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Essentials of Electromagnetic Field Theory

Maxwell’s equations (and Quantum


Mechanics) serve as fundamental tools for
laser design

Updated: 1/5/14 12:58

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 1


Light is both an Electromagnetic Wave and a Particle

Electromagnetic waves are described by Maxwell’s


Equations

The particle behavior is described using quantum


mechanics which is not considered in this course.

In this course we concentrate on the wave nature of


light and will try to minimize the use of Maxwell’s
Equations, but they are very necessary to understand
what’s happening and we will use them to establish
fundamental results.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 2


Maxwell’s Equations (as used for optics)


 ∂B   ∂  
∇× E = −
∂t C∫ E i d  = − ∂t ∫∫S B i da

 ∂D    ∂    
∇× H =
∂t
+J C∫ H i d  = ∂t ∫∫S D i da + ∫∫S J i da
  
∇i D = ρ  ∫∫ D i da = ∫∫∫ ρ dv = Qenclosed
S V
  
∇i B = 0 ∫∫ B i da = 0
 S

Differential Integral
Form Form

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 3


Field Quantities

Symbol Meaning Units



E Electric Field Vector ( )
Volts/meter V/m

H Magnetic Field Vector Amps/meter ( A/m )

D Electric Flux Density )
Coulombs/meter 2 C/m 2 (

B Magnetic Flux Density Webers/meter ( Wb/m ) 2 2


J Current Density Amps/meter ( A/m ) 2 2

ρ Volume Charge Density Coulombs/meter (C/m ) 3 3

Q Charge Coulombs C ( )
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 4
 
Constitutive Relations: D = ε ( f ) E
 
B = µ( f ) H
ε( f ) dielectric permittivity Farads/meter
µ ( f ) dielectric permeability Henrys/meter
ε , µ , can be tensors, i.e., ε , µ , depend on field orientation
Both are generally a function of frequency f

10−9
Free Space Permittivity: ε o = = 8.854 × 10−12 (Farads/meter)
36π
−7
µ
Free Space Permeability: o = 4 π × 10 (Henrys/meter)
 
Ohm’s Law: J =σ ( f )E
5
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers
Constitutive Relations:

ε
Dielectric Constant: = εr
εo

µε
Index of Refraction: n=
µ oε o

Usually for optics, µ = µo ⇒ n = ε r

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 6


The Wave Equation

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 7


The Wave Equation

For linear media and a source free region of space:



ρ ≡ 0, J ≡ 0

 
 ∂B  ∂D
∇× E = − , ∇× H =
∂t  ∂t 
 ∂B ∂µ H ∂ 
∇ × ∇ × E = −∇ ×
∂t
= −∇ ×
∂t
= −µ
∂t
∇× H ( )
 
 ∂ ∂D ∂E2
∇ × ∇ × E = −µ = − µε 2
∂t ∂t ∂t

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 8


  
(
Identity: ∇ × ∇ × E = ∇ ∇ i E − ∇ E
2
)

   ∂ E 2

( )
∇ × ∇ × E = ∇ ∇ i E − ∇ E = − µε 2
2

∂t
   
∇ i D = ρ = 0, D = ε E, ε = ε ( r )
   
( )
∇ i D = 0, ∇ i ε E = ε∇ i E + ∇ε i E = 0
  ∇ε
∇ i E = −E i
ε

 ∂ E
2
⎛  ∇ε ⎞
∇ E − µε 2 = −∇ ⎜ E i
2

∂t ⎝ ε ⎟⎠
 
=0

ε ≠ ε (r )
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 9
Single Mode Optical Fiber Multi Mode Graded Index Optical Fiber

Core Core ∇ε ≠ 0
Cladding

Buffer Cladding

Air Air ∇ε = 0
∇ε = 0
ε ε

r r

Not to scale!

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 10


The Wave Equation –
For Source-Free, Linear, (Piecewise) Homogeneous Media:

∇ε = 0

 ∂ E
2
∇ 2 E − µε 2 = 0
∂t


 ∂ H 2
∇ H − µε 2 = 0
2

∂t

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 11


In Rectangular Coordinates:


 ∂ E 2
∇ E − µε 2 = 0
2

∂t


E = x̂Ex + ŷE y + ẑE z

∇ E = x̂∇ 2 Ex + ŷ∇ 2 E y + ẑ∇ 2 E z
2

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ = 2+ 2+ 2
2

∂x ∂y ∂z

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 12


Solution to Wave Equation

 ∂ E 2
Three (very similar) equations: ∇ E − µε 2 = 0
2

∂t

∂ 2
Ex
x-component: ∇ 2 Ex − µε =0
∂t 2

∂2 E y
y-component: ∇ 2 E − µε =0
y
∂t 2

∂ 2
E
z-component: ∇ 2 E z − µε 2 z = 0
∂t

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 13


Solution to Wave Equation

Let us solve the first of these for the x-component:

The method used is known as Separation of Variables.

Assume that the equation is separable, i.e.,:


( )
Ex x, y, z = X x Y y Z z () ( ) ()

Also assume sinusoidal steady-state time variation: = jω
∂t
∂ 2
Ex
∇ Ex − µε
2
= 0 ⇒ ∇ 2
E + ω 2
µε Ex = 0
∂t 2 x

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 14


Solution to Wave Equation

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
2
( ) () ( ) ()
∇ Ex + ω µε Ex = 0, Ex x, y, z = X x Y y Z z , ∇ = 2 + 2 + 2
2

∂x ∂y ∂z
2

∇ 2 Ex + ω 2 µε Ex = 0

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
() ( ) () () ( ) ()
⇒ 2X x Y y Z z + 2X x Y y Z z + 2X x Y y Z z
∂x ∂y ∂z
() ( ) ()
+ω 2 µε X ( x )Y ( y ) Z ( z ) = 0

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 15


Solution to Wave Equation

( ) ( ) ∂x
Y y Z z
( ) + X ( x ) Z ( z ) ∂ Y ( y ) + X ( x )Y ( y ) ∂ Z ( z ) + ω
∂2 X x 2 2

µε X ( x )Y ( y ) Z ( z ) = 0
2
2
∂y 2
∂z 2

Y ( y) Z ( z) ∂ X ( x)
2
X ( x) Z ( z) ∂ Y ( y) X ( x )Y ( y ) ∂ Z ( z )
2 2

+ + + ω µε = 0 2

X ( x )Y ( y ) Z ( z ) ∂x2
X ( x )Y ( y ) Z ( z ) ∂y X ( x )Y ( y ) Z ( z ) ∂z
2 2

d2
1 1 d2 1 d2

X x dx()
2
X x +
Y y dy 2()
Y y +
Z z dz ()
2
Z z = −ω 2
µε () () ()

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 16


Solution to Wave Equation

1 d2 1 d2 1 d2

X ( x ) dx 2
X ( x ) +
Y ( y ) dy 2
Y ( y ) +
Z ( z ) dz 2
Z ( z ) = −ω 2
µε

1 d2
X ( x ) dx 2
X ( x ) = −k 2
x

1 d2
Y ( y ) dy 2
Y ( y ) = −k 2
y
kx, ky, and kz are known as
Separation Constants
1 d2
Z ( z ) dz 2
Z ( z ) = −k 2
z

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 17


Solution to Wave Equation

1 d2 d 2

X ( x ) dx 2
X ( x ) = −k 2
x

dx 2
X ( x ) + k 2
x
X ( x ) = 0 ⇒ X ( x ) = X ox
e ± jk x x

1 d2 d 2
Y ( y ) = −k y ⇒ 2 Y ( y ) + k y Y ( y ) = 0 ⇒ Y ( y ) = Yo e
2 2 ± jk y y

Y ( y ) dy 2
dy x

1 d2 d 2

Z ( z ) dz 2
Z ( z ) = −k 2
z

dz 2
Z ( z ) + k 2
z
Z ( z ) = 0 ⇒ Z ( z ) = Z ox
e ± jk z z

⇒ Ex ( x, y, z ) = X ( x ) Y ( y ) Z ( z ) = X o Yo Z o e
± jk x x ± jk y y ± jk z z
e e
x x x

= Eo e
(
± j k x x+k y y+k z z )
x

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 18


Solution to Wave Equation

Note from:

1d2 1 d2 1 d2

()
X x dx 2
X x + ()
Y y dy 2
Y y +
()
Z z dz 2
Z z = −ω 2
()
µε
() ()
   
−k x2 −k y2 −k z2

⇒ k x2 + k y2 + k z2 = ω 2 µε = k 2

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 19


The Solutions are Termed Plane Waves

Ex ( x, y, z ) = Eo e
(
± j k x x+k y y+k z z )
x

Let: k = x̂k x + ŷk y + ẑk z

and: r = x̂x + ŷy + ẑz
↓ choose the – sign for now
then:  
− jk ir
Ex ( r ) = Eo e
2 x

with: k = k x + k y + k z = k = ω µε = k ⇒ k = k
2 2 2 2 2 2

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 20


For the Remaining Components:

