = ω 2 µε = k 2
Ex ( x, y, z ) = Eo e
(
± j k x x+k y y+k z z )
x
Let: k = x̂k x + ŷk y + ẑk z
and: r = x̂x + ŷy + ẑz
↓ choose the – sign for now
then:
− jk ir
Ex ( r ) = Eo e
2 x
with: k = k x + k y + k z = k = ω µε = k ⇒ k = k
2 2 2 2 2 2
− j( k x x+k y y+k z z )
⎪ ẑEz (x, y, z) = ẑEo e ⎪
⎩ z ⎭
⎧ x̂E ( r ) = x̂E e ir ⎫− jk
⎪ x ox ⎪
⎪ − jk ir ⎪
− jkir
E( r ) = ⎨ ŷE y ( r ) = ŷEo e ⎬ = Eo e
⎪ ⎪
y
− jk ir
⎪⎩ ẑEz ( r ) = ẑEoz e ⎪
⎭
ε
refractive index: ni =
εo
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 23
Properties of Plane Waves
j
From Maxwell’s equations: H = ∇× E
ωµ
( )
Vector Identity: ∇ × fA = ∇f × A + f ∇ × A
( ( )
− jkn̂ir
j j
( )j
)
− jkn̂ir − jkn̂ir
⇒H= ∇× E = ∇ × Eo e = ∇ e × Eo + e ∇ × Eo
ωµ ωµ ωµ
j k − jkn̂ir 1 − jkn̂ir 1
( − jk ) e
− jkn̂ir
= n̂ × Eo = n̂ × Eo e = n̂ × Eo e = n̂ × E
ωµ ωµ η η
ωµ
Intrinsic Impedance (Ohms): η =
k
1
H = n̂ × E ⇒ H ⊥ n̂ and H ⊥ E
η
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 24
Properties of Plane Waves
− jkn̂i r 1 ωµ
E( r ) = Eo e , H = n̂ × E, η =
η k
E ⊥ n̂, H ⊥ n̂, H ⊥ E, k = n̂k = n̂ni ko
θ o = kn̂ i ro = k i ro = k x xo + k y yo + k z zo
θ = k n̂ i r = k i r = k x x + k y y + k z z
For a constant phase:
θ = θ o ⇒ θ − θ o = 0 = k x ( x − xo ) + k y ( y − y o ) + k z ( z − z o )
This is the equation of a plane containing the point (xo, yo, zo)
⎛ kx k y kz ⎞
⎜ k , k , k ⎟ are the direction cosines of for the
⎝ ⎠ plane
Hence k x ( x − xo ) + k y ( y − yo ) + k z ( z − zo ) = 0
describes a plane of constant phase.
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 26
Traveling Waves
( ) ( )
Ex = Re ⎡ Ex exp − jk z z exp jω t ⎤ = Ex cos ω t − k z z
⎣ o ⎦ o
( )
θ
kx = k y = 0
To keep θ constant as t increases z must increase
⇒ kz = k
θ = ω t − kz = constant
dθ dz
= 0 =ω−k = ω − kv p
dt dt
ω
⇒ vp =
k
ω ω 1
Phase Velocity vp = = =
k ω µε µε
c 1 µε ε
Index of Refraction: n = , c = ⇒n= =
vp µ oε o µ oε o µ = µo εo
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 29
Wavelength
z
zo zo + λ
(
exp ( − jkzo ) = exp − jk ( zo + λ ) )
⇒ k λ = 2π
2π
k=
λ
rad
For λ = 1500nm , k = 4.2 × 10 6
m
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 30
Plane Waves or Transverse Electromagnetic Waves
and
( ) ⎡
E r,t = Re x̂ Eo e
⎣
j(ω t−kz ) ⎤
⎦
H ( r,t ) = ?
