Perfume

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Perfume /pr.fjum/ or parfum is a mixture of

fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds,
fixatives and solvents used to give the human body,
animals, food, objects, and living spaces "a pleasant
scent."[1] Perfumes have been known to exist in
some of the earliest human civilizations, either
through ancient texts or from archaeological digs.
Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century
with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds
such as vanillin or coumarin, which allowed for the
composition of perfumes with smells previously
unattainable solely from natural aromatics alone.

Contents
The Perfume Maker, by Rodolphe Ernst
1 History
2 Concentration
2.1 Solvent types
2.2 Imprecise terminology
2.3 Applying fragrances
3 Describing a perfume
3.1 Fragrance notes
3.2 Olfactive families
3.2.1 Traditional
3.2.2 Modern
3.2.3 Fragrance wheel
4 Aromatics sources
4.1 Plant sources
4.2 Animal sources
4.3 Other natural sources
4.4 Synthetic sources
4.5 Characteristics
5 Obtaining natural odorants
6 Fragrant extracts
7 Composing perfumes
7.1 The perfumer
7.2 Technique
7.2.1 Basic framework
7.2.2 Fragrance bases
7.3 Reverse engineering
8 Health and environmental issues
 8.1 Health
8.1.1 Immunological
8.1.2 Carcinogenicity
8.1.3 Toxicity
8.2 Environmental
8.2.1 Pollution
8.2.2 Species endangerment
8.3 Safety regulation
9 Preserving perfume
10 Lists of perfumes
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links

History
Main article: History of perfume

The word perfume used today derives from the

Latin per fumum, meaning "through smoke."
Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began
in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt and was
further refined by the Romans and Persians.

The world's first recorded chemist is considered Egyptian scene depicting

to be a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker the preparation of Lily
who was mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the perfume
2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia.[2] She
distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other
aromatics then filtered and put them back in the still several times.[3]

In 2005,[4] archaeologists uncovered what are believed to be the world's oldest

Etruscan perfume vase shaped perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years.
like a female head The perfumes were discovered in an ancient perfumery. At least 60 stills, mixing
bowls, funnels and perfume bottles were found in the 43,000-square-foot
2 [5]
(4,000 m ) factory. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, like almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin,
bergamot, as well as flowers.[6]

The Arab chemist, Al-Kindi (Alkindus), wrote the Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations in the 9th
century, which contained more than a hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters and substitutes or
imitations of costly drugs. The book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making and perfume
making equipment, such as the alembic (which still bears its Arabic name).[7]

The Persian chemist Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by
means of distillation, the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the rose. Until his
discovery, liquid perfumes were mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, which made a strong blend. Rose
water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both of the raw ingredients and distillation technology
significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.

The art of perfumery was known in western Europe ever since 1221, if we consider the monks' recipes of Santa
Maria delle Vigne or Santa Maria Novella of Florence, Italy. In the east, the Hungarians produced in 1370 a
perfume made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution at the command of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary, best
known as Hungary Water. The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century, Italian
refinements were taken to France by Catherine de' Medici's personal perfumer, Rene the Florentine (Renato il
fiorentino). His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulae could
be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene, France quickly became one of the European centers of perfume and cosmetic
manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a
major industry in the south of France. Between the 16th and 17th century, perfumes were used primarily by the
wealthy to mask body odors resulting from infrequent bathing. Partly due to this patronage, the perfumery industry
was created. In Germany, Italian barber Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis,
today best known as eau de cologne, while his nephew Johann Maria Farina (Giovanni Maria Farina) in 1732 took
over the business. By the 18th century, aromatic plants were being grown in the Grasse region of France, in Sicily,
and in Calabria, Italy to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, Italy and France
remain the center of the European perfume design and trade.