⎧ x̂E (x, y, z) = x̂E e− j( kx x+k y y+kz z ) ⎫


⎪ x ox ⎪
 ⎪ − j( k x x+k y y+k z z ) ⎪  − j( kx x+k y y+kz z )
E(x, y, z) = ⎨ ŷE y (x, y, z) = ŷEo e ⎬ = Eo e
⎪ ⎪
y

− j( k x x+k y y+k z z )
⎪ ẑEz (x, y, z) = ẑEo e ⎪
⎩ z ⎭


⎧ x̂E ( r ) = x̂E e ir ⎫− jk
 

⎪ x ox ⎪
  ⎪  − jk ir ⎪
   − jkir
E( r ) = ⎨ ŷE y ( r ) = ŷEo e ⎬ = Eo e
⎪   ⎪
y

 − jk ir
⎪⎩ ẑEz ( r ) = ẑEoz e ⎪

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 21


Properties of Plane Waves
  
For r = 0: E( r = 0) = Eo
  − jkir
From Maxwell’s equations: ∇ i E = 0 = ∇ i ( Eo e )
    
( )
 
− jk ir
Vector Identity: ∇ i fA = A i ∇f + f ∇ i A, A = Eo , f = e
  − jkir
∇ i E = ∇ i Eo e ( )
  
− jk ir
 
− jk ir
 =0
= Eo i ∇e +e ∇ i Eo
  − jkir  
= − jk i Eo e = − jk i E = 0
   
⇒k iE =0⇒k ⊥ E

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 22


Properties of Plane Waves

k = âx k x + â y k y + âz k z

k + k + k = k = n k ⇒ k = ni k
2
x
2
y
2
z
2 2 2
i o

  k refractive index
k = n̂ k = n̂k, n̂ = 
unit normal k
ε
wavenumber: k = ω µε = ω µoε o
2 2 2
   − jkn̂i r  ε o
⇒ E( r ) = Eo e k 2 
k = ni ko
2 2 2
o
ni2
free-space wavenumber: ko2 = ω 2 µoε o

ε
refractive index: ni =
εo
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 23
Properties of Plane Waves
 j 
From Maxwell’s equations: H = ∇× E
ωµ
  
( )
Vector Identity: ∇ × fA = ∇f × A + f ∇ × A

( ( )
   − jkn̂ir  
j j
( )j
)
 
− jkn̂ir − jkn̂ir
⇒H= ∇× E = ∇ × Eo e = ∇ e × Eo + e ∇ × Eo
ωµ ωµ ωµ
j  k  − jkn̂ir 1  − jkn̂ir 1 
( − jk ) e

− jkn̂ir
= n̂ × Eo = n̂ × Eo e = n̂ × Eo e = n̂ × E
ωµ ωµ η η
ωµ
Intrinsic Impedance (Ohms): η =
k
 1    
H = n̂ × E ⇒ H ⊥ n̂ and H ⊥ E
η
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 24
Properties of Plane Waves

   − jkn̂i r  1  ωµ
E( r ) = Eo e , H = n̂ × E, η =
η k

    
E ⊥ n̂, H ⊥ n̂, H ⊥ E, k = n̂k = n̂ni ko

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 25


Why call it a plane wave? θ
   − jk 
E( r ) = Eo e n̂i r

  
θ o = kn̂ i ro = k i ro = k x xo + k y yo + k z zo
  
θ = k n̂ i r = k i r = k x x + k y y + k z z
For a constant phase:
θ = θ o ⇒ θ − θ o = 0 = k x ( x − xo ) + k y ( y − y o ) + k z ( z − z o )

This is the equation of a plane containing the point (xo, yo, zo)
⎛ kx k y kz ⎞
⎜ k , k , k ⎟ are the direction cosines of for the
⎝ ⎠ plane
Hence k x ( x − xo ) + k y ( y − yo ) + k z ( z − zo ) = 0
describes a plane of constant phase.
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 26
Traveling Waves

Consider a plane wave is traveling along the z-direction with


an electric field polarized in the x-direction:

( ) ( )
Ex = Re ⎡ Ex exp − jk z z exp jω t ⎤ = Ex cos ω t − k z z
⎣ o ⎦ o  
( )
θ

kx = k y = 0
To keep θ constant as t increases z must increase
⇒ kz = k

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 27


Traveling Waves

Consider a plane wave is traveling along the z-direction and


with an electric field polarized in the x-direction:

Ex = Re ⎡ Ex exp ( + jk z z ) exp ( jω t ) ⎤ = Ex cos (ω t + k z z )


⎣ o ⎦ o
 
θ

To keep θ constant as t increases r must decrease

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 28


Traveling Wave
What is the velocity of propagation?

θ = ω t − kz = constant
dθ dz
= 0 =ω−k = ω − kv p
dt dt
ω
⇒ vp =
k

ω ω 1
Phase Velocity vp = = =
k ω µε µε

c 1 µε ε
Index of Refraction: n = , c = ⇒n= =
vp µ oε o µ oε o µ = µo εo
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 29
Wavelength

z
zo zo + λ

(
exp ( − jkzo ) = exp − jk ( zo + λ ) )
⇒ k λ = 2π

k=
λ
rad
For λ = 1500nm , k = 4.2 × 10 6

m
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 30
Plane Waves or Transverse Electromagnetic Waves

and

The Poynting Vector

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 31


Again consider a plane wave is traveling in the z-direction
with an electric field polarized along the x-axis,


( ) ⎡
E r,t = Re x̂ Eo e

j(ω t−kz ) ⎤


H ( r,t ) = ?

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 32


Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Fields

Time-Harmonic: All time variation of the form exp jω t ⇒
∂t
= jω ( )
Assume a source-free region of space.
   
∇ × E = − jωµ H ∇ × H = jωε E
∂E z ∂E y ∂H z ∂H y
− = − jωµo H x − = jωε Ex
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z
∂Ex ∂E z ∂H x ∂H z
− = − jωµo H y − = jωε E y
∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x
∂E y ∂Ex ∂H y ∂H x
− = − jωµo H z − = jωε E z
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 33


Consider a plane wave polarized
 in the x-direction and
traveling in the z-direction: E ( r,t ) = Re ⎡ x̂ Eo e j(ω t−kz ) ⎤
⎣ ⎦
 
∇ × E = − jωµ H
∂ Ez ∂ Ey
− = − jωµo H x = 0
∂y ∂z
∂Ex ∂ Ez
− = − jωµo H y
∂z ∂x
∂ Ey ∂Ex
− = − jωµo H z = 0
∂x ∂y

∂Ex j ∂Ex
= − jωµo H y ⇒ H y =
∂z ωµo ∂z
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 34
j ∂Ex j(ω t−kz )
Hy = , Ex = Eo e
ωµo ∂z
j ∂Ex j
⇒ Hy = =
ωµo ∂z ωµo
− jk Eo e (
j ω t−kz )
( )
 k j(ω t−kz )
H = ŷ Eo e
ωµo
ω µ oε j(ω t−kz )
= ŷ Eo e
ωµo
ε j(ω t−kz ) 1
= ŷ Eo e (
j ω t−kz )
= ŷ Eo e
µo η

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 35


Transverse Electromagnetic Waves

 j(ω t−kz )  1
, H = ŷ Eo e (
j ω t−kz )
E = x̂ Eo e ,
η
µo Characteristic Impedance or
η=
ε Intrinsic Impedance of the material
µo
ηo = = 120π ≈ 377 Ω
εo

For Plane or Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) waves, E and H are


perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 36


The Poynting Vector – Useful for measuring power flow
  
S ≡ E×H

The (instantaneous)Poynting vector (units of watts/meter2) is a


measure of the power flowing through a surface and points in the
direction of power flow.

For time harmonic fields, the time-averaged Poynting vector is:

  *
1
S = Re E × H
2
( )

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 37


Electromagnetic Boundary
 Conditions:
Source free region J , ρ = 0

  
n̂ × ( )
E2 − E1 = 0 tangential components of E are continuous
  
n̂ × ( )
H 2 − H1 = 0 tangential components of H are continuous
  
n̂ i ( )
D2 − D1 = 0 normal components of D are continuous
  
n̂ i ( )
B2 − B1 = 0 normal components of B are continuous

 
Note that E = n̂En + Et
 
⇒ n̂ × E = n̂ × n̂En + Et

(  
)
= n̂ × n̂En + n̂ × Et = n̂ × Et = Et

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 38


Example: An incident wave strikes the surface.
Determine the reflected and transmitted waves.
ε1 , µ1 ,n1 ε 2 , µ2 ,n2
Reflected wave

Hr
Transmitted wave
kr 
 Et
Er kt
θr θt
z
x n̂ 
θi Unit normal
Ht
Incident wave
 ki
Ei
 y
Hi
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 39
Note that there are two possible orientations (polarizations) for the
electric field with respect to the interface.