∂Ex j ∂Ex
= − jωµo H y ⇒ H y =
∂z ωµo ∂z
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 34
j ∂Ex j(ω t−kz )
Hy = , Ex = Eo e
ωµo ∂z
j ∂Ex j
⇒ Hy = =
ωµo ∂z ωµo
− jk Eo e (
j ω t−kz )
( )
k j(ω t−kz )
H = ŷ Eo e
ωµo
ω µ oε j(ω t−kz )
= ŷ Eo e
ωµo
ε j(ω t−kz ) 1
= ŷ Eo e (
j ω t−kz )
= ŷ Eo e
µo η
j(ω t−kz ) 1
, H = ŷ Eo e (
j ω t−kz )
E = x̂ Eo e ,
η
µo Characteristic Impedance or
η=
ε Intrinsic Impedance of the material
µo
ηo = = 120π ≈ 377 Ω
εo
*
1
S = Re E × H
2
( )
n̂ × ( )
E2 − E1 = 0 tangential components of E are continuous
n̂ × ( )
H 2 − H1 = 0 tangential components of H are continuous
n̂ i ( )
D2 − D1 = 0 normal components of D are continuous
n̂ i ( )
B2 − B1 = 0 normal components of B are continuous
Note that E = n̂En + Et
⇒ n̂ × E = n̂ × n̂En + Et
(
)
= n̂ × n̂En + n̂ × Et = n̂ × Et = Et
r = x̂x + ŷy + ẑz ki = k1 ( − ŷ sin θ i + ẑ cosθ i )
k = x̂k x + ŷk y + ẑk z ki i r = k1 ( − y sin θ i + z cosθ i )
ki
= x̂Ei e 1(
− jk − y sin θ i +z cosθ i )
Ei θi Ei = x̂Ei e − jki ir
z
y H i = ( ŷ cosθ i + ẑ sin θ i ) H i e − jki ir
Hi
Ei − jk1( − y sinθi +z cosθi )
= ( ŷ cosθ i + ẑ sin θ i ) e
η1
kr = k1 ( − ŷ sin θ r − ẑ cosθ r )
Hr kr i r = k1 ( − y sin θ r − z cosθ r )
kr
Er
θr
z
= x̂Er e 1(
y − jkr ir − jk − y sin θ r −z cosθ r )
Er = x̂Er e
H r = ( − ŷ cosθ r + ẑ sin θ r ) H r e − jkr ir
kt = k2 ( − ŷ sin θ t + ẑ cosθ t )
Et kt
kt i r = k2 ( − y sin θ t + z cosθ t )
θt
y z
= x̂Et e 2 (
− jkt ir − jk − y sin θ t +z cosθ t )
Et = x̂Et e
Ht
H t = ( ŷ cosθ t + ẑ sin θ t ) H t e
− jk2 ir
( )
n̂ × E2 − E1 = 0 ⇒ n̂ × E2 = n̂ × E1
( )
n̂ × Ei + Er = n̂ × Et
( )
n̂ × H 2 − H1 = 0 ⇒ n̂ × H 2 = n̂ × H1
( )
n̂ × H i + H r = n̂ × H t
(
ẑ × x̂ Ei e (
− jk1 − y sin θ i +z cosθ i )
+ Er e (
− jk1 − y sin θ r −z cosθ r )
) = ẑ × x̂Et e (
− jk2 − y sin θ t +z cosθ t )
z=0
( )
n̂ × H i + H r = n̂ × H t
⎛ Ei − jk1( − y sinθi +z cosθi ) ⎞
⎜ ( ŷ cosθ i + ẑ sin θ i ) η e ⎟
ẑ × ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎜ Er − jk1( − y sinθr −z cosθr ) ⎟
⎜ + ( − ŷ cosθ r + ẑ sin θ r ) e ⎟
⎝ η 1 ⎠
Et − jk2 ( − y sinθt +z cosθt )
= ẑ × ( ŷ cosθ t + ẑ sin θ t ) e
η2 z=0
zˆ × zˆ ≡ 0
Ei Er Et
cos θi e jk1 y sin θi − cos θ r e jk1 y sin θr = cos θt e jk2 y sin θt
η1 η1 η2
θi = θr for reflection
n1 sin θ i = n2 sin θ t for refraction
Snell's Law
Ei + Er = Et
Ei Er Et
cos θi − cos θi = cos θ t
η1 η1 η2
Er η2 cos θi − η1 cos θt
⇒ =
Ei η2 cos θi + η1 cos θt
Et 2η2 cos θi
⇒ =
Ei η2 cos θi + η1 cos θt
µo εo µ o ηo
Note : η = = =
ε ε εo n
Er n1 cosθ i − n2 cosθ t
=
Ei n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t
Et 2n1 cosθ i
=
Ei n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t
Normal Incidence:
θi = 0, n1 sin θi = n2 sin θ t ⇒ θ t = 0
Er n1 cos θi − n2 cos θ t n1 − n2
= =
Ei n1 cos θi + n2 cos θ t n1 + n2
Et 2n1 cos θi 2n1
= =
Ei n1 cos θi + n2 cos θ t n1 + n2
n12
cos θt = 1 − 2 sin 2 θi
n2
n12
n1 cos θi − n2 1 − 2 sin 2 θi
Er n2
= =1
Ei n 2
n1 cos θi + n2 1 − sin 2 θi1
2
n 2
a − jb n n
= 1 ⇒ 1 sin θi ≥ 1 ⇒ sin θi ≥ 2
a + jb n2 n1
n2
sin θi ≥ ⇒ n2 < n1
n1
Possible only when going from a more optically dense media to a less-
dense media.