Concentration
Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a
solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water
and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of
perfume types. The intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on
the concentration, intensity and longevity of the aromatic compounds
(natural essential oils / perfume oils) used: As the percentage of
aromatic compounds increases, so does the intensity and longevity of
the scent created. Specific terms are used to describe a fragrance's
approximate concentration by percent/volume of perfume oil, which
are typically vague or imprecise. A list of common terms (Perfume-
Classification) is as follows:

Perfume extract, or simply perfume (extrait): 15-40% (IFRA:

typical 20%) aromatic compounds
Esprit de Parfum (ESdP): 15-30% aromatic compounds, a
seldom used strength concentration in between EdP and
perfume
Eau de Parfum (EdP), Parfum de Toilette (PdT): 10-20%
Original Eau de Cologne flacon 1811,
(typical ~15%) aromatic compounds, sometimes listed as "eau
from Johann Maria Farina, Farina
de perfume" or "millsime." Parfum de Toilette is a less
gegenber
common term that is generally analogous to Eau de Parfum.
Eau de Toilette (EdT): 5-15% (typical ~10%) aromatic
compounds
Eau de Cologne (EdC): Chypre citrus type perfumes with 3-8% (typical ~5%) aromatic compounds.
"Original Eau de Cologne" is a registered trademark.
 Perfume mist: 3-8% aromatic compounds (typical non-alcohol solvent)
Splash (EdS) and aftershave: 1-3% aromatic compounds. "EdS" is a registered trademark.

A "Classical cologne" describes men's and women's fragrances "which are basically citrus blends and do not have a
perfume parent".[8] Classical colognes are different from modern colognes, where the fragrance is typically a lighter,
less concentrated interpretation of a perfume. Men's colognes are also different from women's colognes. Men's
colognes have a similar concentration to eau de toilette, eau de parfum, "and in some instances perfume"; women's
colognes, on the other hand, are often the lightest concentration from a line of women's fragrance products.[8]

Solvent types

Perfume oils are often diluted with a solvent, though this is not always the case, and its necessity is disputed. By far
the most common solvent for perfume oil dilution is ethanol or a mixture of ethanol and water. Perfume oil can also
be diluted by means of neutral-smelling oils such as fractionated coconut oil, or liquid waxes such as jojoba oil.

Imprecise terminology

Although quite often Eau de Parfum (EdP) will be more concentrated than Eau de Toilette (EdT) and in turn Eau
de Cologne (EdC), this is not always the case. Different perfumeries or perfume houses assign different amounts of
oils to each of their perfumes. Therefore, although the oil concentration of a perfume in EdP dilution will necessarily
be higher than the same perfume in EdT from within the same range, the actual amounts can vary between perfume
houses. An EdT from one house may be stronger than an EdP from another.

Men's fragrances are rarely sold as EdP or perfume extracts; equally so, women's fragrances are rarely sold in EdC
concentrations. Although this gender specific naming trend is common for assigning fragrance concentrations, it
does not directly have anything to do with whether a fragrance was intended for men or women. Furthermore,
some fragrances with the same product name but having a different concentration name may not only differ in
their dilutions, but actually use different perfume oil mixtures altogether. For instance, in order to make the EdT
version of a fragrance brighter and fresher than its EdP, the EdT oil may be "tweaked" to contain slightly more top
notes or fewer base notes. Chanel No. 5 is a good example: its parfum, EdP, and EdT concentrations are in fact
different compositions (the parfum dates to 1921, whereas the EdP was not developed until the 1980s). In some
cases, words such as extrme, intense, or concentre that might indicate aromatic concentration are actually
completely different fragrances, related only because of a similar perfume accord. An example of this is Chanel's
Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur Concentre.

Eau de Cologne (EdC) since 1706 in Cologne, Germany, is originally a specific fragrance and trademark. However
outside of Germany the term has become generic for Chypre citrus perfumes (without base-notes). EdS (since
1993) is a new perfume class and a registered trademark.

Applying fragrances

The conventional application of pure perfume (parfum extrait) in Western cultures is at pulse points, such as behind
the ears, the nape of the neck, and the insides of wrists, elbows and knees, so that the pulse point will warm the
perfume and release fragrance continually. The modern perfume industry encourages the practice of layering
fragrance so that it is released in different intensities depending upon the time of the day. Lightly scented products
such as bath oil, shower gel, and body lotion are recommended for the morning; eau de toilette is suggested for the
afternoon; and perfume applied to the pulse points for evening.[9] Cologne fragrance is released rapidly, lasting
around 2 hours. Eau de toilette lasts from 2 to 4 hours, while perfume may last up to six hours.[10]

A variety of factors can influence how fragrance interacts with the wearer's own physiology and affect the
perception of the fragrance. Diet is one factor, as eating spicy and fatty foods can increase the intensity of a
fragrance.[11] The use of medications can also impact the character of a fragrance.[11] The relative dryness of the
wearer's skin is important, since dry skin will not hold fragrance as long as skin with more oil.[10]