The field can be either perpendicular of parallel to the plane of


incidence.

Plane of Incidence: Plane formed by the normal vector n to the


reflecting surface and the k vector.

The State of Polarization (SOP) is determined by the electric field.

The electric field is decomposed into perpendicular and parallel


components relative to the plane of incidence.

When the electric field is perpendicular to the plane of incidence, it is


known as a transverse electric wave (TE).

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 40


Incident Fields:

 
r = x̂x + ŷy + ẑz ki = k1 ( − ŷ sin θ i + ẑ cosθ i )
  
k = x̂k x + ŷk y + ẑk z ki i r = k1 ( − y sin θ i + z cosθ i )

ki
   
= x̂Ei e 1(
− jk − y sin θ i +z cosθ i )
Ei θi Ei = x̂Ei e − jki ir
z
  
y  H i = ( ŷ cosθ i + ẑ sin θ i ) H i e − jki ir

Hi
Ei − jk1( − y sinθi +z cosθi )
= ( ŷ cosθ i + ẑ sin θ i ) e
η1

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 41


Reflected Fields:


kr = k1 ( − ŷ sin θ r − ẑ cosθ r )
  
Hr kr i r = k1 ( − y sin θ r − z cosθ r )

kr 
Er
θr
z
  
= x̂Er e 1(
y − jkr ir − jk − y sin θ r −z cosθ r )
Er = x̂Er e
  
H r = ( − ŷ cosθ r + ẑ sin θ r ) H r e − jkr ir

Er − jk1( − y sinθr −z cosθr )


= ( − ŷ cosθ r + ẑ sin θ r ) e
η1

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 42


Transmitted Fields:


  kt = k2 ( − ŷ sin θ t + ẑ cosθ t )
Et kt  
kt i r = k2 ( − y sin θ t + z cosθ t )
θt
y z   
= x̂Et e 2 (
− jkt ir − jk − y sin θ t +z cosθ t )
 Et = x̂Et e
Ht   
H t = ( ŷ cosθ t + ẑ sin θ t ) H t e
− jk2 ir

Et − jk2 ( − y sinθt +z cosθt )


= ( ŷ cosθ t + ẑ sin θ t ) e
η2

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 43


Boundary Conditions at z = 0:

   
( )
n̂ × E2 − E1 = 0 ⇒ n̂ × E2 = n̂ × E1
  
( )
n̂ × Ei + Er = n̂ × Et

   
( )
n̂ × H 2 − H1 = 0 ⇒ n̂ × H 2 = n̂ × H1
  
( )
n̂ × H i + H r = n̂ × H t

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 44


Boundary Conditions at z = 0:
  
( )
n̂ × Ei + Er = n̂ × Et

(
ẑ × x̂ Ei e (
− jk1 − y sin θ i +z cosθ i )
+ Er e (
− jk1 − y sin θ r −z cosθ r )
) = ẑ × x̂Et e (
− jk2 − y sin θ t +z cosθ t )
z=0

  
( )
n̂ × H i + H r = n̂ × H t
⎛ Ei − jk1( − y sinθi +z cosθi ) ⎞
⎜ ( ŷ cosθ i + ẑ sin θ i ) η e ⎟
ẑ × ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎜ Er − jk1( − y sinθr −z cosθr ) ⎟
⎜ + ( − ŷ cosθ r + ẑ sin θ r ) e ⎟
⎝ η 1 ⎠
Et − jk2 ( − y sinθt +z cosθt )
= ẑ × ( ŷ cosθ t + ẑ sin θ t ) e
η2 z=0

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 45


Boundary Conditions at z = 0:

Ei e jk1 y sin θi + Er e jk1 y sin θr = Et e jk2 y sin θt

⎛ Ei jk1 y sin θi Er jk1 y sin θr ⎞


zˆ × ⎜ ( yˆ cos θi + zˆ sin θi ) e + ( − yˆ cos θ r + zˆ sin θ r ) e ⎟
⎝ η1 η1 ⎠
E
= zˆ × ( yˆ cos θt + zˆ sin θt ) t e jk2 y sin θt
η2

zˆ × zˆ ≡ 0

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 46


Boundary Conditions at z = 0:

Ei e jk1 y sin θi + Er e jk1 y sin θr = Et e jk2 y sin θt

Ei Er Et
cos θi e jk1 y sin θi − cos θ r e jk1 y sin θr = cos θt e jk2 y sin θt
η1 η1 η2

These equations can be satisfied for all y only if the


phase factors are equal,
⎧ Ei + Er = Et
⎪⎪
k1 sin θ i = k1 sin θ r = k2 sin θ t ⇒ ⎨ Ei Er Et

⎪ cosθ i η − cosθ r η = cosθ t η
⇒ θi = θr ⎪⎩ 1 1 2

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 47


ε1
k1 = ω µoε1 = ω µoε o = n1ko
εo
k2 = n2 ko

θi = θr for reflection
n1 sin θ i = n2 sin θ t for refraction

Snell's Law

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 48


Reflection and Transmission Coefficients (TE Waves)

Ei + Er = Et
Ei Er Et
cos θi − cos θi = cos θ t
η1 η1 η2

Er η2 cos θi − η1 cos θt
⇒ =
Ei η2 cos θi + η1 cos θt
Et 2η2 cos θi
⇒ =
Ei η2 cos θi + η1 cos θt

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 49


Reflection and Transmission Coefficients (TE Waves)

µo εo µ o ηo
Note : η = = =
ε ε εo n

Er n1 cosθ i − n2 cosθ t
=
Ei n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t
Et 2n1 cosθ i
=
Ei n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 50


Reflection and Transmission Coefficients

Normal Incidence:

θi = 0, n1 sin θi = n2 sin θ t ⇒ θ t = 0

Er n1 cos θi − n2 cos θ t n1 − n2
= =
Ei n1 cos θi + n2 cos θ t n1 + n2
Et 2n1 cos θi 2n1
= =
Ei n1 cos θi + n2 cos θ t n1 + n2

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 51


Homework: For the TM polarized wave shown below, show that:
Er n1 cos θt − n2 cos θi
=
ε1 , µ1 ,n1 ε 2 , µ2 ,n2 Ei n1 cos θt + n2 cos θi
Et 2n1 cos θi
 =
Er Ei n2 cos θi + n1 cos θ t

 Et
+ kr

Hr kt 
θr θt Ht
z
x n̂
θi
 
Ei ki
 y
Hi
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 52
Total Internal Reflection (TE or TM)

Set Er = 1 Er n1 cos θi − n2 cos θt


= =1
Ei Ei n1 cos θi + n2 cos θt

Snell’s Law: n1 sin θi = n2 sin θt


n12 sin 2 θi = n2 2 sin 2 θt
n12 sin 2 θi = n2 2 (1 − cos2 θt )

n12
cos θt = 1 − 2 sin 2 θi
n2

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 53


Total Internal Reflection (TE or TM)

Er n1 cos θi − n2 cos θt n12


= = 1, cos θ t = 1 − 2 sin 2 θi
Ei n1 cos θi + n2 cos θt n2

n12
n1 cos θi − n2 1 − 2 sin 2 θi
Er n2
= =1
Ei n 2
n1 cos θi + n2 1 − sin 2 θi1
2
n 2

a − jb n n
= 1 ⇒ 1 sin θi ≥ 1 ⇒ sin θi ≥ 2
a + jb n2 n1

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 54


Total Internal Reflection (TE or TM)

n2
sin θi ≥ ⇒ n2 < n1
n1
Possible only when going from a more optically dense media to a less-
dense media.

⎛ n2 ⎞
Critical angle: θ = sin −1
c ⎜n ⎟
⎝ 1⎠

For total internal reflection θi ≥ θc


n1 > n2
n1 n2 n1 n2 n1 n2
n2
θi < θ c θi = θ c θi > θ c n1

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 55


What is the transmission angle when θ i = θ c ?

Snell’s Law:

n1 n1 n2
sin θt = sin θi = =1
n2 θi = θ c n2 n1
π
⇒ θt =
2
Known as a surface wave.

Total internal reflection and surface waves are key concepts for
understanding optical waveguides.

n2 < n1

n1

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 56


What is the transmission amplitude when θ i = θ c ?

π
θ t = ⇒ cosθ t = 0
2
Er n1 cosθ i − n2 cosθ t
= =1
Ei n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t
Et 2n1 cosθ i
=
Ei n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t
=2 ( What does this mean?)

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 57


What are the transmitted fields when θ i = θ c ?