⎛ n2 ⎞
Critical angle: θ = sin −1
c ⎜n ⎟
⎝ 1⎠
Snell’s Law:
n1 n1 n2
sin θt = sin θi = =1
n2 θi = θ c n2 n1
π
⇒ θt =
2
Known as a surface wave.
Total internal reflection and surface waves are key concepts for
understanding optical waveguides.
n2 < n1
n1
π
θ t = ⇒ cosθ t = 0
2
Er n1 cosθ i − n2 cosθ t
= =1
Ei n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t
Et 2n1 cosθ i
=
Ei n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t
=2 ( What does this mean?)
⎛ ⎞
=1
− jk2 ⎜ − y sin θ t +z cosθ t ⎟
Et = x̂2Ei e ⎝ ⎠
= x̂2Ei e jk2 y
( )
2Ei − jk2 ( − y sinθt +z cosθt )
H t = ŷ cosθ t + ẑ sin θ t e
η2
2Ei jk2 y
= ẑ e
η2
1 *
St = Re ⎡⎣ Et × H t ⎤⎦
2 θ i =θ c
1 ⎡ ⎤
*
jk2 y 2E − jk2 y
= Re ⎢ x̂ × ẑ 2Ei e i
e ⎥
2 ⎣ η2 ⎦
2
2 Ei
= − ŷ
↑ η2
2 2
⎛ n1 ⎞ ⎛ n1 ⎞
= 1− ⎜ ⎟ sin 2 θ i = ± j ⎜ ⎟ sin 2 θ i − 1 = ± jα
⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎝ n2 ⎠
θ i >θ c
>1 θ i >θ c
n1
sin θ t = sin θ i
n2
( Snell )
⎛ n ⎞ ↓ n1
− jk2 ⎜ − y 1 sin θ i ± jα z ⎟ ± k2α z+ jk2 y sin θ i
Et = x̂Et e 2 (
− jk − y sin θ t +z cosθ t ) ⎝ n2 ⎠ n2
= x̂Et e = x̂Et e
use ( - ) sign (Why?)
Et − jk2 ( − y sinθt +z cosθt )
H t = ( ŷ cosθ t + ẑ sin θ t ) e
η2
n
⎛ n1 ⎞ Et − k2α z+ jk2 y n12 sinθi
= ⎜ − jα ŷ + ẑ sin θ i ⎟ e
⎝ n2 ⎠ η2
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 61
Examine the transmitted fields for θ i > θ c
ε1 , µ1 ,n1 ε 2 , µ2 ,n2
Direction of
Propagation
n
− k2α z+ jk2 y 1 sin θ i
n2
n1 > n2 Et = x̂Et e
θr y
θi
Exponential decay or an
evanescent field in z-direction
a surface wave
ε1 , µ1 ,n1 ε 2 , µ2 ,n2
Velocity of
Propagation in n2
ω ω
vp = =
ky n1
k2 sin θ i
n2
n1 > n2
θr y n
− k2α z+ jk2 y 1 sin θ i
n2
Et = x̂Et e
θi
Exponential decay or an
evanescent field in z-direction
a surface wave
n1 = 3.4 n2 = 1
45°
z
45°
Ex H
y
A TE wave is incident from GaAs with an index of 3.4 onto the GaAs-Air
interface at an incidence angle of 45 degrees. Describe the electric field in
the air region. Assume that the light has a wavelength of 1 micron.