Describing a perfume
The precise formulae of commercial perfumes are kept secret. Even if
they were widely published, they would be dominated by such complex
ingredients and odorants that they would be of little use in providing a
guide to the general consumer in description of the experience of a scent.
Nonetheless, connoisseurs of perfume can become extremely skillful at
identifying components and origins of scents in the same manner as wine
experts.[12]

The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to the

elements of the fragrance notes of the scent or the "family" it belongs to,
all of which affect the overall impression of a perfume from first
application to the last lingering hint of scent.[13][14]

Fragrance notes
Shelves of perfumes. A closed
Main article: Note (perfumery) cabinet, to keep out note-destroying
sunlight, would be more appropriate
Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of notes,
making the harmonious scent accord. The notes unfold over time, with
the immediate impression of the top note leading to the deeper middle
notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the final stage. These
notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of
the perfume.

Top notes: The scents that are perceived immediately on

application of a perfume. Top notes consist of small, light
molecules that evaporate quickly. They form a person's initial
impression of a perfume and thus are very important in the selling
of a perfume. Also called the head notes.
Middle notes: The scent of a perfume that emerges just prior to
the dissipation of the top note. The middle note compounds form
Fragrance pyramid
the "heart" or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often
unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become more
pleasant with time. They are also called the heart notes.
Base notes: The scent of a perfume that appears close to the departure of the middle notes. The base and
middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to a perfume.
Compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes
after application.
 after application.
The scents in the top and middle notes are influenced by the base notes, as well the scents of the base notes will be
altered by the type of fragrance materials used as middle notes. Manufacturers of perfumes usually publish perfume
notes and typically they present it as fragrance pyramid, with the components listed in imaginative and abstract
terms.

Olfactive families

Grouping perfumes, like any taxonomy, can never be a completely objective or final process. Many fragrances
contain aspects of different families. Even a perfume designated as "single flower", however subtle, will have
undertones of other aromatics. "True" unitary scents can rarely be found in perfumes as it requires the perfume to
exist only as a singular aromatic material.

Classification by olfactive family is a starting point for a description of a perfume, but it cannot by itself denote the
specific characteristic of that perfume.

Traditional

The traditional classification which emerged around 1900 comprised the following categories:

Single Floral: Fragrances that are dominated by a scent from one particular flower; in French called a
soliflore. (e.g., Serge Lutens' Sa Majeste La Rose, which is dominated by rose.)
Floral Bouquet: Is a combination of fragrance of several flowers in a perfume compound. Examples include
Quelques Fleurs by Houbigant and Joy by Jean Patou.
Amber or "Oriental": A large fragrance class featuring the sweet slightly animalic scents of ambergris or
labdanum, often combined with vanilla, tonka bean, flowers and woods. Can be enhanced by camphorous
oils and incense resins, which bring to mind Victorian era imagery of the Middle East and Far East.
Traditional examples include Guerlain's Shalimar and Yves Saint Laurent's Opium.
Woody: Fragrances that are dominated by woody scents, typically of agarwood, sandalwood and
cedarwood. Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes. A traditional
example here would be Myrurgia's Maderas De Oriente or Chanel Bois-des-les. A modern example would
be Balenciaga Rumba.
Leather: A family of fragrances which features the scents of honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in its
middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather. Traditional examples include Robert Piguet's Bandit
and Balmain's Jolie Madame.
Chypre (IPA: [ip]): Meaning Cyprus in French, this includes fragrances built on a similar accord consisting
of bergamot, oakmoss, and labdanum. This family of fragrances is named after the eponymous 1917 perfume
by Franois Coty, and one of the most famous extant examples is Guerlain's Mitsouko.
Fougre (IPA: [fu.]): Meaning Fern in French, built on a base of lavender, coumarin and oakmoss.
Houbigant's Fougre Royale pioneered the use of this base. Many men's fragrances belong to this family of
fragrances, which is characterized by its sharp herbaceous and woody scent. Some well-known modern
fougres are Faberg Brut and Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir.