⎛ ⎞
 =1
− jk2 ⎜ − y sin θ t +z cosθ t ⎟
Et = x̂2Ei e ⎝ ⎠
= x̂2Ei e jk2 y

( )
 2Ei − jk2 ( − y sinθt +z cosθt )
H t = ŷ cosθ t + ẑ sin θ t e
η2
2Ei jk2 y
= ẑ e
η2

This waves travels in the negative y-direction, parallel to the surface.


It is known as a surface wave.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 58


What is the power density delivered to region (2) when θ i = θ c ?

 1  *
St = Re ⎡⎣ Et × H t ⎤⎦
2 θ i =θ c

1 ⎡ ⎤
*
jk2 y 2E − jk2 y
= Re ⎢ x̂ × ẑ 2Ei e i
e ⎥
2 ⎣ η2 ⎦
2
2 Ei
= − ŷ
↑ η2

No power is transferred in the z-direction.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 59


What happens when θ i > θ c ?

We have from Snell’s law that


n1 n2
sin θ t = sin θ i θ >θ Recall: sin θ =
n2 i c
c
n1

cosθ t θ >θ = 1− sin 2 θ t


i c θ i >θ c

2 2
⎛ n1 ⎞ ⎛ n1 ⎞
= 1− ⎜ ⎟ sin 2 θ i = ± j ⎜ ⎟ sin 2 θ i − 1 = ± jα
⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎝ n2 ⎠
   θ i >θ c
>1 θ i >θ c

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 60


Examine the transmitted fields for θ i > θ c
2
⎛ n1 ⎞
cosθ t θ >θ = ± j ⎜ ⎟ sin 2 θ i − 1 = ± jα
i c ⎝ n2 ⎠
θ i >θ c

n1
sin θ t = sin θ i
n2
( Snell )
⎛ n ⎞ ↓ n1
 − jk2 ⎜ − y 1 sin θ i ± jα z ⎟ ± k2α z+ jk2 y sin θ i
Et = x̂Et e 2 (
− jk − y sin θ t +z cosθ t ) ⎝ n2 ⎠ n2
= x̂Et e = x̂Et e
use ( - ) sign (Why?)
 Et − jk2 ( − y sinθt +z cosθt )
H t = ( ŷ cosθ t + ẑ sin θ t ) e
η2
n
⎛ n1 ⎞ Et − k2α z+ jk2 y n12 sinθi
= ⎜ − jα ŷ + ẑ sin θ i ⎟ e
⎝ n2 ⎠ η2
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 61
Examine the transmitted fields for θ i > θ c

ε1 , µ1 ,n1 ε 2 , µ2 ,n2
Direction of
Propagation

n
 − k2α z+ jk2 y 1 sin θ i
n2
n1 > n2 Et = x̂Et e
θr y

θi
Exponential decay or an
evanescent field in z-direction
a surface wave

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 62


Examine the transmitted fields for θ i > θ c

ε1 , µ1 ,n1 ε 2 , µ2 ,n2
Velocity of
Propagation in n2
ω ω
vp = =
ky n1
k2 sin θ i
n2
n1 > n2
θr y n
 − k2α z+ jk2 y 1 sin θ i
n2
Et = x̂Et e
θi
Exponential decay or an
evanescent field in z-direction
a surface wave

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 63


Velocity of Propagation in Region 2:
ω ω ω ω
vp = = = =
ky n1 n1 k0 n1 sin θ i
k2 sin θ i n2 k0 sin θ i
n2 n2
ω
v p k0 n1 sin θ i n2 n2 1
= = = = <1 A slow wave
v2 ω n1 sin θ i Snell n2 sin θ t sin θ t

k0 n2 >1

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 64


Reflection and Transmission Coefficients

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 65


Reflection and Transmission Coefficients

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 66


Reflection and Transmission Coefficients

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 67


Example: Fields for Total Internal Reflection

n1 = 3.4 n2 = 1

45°
z
45°

Ex H
y
A TE wave is incident from GaAs with an index of 3.4 onto the GaAs-Air
interface at an incidence angle of 45 degrees. Describe the electric field in
the air region. Assume that the light has a wavelength of 1 micron.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 68


Example: Fields for Total Internal Reflection
n2 1
Critical angle: sin θ c = = ⇒ θ c = 17.1°
n1 3.4
Since θ > θ c total internal reflection will occur.

The electric field in the air region is:


n
 − k2α z+ jk2 y 1 sin θ i
Et = x̂Et e n2
= x̂Et e− n2k0α z+ jn1k0 y sinθi
2
⎛ n1 ⎞
α = ⎜ ⎟ sin 2 θ i − 1
⎝ n2 ⎠
θ i >θ c

Et 2n1 cosθ i
Et = ΤEi , Τ = =
Ei n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 69


Example: Fields for Total Internal Reflection

2 2
⎛ n1 ⎞ ⎛ 3.4 ⎞
cosθ t = ± 1− ⎜ ⎟ sin θ i = − 1− ⎜
⎝ n2 ⎠
2

⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎟ sin 2
( 45° ) = − j2.186

2n1 cosθ i 2 ⋅3.4cos ( 45° ) 4.808


Τ= = =
n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t 3.4 ⋅cos 45° − j2.186 2.404 − j2.186
= 1.539exp ( 42.28° )
2
⎛ n1 ⎞
α = ⎜ ⎟ sin 2 θ i − 1 = 2.186
⎝ n2 ⎠
2π rad
k2 = n2 ko = n2 = 2π × 106
λ m

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 70


Example: Fields for Total Internal Reflection

 ⎡ − n2k0α z+ jn1k0 y sinθi + j 2λπ c t ⎤


Et ( y, z,t ) = x̂ Re ⎢ Et e ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ −2π ×106 ×2.186×z+ j3.4×2π ×106 × y sin( 45° )+ j
2π ×3×108 ⎤

= 1.539 Re ⎢exp ( j42.28° ) x̂Ei e


t

−6
10

⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

= 1.539 Re x̂Ei e −13.74×106 z+ j15.11×106 y+ j1.885×108 t+ j 42.28° ⎤
⎣ ⎦
= x̂1.539 Ei e −13.74×106 z
(
cos 1.885 × 108 t + 15.11× 106 y + 42.28° )
Assuming that Ei is real.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 71


One Final Comment – Brewster Angle

TE TM
n1 cosθ i − n2 cosθ t n1 cosθ t − n2 cosθ i
Reflection Coefficient
n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t n1 cosθ t + n2 cosθ i
2n1 cosθ i 2n1 cosθ i
Transmission Coefficient
n1 cosθ i + n2 cosθ t n2 cosθ i + n1 cosθ t
Note the difference.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 72


Brewster Angle: For TM Polarization Only

n1 > n2

Brewster
Angle

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 73


Brewster Angle: For TM Polarization Only

n1 < n2

Brewster
Angle

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 74


Brewster Angle: For TM Polarization Only

Brewster
(Polarized) Laser Window

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 75


Brewster Angle: For TM Polarization Only

n1 cosθ t − n2 cosθ B
RTM =0=
n1 cosθ t + n2 cosθ B
⇒ n22 cos 2 θ B = n12 cos 2 θ t = n12 1− sin 2 θ t ( )
2
n
sin 2 θ t = 12 sin 2 θ B via Snell
n2
⎛ 2

2
(
2 2

⎝ n2
n1
)
n2 cos θ B = n1 1− sin θ t = n1 ⎜ 1− 2 sin θ B ⎟
2 2 2


n22 2

n12(1− sin 2
θ B
=)1−
n1
n22
sin 2
θB

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 76


Brewster Angle: For TM Polarization Only

n22 2

n12 (
1− sin 2
θ B
= 1−
n1
n22 )
sin 2
θB

n22
sin θ B =
n12 + n22

n22
θ B = arcsin 2
n1 + n22

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 77


Brewster Angle: For TE Polarization? No!

⎛ ⎞
( )
2
n
RTE = 0 ⇒ n1 cos θ B = n1 cos θ t = n2 1− sin θ t = n2 ⎜ 1− 2 sin θ B ⎟
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2

⎝ n2 ⎠
n12
( )
2
n
2
1− sin 2
θ B
= 1− 1
2
sin 2
θB via Snell
n2 n2
n12 2 n12 2
− 2 sin θ B − 2 sin θ B
n2 n2

n12
⇒ 2 = 1 Only the trivial solution exists.
n2

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 78


Dispersion in Optical Waveguides
Updated: 1/5/14 12:59

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 79


Dispersion:

Motivation for using optical waveguides is the large information capacity


(large bandwidth).

What are the bandwidth limitations


of optical waveguide?

Three types of dispersion; material, modal, and waveguide dispersion.

In material dispersion, different wavelengths travel at different velocities


in a given medium.