Et 2n1 cosθ i
Et = ΤEi , Τ = =
Ei n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t
2 2
⎛ n1 ⎞ ⎛ 3.4 ⎞
cosθ t = ± 1− ⎜ ⎟ sin θ i = − 1− ⎜
⎝ n2 ⎠
2
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎟ sin 2
( 45° ) = − j2.186
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎡
= 1.539 Re x̂Ei e −13.74×106 z+ j15.11×106 y+ j1.885×108 t+ j 42.28° ⎤
⎣ ⎦
= x̂1.539 Ei e −13.74×106 z
(
cos 1.885 × 108 t + 15.11× 106 y + 42.28° )
Assuming that Ei is real.
TE TM
n1 cosθ i − n2 cosθ t n1 cosθ t − n2 cosθ i
Reflection Coefficient
n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t n1 cosθ t + n2 cosθ i
2n1 cosθ i 2n1 cosθ i
Transmission Coefficient
n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t n2 cosθ i + n1 cosθ t
Note the difference.
n1 > n2
Brewster
Angle
n1 < n2
Brewster
Angle
Brewster
(Polarized) Laser Window
n1 cosθ t − n2 cosθ B
RTM =0=
n1 cosθ t + n2 cosθ B
⇒ n22 cos 2 θ B = n12 cos 2 θ t = n12 1− sin 2 θ t ( )
2
n
sin 2 θ t = 12 sin 2 θ B via Snell
n2
⎛ 2
⎞
2
(
2 2
⎝ n2
n1
)
n2 cos θ B = n1 1− sin θ t = n1 ⎜ 1− 2 sin θ B ⎟
2 2 2
⎠
n22 2
n12(1− sin 2
θ B
=)1−
n1
n22
sin 2
θB
n22 2
n12 (
1− sin 2
θ B
= 1−
n1
n22 )
sin 2
θB
n22
sin θ B =
n12 + n22
n22
θ B = arcsin 2
n1 + n22
⎛ ⎞
( )
2
n
RTE = 0 ⇒ n1 cos θ B = n1 cos θ t = n2 1− sin θ t = n2 ⎜ 1− 2 sin θ B ⎟
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2
⎝ n2 ⎠
n12
( )
2
n
2
1− sin 2
θ B
= 1− 1
2
sin 2
θB via Snell
n2 n2
n12 2 n12 2
− 2 sin θ B − 2 sin θ B
n2 n2
n12
⇒ 2 = 1 Only the trivial solution exists.
n2
Modal dispersion arises when more that one propagating modes exists,
each propagating at a different group velocity.
Optical Waveguide
Ex (t) L
Ex (t) = Ex (t − T ) = Ex (t − )
in
out in in
v
Optical Waveguide
E xin (t ) E xout (t )
ω
if β = and if vp is not a function of ω
vp
⎛ z⎞
∞ jω ⎜ t− ⎟
1 z
∫ F (ω )e
⎝ vp ⎠
then f (t, z) = d ω = f (t − )
2π −∞
vp
( )
Now, what if v p ω ?