Modern

Since 1945, due to great advances in the technology of perfume creation (i.e., compound design and synthesis) as
well as the natural development of styles and tastes, new categories have emerged to describe modern scents:
 Bright Floral: combining the traditional Single Floral & Floral Bouquet categories. A good example would
be Este Lauder's Beautiful.
Green: a lighter and more modern interpretation of the Chypre type, with pronounced cut grass, crushed
green leaf and cucumber-like scents. Examples include Este Lauder's Aliage, Sisley's Eau de Campagne,
and Calvin Klein's Eternity.
Aquatic, Oceanic, or Ozonic: the newest category in perfume history, first appearing in 1988 Davidoff
Cool Water (1988), Christian Dior's Dune (1991), and many others. A clean smell reminiscent of the ocean,
leading to many of the modern androgynous perfumes. Generally contains calone, a synthetic scent
discovered in 1966, or other more recent synthetics. Also used to accent floral, oriental, and woody
fragrances.
Citrus: An old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of "freshening" eau de colognes, due to
the low tenacity of citrus scents. Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of
primarily citrus fragrances. A good example here would be Faberge Brut.
Fruity: featuring the aromas of fruits other than citrus, such as peach, cassis (black currant), mango, passion
fruit, and others. A modern example here would be Ginestet Botrytis.
Gourmand (French: [um]): scents with "edible" or "dessert"-like qualities. These often contain notes like
vanilla, tonka bean and coumarin, as well as synthetic components designed to resemble food flavors. A
sweet example is Thierry Mugler's Angel. A savory example would be Dinner by BoBo, which has cumin
and curry hints.

Fragrance wheel

Main article: Fragrance wheel

The Fragrance wheel is a relatively new classification method that is

widely used in retail and in the fragrance industry. The method was
created in 1983 by Michael Edwards, a consultant in the perfume
industry, who designed his own scheme of fragrance classification. The
new scheme was created in order to simplify fragrance classification and
naming scheme, as well as to show the relationships between each of the
individual classes.[15]

The five standard families consist of Floral, Oriental, Woody, Fougre,

and Fresh, with the former four families being more "classic" while the
latter consisting of newer bright and clean smelling citrus and oceanic
Fragrance Wheel perfume
fragrances that have arrived due to improvements in fragrance
classification chart, ver. 1983
technology. Each of the families are in turn divided into sub-groups and
arranged around a wheel.

Aromatics sources
Plant sources

Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds. These aromatics are
usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract
pollinators. Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these
compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for
instance the aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other. Orange leaves,
blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petitgrain, neroli, and orange oils.

Bark: Commonly used barks include cinnamon and cascarilla. The fragrant oil in sassafras root bark is also
used either directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole, which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant
compounds.
Flowers and blossoms: Undoubtedly the largest and most common source of perfume aromatics. Includes
the flowers of several species of rose and jasmine, as well as osmanthus, plumeria, mimosa, tuberose,
narcissus, scented geranium, cassie, ambrette as well as the blossoms of citrus and ylang-ylang trees.
Although not traditionally thought of as a flower, the unopened flower buds of the clove are also commonly
used. Most orchid flowers are not commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the
case of vanilla, an orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before use in perfumery.
Fruits: Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries, cherries unfortunately do not yield the expected odors when
extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are synthetic. Notable exceptions include
litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry. The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind;
they include citrus such as oranges, lemons, and limes. Although grapefruit rind is still used for aromatics,
more and more commercially used grapefruit aromatics are artificially synthesized since the natural aromatic
contains sulfur and its degradation product is quite unpleasant in smell.
Leaves and twigs: Commonly used for perfumery are lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and
citrus leaves. Sometimes leaves are valued for the "green" smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this
include hay and tomato leaf.
Resins: Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in incense and perfumery. Highly fragrant and
antiseptic resins and resin-containing perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines for a large
variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in perfumery include labdanum, frankincense/olibanum, myrrh,
Peru balsam, gum benzoin. Pine and fir resins are a particularly valued source of terpenes used in the organic
synthesis of many other synthetic or naturally occurring aromatic compounds. Some of what is called amber
and copal in perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil conifers.
Roots, rhizomes and bulbs: Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include iris rhizomes, vetiver
roots, various rhizomes of the ginger family.
Seeds: Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, carrot seed, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace,
cardamom, and anise.
Woods: Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils and distillates are
indispensable in perfumery. Commonly used woods include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood, birch,
cedar, juniper, and pine. These are used in the form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms.