Modal dispersion arises when more that one propagating modes exists,
each propagating at a different group velocity.

Waveguide dispersion occurs since β is not a linear function of ω.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 80


Fundamental Mathematical
Description of Dispersion

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 81


Ideal Transmission Channel

Optical Waveguide

Ex (t) L
Ex (t) = Ex (t − T ) = Ex (t − )
in
out in in
v

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 82


Pulse Broadening in a Dispersive Medium

Real Transmission Channel:

Optical Waveguide

E xin (t ) E xout (t )

Each frequency component travels with a different phase velocity. This


gives rise to dispersion. As the bit rate for optical communication
systems increases, analytic tools to predict the dispersion characteristics
of a transmission channel and the resulting pulse distortion are
essential.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 83


Fourier Transform

⎫ ∞

F (ω ) = ∫ f (t)e − jω t dt ⎪ F (ω , z) = ∫ f (t, z)e − jω t dt


−∞ ⎪ −∞
∞ ⎬ ⇒ ∞
1 ⎪ 1
∫ ∫
jω t
f (t) = F (ω )e d ω ⎪ f (t, z) = F (ω , z)e jω t

2π −∞ ⎭ 2π −∞

Recall the Delay Theorem, namely if f (t, z) ↔ F(ω , z)

then f (t − T , z) ↔ F (ω , z)e − jωT

Also recall the Frequency Shifting Theorem:

f (t, z)e− jω ot ↔ F(ω − ω o , z)

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 84


For a propagating wave: F(ω , z) = F(ω )e j(ω t−β z )

1
F (ω )e (
j ω t− β z )
f (t, z) =
2π ∫
−∞

ω
if β = and if vp is not a function of ω
vp
⎛ z⎞
∞ jω ⎜ t− ⎟
1 z
∫ F (ω )e
⎝ vp ⎠
then f (t, z) = d ω = f (t − )
2π −∞
vp

and the pulse shape is maintained and just delayed in time.

( )
Now, what if v p ω ?

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 85


Pulse Broadening in a Dispersive Medium

Example: A Gaussian pulse on an optical carrier.

Such a pulse is very common in optical systems.

This is analytically expressed as:

f (t,0) = e−t 2 τ o2 cos ω t = Re ⎡ f ( t ) ⎤ = Re ⎡ e−t 2 τ o2 e jω ot ⎤


o ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 86


Pulse Broadening in a Dispersive Medium

The Fourier transform of the Gaussian function is well-known


and is given by:

2
⎛ t ⎞
−⎜ ⎟ ω 2τ o2
⎝ τo ⎠ −
e ↔ πτ e 4

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 87


for Lasers
Pulse Broadening in a Dispersive Medium

(ω −ω o ) τ o2
2

For z = 0, F(ω ,0) = πτ oe 4

For z = 0, F (ω , z ) = F (ω ,0)e − jβ z

Taking the inverse transform:


∞ ∞
1 1
f (t, z) =

( )
∫−∞ F ω , z e d ω = 2π
jω t
∫ F(ω ,0)e − jβ z e jω t d ω
−∞

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 88


for Lasers
What is β(ω)? Whatever it’s form, it can be expanded in a
Taylor series about the optical carrier ωo as:

dβ 1 d 2β
( ) ( ) ( ) (ω − ω )
2
β ω = β ωo + ω − ωo + +
dω ω 2! dω 2 o

o ωc
1
( ) ( )
2
≈ βo + v ω − ω o + β2 ω − ω o
−1
g
2
1 dβ d 2β
( )
βo = β ω o , =
v g dω ω
, β2 =
dω 2
o ωc

Where vg is known as as the Group Velocity

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 89


for Lasers
Pulse Broadening in a Dispersive Medium

Retain only the first three terms in the Taylor series (up to
the second order term) and evaluate:

⎡ 1 2⎤
1
∞ − j ⎢ β o +vg−1(ω −ω o )+ β 2 (ω −ω o ) ⎥ z
f (t, z) = ∫ F(ω ,0)e e jω t d ω
⎣ 2 ⎦
2π −∞

Lots of algebra …

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 90


for Lasers
Lots of algebra – go through it for homework

Set : ξ = (ω − ω o )
∞ (ω −ω o ) 2
2
⎛ 1 2⎞
− j⎜ β o +vg−1(ω −ω o )+ β 2 (ω −ω o ) ⎟ z
1 − τ
f (t, z) = τo ∫ e ⎝ 2 ⎠
e jω t d ω
o
4
e
2 π −∞
∞ ξ 2 2 − j⎛ β +v −1ξ + 1 β ξ 2 ⎞ z
1
e(
− τ ⎜⎝ o g 2 2 ⎟⎠ j ξ +ω 0 )t
= τo ∫ e 4 o
e dξ
2 π −∞
⎡⎛ τ 2 1 ⎞ 2 ⎤
∞ −1
− ⎢⎜ + j β 2 z ⎟ ξ + jvg zξ ⎥
o
1 ⎢⎣⎝ 4 2 ⎥⎦
τ o e− jβo z e jω ot ∫ e

= e jξt d ξ
2 π −∞

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 91


for Lasers
Lots of algebra – go through it for homework

⎛ τ o2 β2 z ⎞ 2 ξ 2τ o2 β2 z 2
⎜ 4 + j 2 ⎟ ξ + jvg zξ = 4 + jvg zξ + j 2 ξ
−1 −1

⎝ ⎠
τ o2
( )
= ⎡⎣ 1+ j2τ o−2 β 2 z ξ 2 + j4τ o−2 vg−1zξ ⎤⎦
4
1+ j2τ o−2 β 2 z ⎡ 2 j4τ o−2 vg−1z ⎤
= ⎢ξ + ξ⎥
4τ o−2
⎢⎣ 1+ j2τ o β 2 z ⎥⎦
−2

⎧⎡ j2τ o vg z
−2 −1

2
⎛ 2τ o vg z
−2 −1

2

1+ j2τ o β 2 z ⎪
−2

= ⎨ ⎢ ξ + ⎥ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
4τ o−2 ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 1+ j2 τ −2
β z
2 ⎥⎦ ⎝ 1+ j2 τ −2
β z
2 ⎠ ⎪
o o

( )
2 2
1+ j2τ β 2 z ⎡
−2
j2τ v z ⎤ τ v z
−2 −1 −2
o
−1
g
= ⎢ξ + ⎥ +
o o g

4τ −2
o ⎢⎣ 1+ j2τ β z ⎥⎦ 1+ j2τ o β 2 z
−2
o
−2
2

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 92


for Lasers
Lots of algebra – go through it for homework

j2τ o−2 vg−1z


ζ =ξ+
1+ j2τ o−2 β 2 z
2τ o−2 vg−1z
⇒ jξ t = jζ t + t, dξ = dζ
1+ j2τ β 2 z
−2
o

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 93


for Lasers
Lots of algebra – go through it for homework
The pulse response at z is:
⎡⎛ τ 2 1 ⎞ ⎤
∞ − ⎢⎜ o + j β 2 z ⎟ ξ 2 + jvg−1zξ ⎥
τ ⎢⎣⎝ 4 2 ⎥⎦
e− jβo z e jω ot ∫ e

f (t, z) = e jξt d ξ
2 π −∞
⎧ 2
( )
2 2 ⎫
⎪τ o + j 2 β2 z ⎡ j 2vg−1z ⎤ vg−1z ⎪
−⎨ ⎢ξ + ⎥ + ⎬

τ ⎪ 4 ⎢ τ o2 + j 2 β 2 z ⎥ τ o2 + j 2 β 2 z ⎪
⎣ ⎦
∫e
− jβ o z jω ot
= e e ⎩ ⎭
e jξt d ξ
2 π −∞
⎧ 2
( )
2 ⎫
−1
⎪τ + j 2 β2 z 2 v z ⎪ ⎡
−⎨ o ζ + 2
g
⎬ j 2vg−1z ⎤
∞ ⎢
j ζ− 2 ⎥t
τ ⎪ 4 τ o + j 2 β2 z ⎪ ⎢ τ o + j 2 β2 z ⎥
∫e
− jβ o z jω ot
= e e ⎩ ⎭
e ⎣ ⎦

2 π −∞

( )
2
vg−1z 2vg−1zt
∞ τ o2 + j 2 β 2 z 2
τ − + − ζ
∫e
− jβ o z jω ot τ o2 + j 2 β 2 z τ o2 + j 2 β 2 z
= e e e e 4
e jζ t dζ
2 π −∞