2
⎛ t ⎞
−⎜ ⎟ ω 2τ o2
⎝ τo ⎠ −
e ↔ πτ e 4
For z = 0, F (ω , z ) = F (ω ,0)e − jβ z
dβ 1 d 2β
( ) ( ) ( ) (ω − ω )
2
β ω = β ωo + ω − ωo + +
dω ω 2! dω 2 o
o ωc
1
( ) ( )
2
≈ βo + v ω − ω o + β2 ω − ω o
−1
g
2
1 dβ d 2β
( )
βo = β ω o , =
v g dω ω
, β2 =
dω 2
o ωc
Retain only the first three terms in the Taylor series (up to
the second order term) and evaluate:
⎡ 1 2⎤
1
∞ − j ⎢ β o +vg−1(ω −ω o )+ β 2 (ω −ω o ) ⎥ z
f (t, z) = ∫ F(ω ,0)e e jω t d ω
⎣ 2 ⎦
2π −∞
Lots of algebra …
Set : ξ = (ω − ω o )
∞ (ω −ω o ) 2
2
⎛ 1 2⎞
− j⎜ β o +vg−1(ω −ω o )+ β 2 (ω −ω o ) ⎟ z
1 − τ
f (t, z) = τo ∫ e ⎝ 2 ⎠
e jω t d ω
o
4
e
2 π −∞
∞ ξ 2 2 − j⎛ β +v −1ξ + 1 β ξ 2 ⎞ z
1
e(
− τ ⎜⎝ o g 2 2 ⎟⎠ j ξ +ω 0 )t
= τo ∫ e 4 o
e dξ
2 π −∞
⎡⎛ τ 2 1 ⎞ 2 ⎤
∞ −1
− ⎢⎜ + j β 2 z ⎟ ξ + jvg zξ ⎥
o
1 ⎢⎣⎝ 4 2 ⎥⎦
τ o e− jβo z e jω ot ∫ e
⎠
= e jξt d ξ
2 π −∞
⎛ τ o2 β2 z ⎞ 2 ξ 2τ o2 β2 z 2
⎜ 4 + j 2 ⎟ ξ + jvg zξ = 4 + jvg zξ + j 2 ξ
−1 −1
⎝ ⎠
τ o2
( )
= ⎡⎣ 1+ j2τ o−2 β 2 z ξ 2 + j4τ o−2 vg−1zξ ⎤⎦
4
1+ j2τ o−2 β 2 z ⎡ 2 j4τ o−2 vg−1z ⎤
= ⎢ξ + ξ⎥
4τ o−2
⎢⎣ 1+ j2τ o β 2 z ⎥⎦
−2
⎧⎡ j2τ o vg z
−2 −1
⎤
2
⎛ 2τ o vg z
−2 −1
⎞
2
⎫
1+ j2τ o β 2 z ⎪
−2
⎪
= ⎨ ⎢ ξ + ⎥ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
4τ o−2 ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 1+ j2 τ −2
β z
2 ⎥⎦ ⎝ 1+ j2 τ −2
β z
2 ⎠ ⎪
o o
⎭
( )
2 2
1+ j2τ β 2 z ⎡
−2
j2τ v z ⎤ τ v z
−2 −1 −2
o
−1
g
= ⎢ξ + ⎥ +
o o g
4τ −2
o ⎢⎣ 1+ j2τ β z ⎥⎦ 1+ j2τ o β 2 z
−2
o
−2
2
( )
2
vg−1z 2vg−1zt
∞ τ o2 + j 2 β 2 z 2
τ − + − ζ
∫e
− jβ o z jω ot τ o2 + j 2 β 2 z τ o2 + j 2 β 2 z
= e e e e 4
e jζ t dζ
2 π −∞
(v z )
2
−1
g 2vg−1zt 1 ⎛ β ⎞ 1
− + − j tan −1⎜ 2 22 z ⎟ − t2
− jβ o z jω ot τ o2 + j 2 β 2 z 2
τ o + j 2 β2 z 2 ⎝ τo ⎠ 2
τ o + j 2 β2 z
e e e e e e
⇒ f (t, z) =
1+ ( 2β 2 z )
2
4
(v z ) ( )
2 2
−1 −1
g 1 t−v z 2v zt −1
g
Note that: − 2 + 2 − 2 t =− 2
2 g
( )
2
−1
t−vg z
− τ o−2
1 −1⎛ β 2 ⎞ β
jω ot− jβ o z− j tan ⎜ 2 2 z ⎟ 1+ j 2 22 z
2 ⎝ τo ⎠ τo
e e
f (t, z) =
2
⎛ β2 ⎞
4 1+ 2 z⎟
⎜ τ2
⎝ o ⎠
( )
2
t−vg−1z