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 94


for Lasers
Lots of algebra – go through it for homework
2
⎛t⎞ ω 2τˆ 2
1 −⎜ ⎟
⎝ τˆ ⎠ −
e ↔e 4
, τˆ 2 = τ o2 + j2β 2 z
π τˆ
⎛ β ⎞ 1 ⎛ β ⎞
j tan −1⎜ 2 22 z ⎟ j tan −1⎜ 2 22 z ⎟
⇒ τˆ 2 = τ o4 + ( 2β 2 z ) e ⇒ τˆ = 4 τ o4 + ( 2β 2 z ) e
2 ⎝ τo ⎠ 2 2 ⎝ τo ⎠

(v z )
2
−1
g 2vg−1zt 1 ⎛ β ⎞ 1
− + − j tan −1⎜ 2 22 z ⎟ − t2
− jβ o z jω ot τ o2 + j 2 β 2 z 2
τ o + j 2 β2 z 2 ⎝ τo ⎠ 2
τ o + j 2 β2 z
e e e e e e
⇒ f (t, z) =
1+ ( 2β 2 z )
2
4

(v z ) ( )
2 2
−1 −1
g 1 t−v z 2v zt −1
g
Note that: − 2 + 2 − 2 t =− 2
2 g

τ + j2β 2 z τ + j2β 2 z τ + j2β 2 z τ + j2β 2 z

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 95


for Lasers
Lots of algebra – go through it for homework

( )
2
−1
t−vg z
− τ o−2
1 −1⎛ β 2 ⎞ β
jω ot− jβ o z− j tan ⎜ 2 2 z ⎟ 1+ j 2 22 z
2 ⎝ τo ⎠ τo
e e
f (t, z) =
2
⎛ β2 ⎞
4 1+ 2 z⎟
⎜ τ2
⎝ o ⎠
( )
2
t−vg−1z
−2
⎡ ⎤ − τ o
⎛ β ⎞ 2

( ) 1 2 β2 z
( ) ⎛ ⎞
2
j ⎢ω o t−vg−1z +ω ovg−1z− β o z− tan −1⎜ 2 22 z ⎟ + t−vg z ⎥
−1 β
⎢ ⎥ 1+⎜ 2 22 z ⎟
⎝ τ o ⎠ τ o4 +( 2 β 2 z )
2 2
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎝ τo ⎠
e e
=
2
⎛ β2 ⎞
4 1+ 2 z⎟
⎜ τ2
⎝ o ⎠

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 96


for Lasers
Final Result:

( )
2
t−vg−1z
− τ o−2 2 Phase Chirp
 
⎛ β ⎞ 
1+⎜ 2 22 z ⎟ ⎡ ⎡ ⎤
⎛ β ⎞⎤ 2 β2 z
( ) ⎢
2(
t− β1z )
1 2⎥
⎝ τo ⎠ j ⎢ω o t−vg−1z +ω ovg−1z− β o z− tan −1⎜ 2 22 z ⎟ ⎥ j
e ⎢⎣ 2 ⎝ τ o ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎢ 4
⎢⎣ τ o +( 2 β 2 z )

⎥⎦
f (t, z) = e e
2
⎛ β2 ⎞
4 1+ 2
⎜ τ 2 z⎟
⎝ o ⎠
 
Amplitude

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 97


for Lasers
The pulse amplitude information is given by
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎥
1 ⎝ vg ⎠
f (t, z) = exp ⎢ − ⎥
⎛ β2 ⎞
2 ⎢ ⎡ ⎛ β ⎞ ⎤⎥ 2

4 1+ 2 z ⎢ τ o ⎢1+ ⎜ 2 22 z ⎟ ⎥ ⎥
2
⎜ τ2 ⎟ ⎢ ⎢ ⎝ τo ⎠ ⎥⎥
⎝ o ⎠ ⎣ ⎣ ⎦⎦

At a fixed z, the pulse envelope is Gaussian in time.

The center of the pulse occurs at


z z dβ
t− = 0 or t = , vg−1 =
vg vg dω ω =ω o

Thus the pulse travels at the group velocity evaluated at the


carrier frequency ωo.
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 98
for Lasers
The pulse width increases with z as

( )
2
τ (z) = τ o 1+ 2τ β 2 z −2

The pulse width increases regardless of the sign of β2


while the pulse amplitude always decreases:

1
2
⎛ β2 ⎞
4 1+ 2 z⎟
⎜ τ2
⎝ o ⎠

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 99


for Lasers
Pulse Width Increase

τ ( z)
τ (0)
τ −2ββ22zz
22a

2τ β 2 z
−2
o

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 100


for Lasers
Consider two pulses (labeled 1 and 2) of different widths, τ 1 ≠ τ 2

( )
2
τ 2 (z) τ 2 1+ 2τ β 2 z
−2
2
=
τ 1 (z)
( )
2
τ 1 1+ 2τ 1−2 β 2 z

In the limit of large z,

τ 2 (z) τ 2−1 τ 1
→ −1 =
τ 1 (z) z→∞ τ 1 τ2

Thus, for β2 ≠ 0, the shorter pulse initially eventually


becomes the longer pulse. Why do you think this is?

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 101


for Lasers
Examine the phase information:

2β 2 z
1 −1
(
φ ( t, z ) = ω ot − β o z − tan 2τ o β 2 z + ) ( )
2
−2 −1
t − v z
τ o + ( 2β 2 z )
2 g
2 4

Note how if β2 = 0 then the carrier travels with the phase velocity:
dφ ( t, z ) dz dz ωo
φ ( t, z ) = constant ⇒ = 0 = ω o − βo ⇒ = v p =
dt dt dt βo
vg
vp

β2 ≠ 0 complicates matters
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 102
for Lasers
Instantaneous Frequency

( ) =ω ( 2β z )
−1 2
dφ t, z v 4β2 z
ωi = − g 2
+ t
β2 τ 4 + ( 2β z ) ( )
o 2 2
dt τ o4 + 2β 2 z ↑
o 2

Note that the pulse is chirped

⎧ ωo z=0
( 2β z )
2
v −1
4β2 z ⎪⎪
ωi = ωo − g 2
+ t → ⎨ v −1
β2 τ 4 + ( 2β z ) ( )
2 2
τ o + 2β2 z
4
⎪ oω − g
z→∞
o 2
⎪⎩ β2

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 103


for Lasers
Chirp

At z = 0, the chirp is not present.

As the pulse width increases we might expect its bandwidth


to decrease. However, because of the "chirp" caused by the
dispersion, the spectrum broadens.

The order in which the parts of the spectrum arrive at z


depends on the sign of β2. If β2 is positive (known as normal
dispersion), then the frequency of the wave increases with
time indicating that the higher frequencies (or "blue"
wavelengths) appear later in time or in the trailing part of the
pulse.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 104


for Lasers
Chirp

This is what would be expected: if β2 is positive then

d 2β d dβ d 1 1 dvg dvg
β2 = = = =− 2 ⇒ < 0, β 2 > 0
dω 2
dω dω dω vg vg dω dω

indicating that the blue-shifted frequencies have a


slower group velocity than the red-shifted ones. Hence the
higher frequencies or "blue” arrives last.

If β2 is negative, dvg /dω > 0, (known as anomalous


dispersion) and the situation is reversed with the high
frequencies (blue) appearing on the leading edge and the
lower ones (red) trailing.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory 105


for Lasers
Effects of chirp:

fin (t ) f out (t )

β2 > 0, low (red)


frequencies come
out first (normal
→ time

dispersion) Leading Trailing


Edge Edge

β2 < 0, high (blue)


frequencies come
out first (anomalous
dispersion)

The drawing is extremely exaggerated for illustrative purposes.


© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 106
Effects of chirp:

Spectrum
dvg
vg (ω ) , > 0, β 2 < 0

dvg
( )
vg ω ,

= 0, β 2 = 0
dvg
v (ω ) , < 0, β 2 > 0
g
ω dω
ωo

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 107


Miscellaneous Expressions:
Alternate expression for β2:
ω 2π c dλ 2π c λ2
β = n (ω ) , λ = ⇒ =− 2 =−
c ω dω ω 2π c
d β n (ω ) ω dn (ω ) n ( λ ) 2π dn ( λ ) d λ n ( λ ) λ dn ( λ )
β1 = vg−1 = = + = + = −
dω c c dω c λ d λ dω c c dλ

β2 =
d 2β
=
( )
d ⎛ n λ λ dn λ ⎞
− =
( )
d ⎛ n λ λ dn λ ⎞ λ 2
− +
( )=
λ λd n λ
2
( )=
λ
D
( )
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
dω 2
d ω ⎝ c c d λ ⎠ d λ ⎝ c c d λ ⎠ 2π c 2π c c
d λ
2
 2π c
D
The parameter D is often provided. For Corning SMF-28, D =
18 ps/nm/km.

The term β2 is known as group velocity dispersion, while D is


knows as time domain dispersion.
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 108
Miscellaneous Expressions:
Alternate expression for the phase and group velocities,

ω
v p (ω ) =
β (ω )
d β (ω )
dv p (ω ) β (ω ) − ω β − ω v −1
1− v v −1

= dω = g
= p g

dω β 2 (ω ) β2 β
dv p −1
vp
⇒ 1− β = v v ⇒ vg =
dω p g
dv p
1− β

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 109


Miscellaneous Expressions:
Also, it is typical to define a characteristic length:

( ) ( )
2 2
τ (z) = τ o 1+ 2τ β 2 z −2
= τ o 1+  z −1
o

1 τo τ o2
2
o = = πc 2
2 β2 λ D

When z =  o the pulse width increases by a factor of 2

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 110


An Example:
Suppose a laser at 1.5 microns is used in a digital link
(using SMF 28 fiber, D = 18 ps/mn/km). A logical one is
represented by a Gaussian pulse with a 1 ps pulse
width. What is the characteristic length of the data link?
⎛ 5 nm ⎞
(1 ps )
2
π ⎜ 3× 10 ⎟
τo
2
⎝ ps ⎠
o = π c 2 = = 0.02327 km = 23.3 m
λ D 2⎛ ps ⎞
(1500 nm) ⎜⎝ 18 nm ⋅ km ⎟⎠
Terrible! For a 1-km length of fiber,
2
⎛ 1000 ⎞
( )
2
τ (1000) = τ o 1+  z −1
= 10 −12
1+ ⎜ ⎟ = 42.9 ps
o
⎝ 23.3 ⎠
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 111
An Example:
This corresponds to a data rate of
1
R = 11.6 Gbit/s
2τ (z)

The loss of 0.2 dB/km is not the limiting factor for fiber.

For high-speed systems, dispersion often poses a severe,


often the most serious limitation on data transmission rates.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 112


What are the sources of dispersion?
Three types of dispersion; material, modal, and waveguide dispersion.

In material dispersion, different wavelengths travel at different velocities


in a given medium.

Modal dispersion arises when more that one propagating modes exists,
each propagating at a different group velocity.

Waveguide dispersion occurs since β is not a linear function of ω.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 113


1. Material Dispersion: Field – Atomic Interactions

Optical properties of dielectrics – essential for optoelectronics

Assume that the dielectric tensor is a simple constant (the dielectric is


isotropic).
ε
Recall the index of refraction: n=
εo

The permittivity is related to the electric field from the constitutive relation:

 
D = εE
We wish to develop a model relating the permittivity to an applied electric
field.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 114


Material Dispersion: Field – Atomic Interactions

Consider a positively charged nucleus and a surrounding negatively


charged cloud.

No Field E Field

e− + e− +

With an applied fields, the charges separate slightly forming an


infinitesimal electric dipole moment p.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 115


Material Dispersion: Field – Atomic Interactions
 
Infinitesimal electric dipole moment: p = qr

Where q is the charge and r is the distance from equilibrium that the
charges move.

The constitutive relation with a dipole moment present is generally


written as:
   
D = ε E = εoE + P
Where P is the bulk polarization of the material:
  
P = Np = Nqr
Where N is the dipole density (dipoles per unit volume).

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 116


Material Dispersion

Simple one-dimensional Lorentz model works very well – two


particles are bound together by a spring. The position xo represent
the equilibrium position with no applied field (applied forces). In the
previous slide xo = 0.

Nucleus Spring Electron

+ − −
xo x

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 117


Material Dispersion

Justification of the Lorentz model: The binding energy of an electron


to a positively charged nucleus has the form:

Binding Potential
Exact functional shape
is generally unknown.

xo
Position
The electron will reside at the minimum of a potential well or at
position xo which we will take as xo = 0.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 118


Material Dispersion

Near xo = 0, expand the potential in a Taylor series:

dV ( xo ) 1 ( xo )V
d 2

V ( x ) = V ( xo ) + ( x − xo ) + 2! dx 2 ( x − xo ) +
2

dx
dV
At the minimum, =0
dx x=xo Valid for applied fields
1 V ( xo ) 2 much smaller than the
2
d
For xo = 0, V ( x ) ~ V ( xo ) + 2
x binding potential
2! dx ~ 1010 V/cm
1 2
= Vo + k x Hooke’s Law
This the simple spring-mass 2 ↑
Model is valid near xo. Spring
Constant
Not Wavenumber!

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 119


Material Dispersion

Recall the Lorentz force on a charge q moving with velocity v is:


   
F = qE + qv × B
Only at relativistic speeds or for strong DC magnetic fields is the
magnetic force non-negligible, so
 
F = qE
The center of mass of the electron and nucleus gives an effective
mass of
me mn
m= ≈ me
me + mn
The net forces acting on an electron determine its motion. These are
the external force from the applied electric field, acceleration, friction,
and spring restoring forces. Summing these forces gives…

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 120


Material Dispersion

Summing these forces gives…

d 2x dx
m 2 + γ m + kx = −eE t
dt dt
()
γ is a friction term which accounts for radiation or phonon emission.
k
Recall the mechanical resonance is ωo = then,
m
d 2x dx e
2
+γ + ωo x = − E (t )
2

dt dt m
Assume an applied field of the form: E (t ) = Eoe jωt
Solving…
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 121
Material Dispersion
−e m
()
Solving… x t = 2 E
ω o − ω 2 + jγω o
e jω t

The displacement is in the direction of the applied field.


     
Recall D = ε E = ε o E + P = ε o E + Nqr
 ⎛ Ne2 m ⎞ 
= ε o E + Nqxx̂ = ⎜ ε o + 2 ⎟ E
⎝ ω o − ω + jγω ⎠
2

Thus
ε Ne 2 ε o m
= 1+ 2
εo ω o − ω 2 + jγω

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 122


Material Dispersion

ε Ne 2 ε o m ω o2 − ω 2 − jγω
= 1+ 2
εo ω o − ω 2 + jγω ω o2 − ω 2 − jγω
Ne 2 ω o2 − ω 2 Ne 2 γω
= 1+ − j
( )
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 2 + γ 2ω 2
o
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 2 + γ 2ω 2
o ( )
= ε ′ − jε ′′

ε Ne 2 ω o2 − ω 2 Ne 2 γω
n (ω ) = = 1+ −j
εo
(
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 + γ 2ω 2
)
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 2 + γ 2ω 2
( )
2
o o

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 123


Material Dispersion

Ne 2 ω o2 − ω 2 Ne 2 γω
( )
n ω = 1+ −j
(
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 + γ 2ω 2
)
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 2 + γ 2ω 2
( )
2
o o

The index increases with increasing dipole density N (atoms in this case).
This explains why solids have a higher index than does air.

The imaginary part of the index or refraction leads to either attenuation or


gain depending on the sign. More on this later.

In regions of transparency this imaginary component of the index or


refraction is negligibly small – a big simplification.

The real part of the index of refraction generally looks like…

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 124


Index of Refraction (Real Part)

1.6
Anaomolous Dispersion
Index of Refraction

λ = 1 micron, f = 3 x1014 Hz (High Absorption Loss)

1.5

λ = 0.3 micron

1.4

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Frequency (x1014)
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 125
For many electrons, each with a different resonant frequency:

ε M
Ne 2 ε o m
= 1+ ∑ f i 2
εo i=1 ω i
− ω 2
+ jγω

Where fi is called the oscillator strength.

In optics it is more common to work in wavelength rather than frequency.

For a transparent material:

Ne 2 ω o2 − ω 2
( )
n ω = 1+
(
ε o m ω 2 − ω 2 2 + γ 2ω 2
o )
Ne 2 1
≈ 1+
ε o m ω o2 − ω 2 2π c 2π c
ω= ,ω o =
λ
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers
λo
126
Sellmeier Equation

Ne 2 2 2
1
λ λo
4π c ε o m
2 2
n (λ ) = 1 +
λ 2 − λo 2

λk 2 Ne2 2
λ
4π 2 2
c ε m G λ 2
n2 (λ ) − A = ∑ o
= ∑ k

k λ 2
− λ k
2
k λ 2
− λ k
2

The Sellmeier coefficients A, Gk and λk can be found in almost


any optics book.

http://www.cvimellesgriot.com/products/Documents/Catalog/Dispersion_Equations.pdf

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 127


Sellmeier Coefficients:

NaCl (A = 1.00055) SiO2 (A = 1) Al2O3 (A = 1) CaF2 (A = 1)

λk (µm) Gk λk (µm) Gk λk (µm) Gk λk (µm) Gk


0.05 0.198
0.1 0.48398 0.0684 0.69617 0.0615 1.0238 0.0503 0.56758
0.128 0.3869
0.158 0.25998 0.1162 0.40794 0.1107 1.0583 0.1004 0.47109
40.5 0.08796 9.8962 0.89748 17.926 5.2808 34.649 3.84847
60.98 3.17