−2
⎡ ⎤ − τ o
⎛ β ⎞ 2
( ) 1 2 β2 z
( ) ⎛ ⎞
2
j ⎢ω o t−vg−1z +ω ovg−1z− β o z− tan −1⎜ 2 22 z ⎟ + t−vg z ⎥
−1 β
⎢ ⎥ 1+⎜ 2 22 z ⎟
⎝ τ o ⎠ τ o4 +( 2 β 2 z )
2 2
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎝ τo ⎠
e e
=
2
⎛ β2 ⎞
4 1+ 2 z⎟
⎜ τ2
⎝ o ⎠
( )
2
t−vg−1z
− τ o−2 2 Phase Chirp
⎛ β ⎞
1+⎜ 2 22 z ⎟ ⎡ ⎡ ⎤
⎛ β ⎞⎤ 2 β2 z
( ) ⎢
2(
t− β1z )
1 2⎥
⎝ τo ⎠ j ⎢ω o t−vg−1z +ω ovg−1z− β o z− tan −1⎜ 2 22 z ⎟ ⎥ j
e ⎢⎣ 2 ⎝ τ o ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎢ 4
⎢⎣ τ o +( 2 β 2 z )
⎥
⎥⎦
f (t, z) = e e
2
⎛ β2 ⎞
4 1+ 2
⎜ τ 2 z⎟
⎝ o ⎠
Amplitude
4 1+ 2 z ⎢ τ o ⎢1+ ⎜ 2 22 z ⎟ ⎥ ⎥
2
⎜ τ2 ⎟ ⎢ ⎢ ⎝ τo ⎠ ⎥⎥
⎝ o ⎠ ⎣ ⎣ ⎦⎦
( )
2
τ (z) = τ o 1+ 2τ β 2 z −2
1
2
⎛ β2 ⎞
4 1+ 2 z⎟
⎜ τ2
⎝ o ⎠
τ ( z)
τ (0)
τ −2ββ22zz
22a
2τ β 2 z
−2
o
( )
2
τ 2 (z) τ 2 1+ 2τ β 2 z
−2
2
=
τ 1 (z)
( )
2
τ 1 1+ 2τ 1−2 β 2 z
τ 2 (z) τ 2−1 τ 1
→ −1 =
τ 1 (z) z→∞ τ 1 τ2
2β 2 z
1 −1
(
φ ( t, z ) = ω ot − β o z − tan 2τ o β 2 z + ) ( )
2
−2 −1
t − v z
τ o + ( 2β 2 z )
2 g
2 4
Note how if β2 = 0 then the carrier travels with the phase velocity:
dφ ( t, z ) dz dz ωo
φ ( t, z ) = constant ⇒ = 0 = ω o − βo ⇒ = v p =
dt dt dt βo
vg
vp
β2 ≠ 0 complicates matters
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 102
for Lasers
Instantaneous Frequency
( ) =ω ( 2β z )
−1 2
dφ t, z v 4β2 z
ωi = − g 2
+ t
β2 τ 4 + ( 2β z ) ( )
o 2 2
dt τ o4 + 2β 2 z ↑
o 2
⎧ ωo z=0
( 2β z )
2
v −1
4β2 z ⎪⎪
ωi = ωo − g 2
+ t → ⎨ v −1
β2 τ 4 + ( 2β z ) ( )
2 2
τ o + 2β2 z
4
⎪ oω − g
z→∞
o 2
⎪⎩ β2
d 2β d dβ d 1 1 dvg dvg
β2 = = = =− 2 ⇒ < 0, β 2 > 0
dω 2
dω dω dω vg vg dω dω
fin (t ) f out (t )
Spectrum
dvg
vg (ω ) , > 0, β 2 < 0
dω
dvg
( )
vg ω ,
dω
= 0, β 2 = 0
dvg
v (ω ) , < 0, β 2 > 0
g
ω dω
ωo
β2 =
d 2β
=
( )
d ⎛ n λ λ dn λ ⎞
− =
( )
d ⎛ n λ λ dn λ ⎞ λ 2
− +
( )=
λ λd n λ
2
( )=
λ
D
( )
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
dω 2
d ω ⎝ c c d λ ⎠ d λ ⎝ c c d λ ⎠ 2π c 2π c c
d λ
2
2π c
D
The parameter D is often provided. For Corning SMF-28, D =
18 ps/nm/km.