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 128


Group Index and Group Delay:
1 dk d ⎛ n (ω )ω ⎞
Recall the group delay: τ g = = = ⎜ ⎟
(in seconds/meter) vg dω dω ⎝ c ⎠
n (ω ) ω d
= + n (ω )
c c dω
d
n (ω ) + ω n (ω )
= dω
c
The group velocity is: v =
c c
=
n (ω ) N g (ω )
g
d
n (ω ) + ω

d
The group index is: N g (ω ) = n (ω ) + ω n (ω )

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 129


Group Index and Group Delay:

A more useful form for the group index is:

2π c d dλ
N g (λ ) = n (λ ) + n (λ )
λ dλ dω
dλ d ⎛ 2π c ⎞ 2π c λ2
= ⎜ ⎟=− 2 =−
dω dω ⎝ ω ⎠ ω 2π c

dn ( λ )
N g (λ ) = n (λ ) − λ

dn ( λ )
Usually < 0 and N g (λ ) > n (λ ) except in regions of

anomalous dispersion.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 130


Index of Refraction for Corning SMF-28:
(Based on Sellmeier Expansion)

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 131


Group Velocity for Corning SMF-28:
(Based on Sellmeier Expansion)

Note the change in slope.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 132


Group Index for Corning SMF-28:
(Based on Sellmeier Expansion)

Homework: Repeat these


calculations for sapphire fiber (Al2O3).

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 133


Group Velocity Dispersion

If an optical pulse contains more than one wavelength, the different


wavelength component will travel at different group velocities and hence
reach the receiver at different times, effectively stretching out the time it
takes for the pulse to arrive. This effect is called group velocity dispersion
(GVD).
Amplitude Ao
Ao
2 Δλ

λ1 λ2
Wavelength (µ)

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 134


Group Velocity Dispersion

Consider an optical pulse with spectral bandwidth Δλ traveling through a


dispersive medium. The time required to travel a distance L is called the
latency, defined as the product of the group delay with the propagation
distance.
L
τ = N g (λ )
c
For Δλ = λ1 − λ2

L
Δτ = ( N g ( λ1 ) − N g ( λ2 ) )
c
L L dN g
= ΔN g = Δλ
c c dλ

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 135


Material Dispersion
L L dN g
Δτ = ΔN g = Δλ
c c dλ
( )
dN g λ
= −λ
d 2n λ ( )
, D=
λ n λ
d 2
( )
Material Dispersion
dλ dλ 2
c dλ 2

⇒ Δτ =
L dN g
Δλ = −L
λ n λ
d 2

Δλ = −LDΔλ
( )
GVD
c dλ c dλ 2

Watch out for the sign! Some people include it in D, some leave it out.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 136


Dispersion for Corning SMF-28:
(Based on Sellmeier Expansion)

Note the change in sign.

The GVD is zero at this value λo


(termed the zero dispersion point).

The location of the zero dispersion point can be shifted


somewhat with fiber compositional changes.

Homework: Repeat this calculations for sapphire fiber (Al2O3).

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 137


Homework: At the zero dispersion point λo the GVD is zero, but third
order effects need to be considered. Show that the pulse broadening at
the zero dispersion point is:

( Δλ )
2
d 3n
Δτ = −λo
8c dλ3 λ =λo

What is the pulse broadening at the zero dispersion point in fused silica
(SMF-28) for a pulse with a 5 nm bandwidth?

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 138


Example: An LED drives a single mode waveguide that is 10 km long and
has a material dispersion of D = –18 ps/km/nm for wavelengths near 1550
nm. The LED has a spectral width of 60 nm centered at 1550 nm.

If the LED is pulsed on and off in 5 ns, what is the length of the optical
pulse when it arrives at the end of the waveguide?
Δτ = LDΔλ
⎛ ps ⎞
= (10 km ) ⎜ −18 ⎟ ( 60 nm )
⎝ nm-km ⎠
= −10,800 ps = −10.8 ns
The sign is inconsequential here.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 139


Graded-Index Waveguides
Updated: 1/5/14 12:59

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 140


Graded-Index Waveguides

Time delay (latency): T = n(x)L/c


Waves spend less time in region where index is smaller.

The index is designed so that the straight through ray, traveling in a


higher index has the same time delay as does the zigzag that travels
a longer path but in a smaller index.

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 141


Eikonal Equation – A Ray Approach
Approximate the index profile with a stratified structure.

n ( x + 2Δx ) The angles:


n ( x + Δx ) θ + Δθ
90° − θ − Δθ
ϕ = 90° − θ and 90° − θ − Δθ
ϕ = 90° − θ are generally "small"
θ n ( x)
x
n (0)
z sin ϕ Δx
tan ϕ = ≈ϕ ≈
cos ϕ Δz

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 142


Eikonal Equation
Snell’s Law (expressed in a way that let’s us use a small angle
approximation):

n ( x ) sin θ = n ( x + Δx ) sin (θ + Δθ )
sin θ = cos ( 90° − θ )
n ( x ) cos ( 90° − θ ) = n ( x + Δx ) cos ( 90° − θ − Δθ )
Let 90° − θ = ϕ

n ( x ) cos (ϕ ) = n ( x + Δx ) cos (ϕ − Δϕ )

ϕ is "small"

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 143


Eikonal Equation

dn
n ( x ) cos (ϕ ) = n ( x + Δx ) cos (ϕ − Δϕ ) , n ( x + Δx ) ≈ n ( x ) − Δx
dx
⎛ ⎞
⎛ dn ⎞ ⎜
= ⎜ n( x ) − Δx ⎟ ⎜ cosϕ cos Δϕ + sin ϕ sin Δϕ ⎟⎟
⎝ dx ⎠  
⎜⎝ ≈1 ≈ Δϕ ⎟⎠
⎛ dn ⎞
= ⎜ n( x ) − Δx ⎟ ( cosϕ + Δϕ sin ϕ )
⎝ dx ⎠
dn dn
= n ( x ) cosϕ − Δx cosϕ + n ( x ) Δϕ sin ϕ − ΔxΔ
 ϕ sin ϕ
dx dx
≈0
dn
⇒ Δx cosϕ = n ( x ) Δϕ sin ϕ
dx
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 144
Eikonal Equation

dn
Δx cosϕ = n ( x ) Δϕ sin ϕ
dx

dn Δϕ Δϕ Δϕ Δx Δϕ
= n( x ) tan ϕ ≈ n ( x ) ϕ = n( x ) = n( x )
dx Δx Δx Δx Δz Δz
dn Δϕ dϕ Δx dx
= lim n ( x ) = n( x ) , ϕ≈ →
dx Δz→0 Δz dz Δz dz

dn dϕ d d dx d 2x
= n( x ) = n( x ) ϕ = n( x ) = n( x ) 2
dx dz dz dz dz dz

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 145


Eikonal Equation

dn d 2x d 2x
= n ( x ) 2 ≈ n (0) 2 Typically, Δn < 0.005
dx
 dz dz
A general analytic
solution is not simple.

d 2x 1 dn
=
dz 2
n ( 0 ) dx

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 146


Eikonal Equation
d 2x 1 dn
=
dz 2
n ( 0 ) dx

⎛ x2 ⎞
Suppose: n ( x ) = no ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟ Parabolic Index
⎝ xo ⎠ Profile
dn x
= −2no 2
dx xo

d 2x no x x
= −2 = −2 2
dz 2
n ( 0 ) xo 2
xo

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 147


Eikonal Equation
Parabolic Index Profile
d 2x x
2
= −2 2
dz xo
x ( 0 ) = xi , x ′ ( 0 ) = xi′
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
x ( z ) = Acos ⎜ z ⎟ + Bsin ⎜ z⎟
⎝ xo ⎠ ⎝ xo ⎠
2 xo
x ( 0 ) = xi = A, x ′ ( 0 ) = B = xi′ ⇒ B = xi′
xo 2

⎛ 2 ⎞ x ⎛ 2 ⎞
x ( z ) = xi cos ⎜ z⎟ + o
xi′ sin ⎜ z⎟
⎝ xo ⎠ 2 ⎝ xo ⎠
© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 148
Eikonal Equation Parabolic Index Profile
Varied Launch
Locations

Varied Launch
Angles

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 149


Eikonal Equation Parabolic Index Profile

Focus – Lens like media

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 150


Eikonal Equation GRIN Rod – Graded Index Rod

Beam Collimator

Fiber

GRIN Rod Collimated Light

Diverging Light

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 151


Eikonal Equation GRIN Rod – Graded Index Rod

Fiber Launcher

Fiber

Collimated Light GRIN Rod

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 152


GRIN Rod – Graded Index Rod

From Linos Optics

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 153


GRIN Rod – Graded Index Rod

© 2014, Henry Zmuda - Essentials of Electromagnetic Theory for Lasers 154

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