ω
v p (ω ) =
β (ω )
d β (ω )
dv p (ω ) β (ω ) − ω β − ω v −1
1− v v −1
= dω = g
= p g
dω β 2 (ω ) β2 β
dv p −1
vp
⇒ 1− β = v v ⇒ vg =
dω p g
dv p
1− β
dω
( ) ( )
2 2
τ (z) = τ o 1+ 2τ β 2 z −2
= τ o 1+ z −1
o
1 τo τ o2
2
o = = πc 2
2 β2 λ D
The loss of 0.2 dB/km is not the limiting factor for fiber.
Modal dispersion arises when more that one propagating modes exists,
each propagating at a different group velocity.
The permittivity is related to the electric field from the constitutive relation:
D = εE
We wish to develop a model relating the permittivity to an applied electric
field.
No Field E Field
e− + e− +
Where q is the charge and r is the distance from equilibrium that the
charges move.
+ − −
xo x
Binding Potential
Exact functional shape
is generally unknown.
xo
Position
The electron will reside at the minimum of a potential well or at
position xo which we will take as xo = 0.
dV ( xo ) 1 ( xo )V
d 2
V ( x ) = V ( xo ) + ( x − xo ) + 2! dx 2 ( x − xo ) +
2
dx
dV
At the minimum, =0
dx x=xo Valid for applied fields
1 V ( xo ) 2 much smaller than the
2
d
For xo = 0, V ( x ) ~ V ( xo ) + 2
x binding potential
2! dx ~ 1010 V/cm
1 2
= Vo + k x Hooke’s Law
This the simple spring-mass 2 ↑
Model is valid near xo. Spring
Constant
Not Wavenumber!
d 2x dx
m 2 + γ m + kx = −eE t
dt dt
()
γ is a friction term which accounts for radiation or phonon emission.
k
Recall the mechanical resonance is ωo = then,
m
d 2x dx e
2
+γ + ωo x = − E (t )
2
dt dt m
Assume an applied field of the form: E (t ) = Eoe jωt
Solving…
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 121
Material Dispersion
−e m
()
Solving… x t = 2 E
ω o − ω 2 + jγω o
e jω t
Thus
ε Ne 2 ε o m
= 1+ 2
εo ω o − ω 2 + jγω
ε Ne 2 ε o m ω o2 − ω 2 − jγω
= 1+ 2
εo ω o − ω 2 + jγω ω o2 − ω 2 − jγω
Ne 2 ω o2 − ω 2 Ne 2 γω
= 1+ − j
( )
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 2 + γ 2ω 2
o
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 2 + γ 2ω 2
o ( )
= ε ′ − jε ′′
ε Ne 2 ω o2 − ω 2 Ne 2 γω
n (ω ) = = 1+ −j
εo
(
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 + γ 2ω 2
)
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 2 + γ 2ω 2
( )
2
o o
Ne 2 ω o2 − ω 2 Ne 2 γω
( )
n ω = 1+ −j
(
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 + γ 2ω 2
)
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 2 + γ 2ω 2
( )
2
o o
The index increases with increasing dipole density N (atoms in this case).
This explains why solids have a higher index than does air.
1.6
Anaomolous Dispersion
Index of Refraction
1.5
λ = 0.3 micron
1.4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Frequency (x1014)
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 125
For many electrons, each with a different resonant frequency:
ε M
Ne 2 ε o m
= 1+ ∑ f i 2
εo i=1 ω i
− ω 2
+ jγω
Ne 2 ω o2 − ω 2
( )
n ω = 1+
(
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 2 + γ 2ω 2
o )
Ne 2 1
≈ 1+
ε o m ω o2 − ω 2 2π c 2π c
ω= ,ω o =
λ
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers
λo
126
Sellmeier Equation
Ne 2 2 2
1
λ λo
4π c ε o m
2 2
n (λ ) = 1 +
λ 2 − λo 2
λk 2 Ne2 2
λ
4π 2 2
c ε m G λ 2
n2 (λ ) − A = ∑ o
= ∑ k
k λ 2
− λ k
2
k λ 2
− λ k
2
http://www.cvimellesgriot.com/products/Documents/Catalog/Dispersion_Equations.pdf
2π c d dλ
N g (λ ) = n (λ ) + n (λ )
λ dλ dω
dλ d ⎛ 2π c ⎞ 2π c λ2
= ⎜ ⎟=− 2 =−
dω dω ⎝ ω ⎠ ω 2π c
dn ( λ )
N g (λ ) = n (λ ) − λ
dλ
dn ( λ )
Usually < 0 and N g (λ ) > n (λ ) except in regions of
dλ
anomalous dispersion.
λ1 λ2
Wavelength (µ)
L
Δτ = ( N g ( λ1 ) − N g ( λ2 ) )
c
L L dN g
= ΔN g = Δλ
c c dλ
⇒ Δτ =
L dN g
Δλ = −L
λ n λ
d 2
Δλ = −LDΔλ
( )
GVD
c dλ c dλ 2
Watch out for the sign! Some people include it in D, some leave it out.
( Δλ )
2
d 3n
Δτ = −λo
8c dλ3 λ =λo
What is the pulse broadening at the zero dispersion point in fused silica
(SMF-28) for a pulse with a 5 nm bandwidth?
If the LED is pulsed on and off in 5 ns, what is the length of the optical
pulse when it arrives at the end of the waveguide?
Δτ = LDΔλ
⎛ ps ⎞
= (10 km ) ⎜ −18 ⎟ ( 60 nm )
⎝ nm-km ⎠
= −10,800 ps = −10.8 ns
The sign is inconsequential here.
n ( x ) sin θ = n ( x + Δx ) sin (θ + Δθ )
sin θ = cos ( 90° − θ )
n ( x ) cos ( 90° − θ ) = n ( x + Δx ) cos ( 90° − θ − Δθ )
Let 90° − θ = ϕ
n ( x ) cos (ϕ ) = n ( x + Δx ) cos (ϕ − Δϕ )
ϕ is "small"
dn
n ( x ) cos (ϕ ) = n ( x + Δx ) cos (ϕ − Δϕ ) , n ( x + Δx ) ≈ n ( x ) − Δx
dx
⎛ ⎞
⎛ dn ⎞ ⎜
= ⎜ n( x ) − Δx ⎟ ⎜ cosϕ cos Δϕ + sin ϕ sin Δϕ ⎟⎟
⎝ dx ⎠
⎜⎝ ≈1 ≈ Δϕ ⎟⎠
⎛ dn ⎞
= ⎜ n( x ) − Δx ⎟ ( cosϕ + Δϕ sin ϕ )
⎝ dx ⎠
dn dn
= n ( x ) cosϕ − Δx cosϕ + n ( x ) Δϕ sin ϕ − ΔxΔ
ϕ sin ϕ
dx dx
≈0
dn
⇒ Δx cosϕ = n ( x ) Δϕ sin ϕ
dx
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 144
Eikonal Equation
dn
Δx cosϕ = n ( x ) Δϕ sin ϕ
dx
dn Δϕ Δϕ Δϕ Δx Δϕ
= n( x ) tan ϕ ≈ n ( x ) ϕ = n( x ) = n( x )
dx Δx Δx Δx Δz Δz
dn Δϕ dϕ Δx dx
= lim n ( x ) = n( x ) , ϕ≈ →
dx Δz→0 Δz dz Δz dz
dn dϕ d d dx d 2x
= n( x ) = n( x ) ϕ = n( x ) = n( x ) 2
dx dz dz dz dz dz
dn d 2x d 2x
= n ( x ) 2 ≈ n (0) 2 Typically, Δn < 0.005
dx
dz dz
A general analytic
solution is not simple.
d 2x 1 dn
=
dz 2
n ( 0 ) dx
⎛ x2 ⎞
Suppose: n ( x ) = no ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟ Parabolic Index
⎝ xo ⎠ Profile
dn x
= −2no 2
dx xo
d 2x no x x
= −2 = −2 2
dz 2
n ( 0 ) xo 2
xo
⎛ 2 ⎞ x ⎛ 2 ⎞
x ( z ) = xi cos ⎜ z⎟ + o
xi′ sin ⎜ z⎟
⎝ xo ⎠ 2 ⎝ xo ⎠
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 148
Eikonal Equation Parabolic Index Profile
Varied Launch
Locations
Varied Launch
Angles
Beam Collimator
Fiber
Diverging Light
Fiber Launcher
Fiber