Animal sources

Ambergris: Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose

precursors were secreted and expelled by the sperm whale.
Ambergris should not be confused with yellow amber, which is
used in jewelry. Because the harvesting of ambergris involves no
harm to its animal source, it remains one of the few animalic
fragrancing agents around which little controversy now exists.
Castoreum: Obtained from the odorous sacs of the North
American beaver.
 American beaver.
Civet: Also called Civet Musk, this is obtained from the odorous
sacs of the civets, animals in the family Viverridae, related to the
mongoose. The World Society for the Protection of Animals
investigated African civets caught for this purpose.[16]
Hyraceum: Commonly known as "Africa Stone", is the petrified
excrement of the Rock Hyrax.[17]
Honeycomb: From the honeycomb of the honeybee. Both
beeswax and honey can be solvent extracted to produce an
absolute. Beeswax is extracted with ethanol and the ethanol
Ambergris
evaporated to produce beeswax absolute.
Deer musk: Originally derived from the musk sacs from the Asian
musk deer, it has now been replaced by the use of synthetic musks sometimes known as "white musk".

Other natural sources

Lichens: Commonly used lichens include oakmoss and treemoss thalli.

"Seaweed": Distillates are sometimes used as essential oil in perfumes. An example of a commonly used
seaweed is Fucus vesiculosus, which is commonly referred to as bladder wrack. Natural seaweed
fragrances are rarely used due to their higher cost and lower potency than synthetics.

Synthetic sources

Main article: Aroma compound

Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in
nature. For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is
widely used in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds
that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring
compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes. Orchid scents (typically salicylates) are usually
not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds
found in various orchids.

One of the most commonly used class of synthetic aromatic by far are the white musks. These materials are found
in all forms of commercial perfumes as a neutral background to the middle notes. These musks are added in large
quantities to laundry detergents in order to give washed clothes a lasting "clean" scent.

The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies. They include:

International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF)

Givaudan
Firmenich
Takasago
Symrise

Each of these companies patents several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually.

Characteristics
Characteristics
Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor characteristics in perfumery

Naturals Synthetics

Vary by the times and locations where they are harvested

as well as how the product was extracted from the raw
Much more consistent than natural
material. It's much more difficult to produce consistent
aromatics. However, differences in
products with equivalent odor over years of harvest and
organic synthesis may result in minute
production. As such, the perfumer has to "manually"
differences in concentration of
Variance balance-out the natural variations of the ingredients in
impurities. If these impurities have low
order to maintain the quality of the perfume. In addition,
smell (detection) thresholds, the
unscrupulous suppliers may adulterate the actual raw
differences in the scent of the synthetic
materials by changing its source (adding Indian Jasmine
aromatic will be significant.
into Grasse Jasmine) or the contents (adding linalool to
Rosewood) to increase their profit margin.
Depending on purity, consists primarily
of one chemical compound. Sometimes
Contains many different organic compounds, each adding chiral mixtures of isomers, such as in
a different note to the overall scent. These naturally the case of Iso E Super.[18] Due to the
Components derived substances have a history of use, therefore it is almost pure composition of one
easy to determine whether they are safe or not. Possible chemical compound, the same
allergenic compounds. molecules found diluted in nature will
have a different scent and effect on the
body, if used undiluted.
Similar to natural scents yet different at
the same time. Some synthetics attempt
Reminiscent of its originating material, although extraction
to mimic natural notes, while others
Scent may capture a different "layer" of the scent, depending on
explore the entire spectrum of scent.
Uniqueness the how the extraction method denatures the odoriferous
Novel scent compounds not found in
compounds.
nature will often be unique in their
scent.
Pure and pronounced fragrance notes.
Scent Deep and complex fragrance notes. Soft, with subtle
Often monotonous in nature, yet
Complexity scent nuances. Highly valued for ideal composition.
reminiscent of other natural scents.
Dependent on synthesis method.
Generally cheaper, but not necessarily.
Synthetic aromatics are not necessarily
cheaper than naturals, with some
Dependent on extraction method. More expensive, but synthetics being more costly than most
not always, as prices are determined by the labor and natural ingredients due to various
Price
difficulty of properly extracting each unit of the natural factors such as the long synthesis
materials, as well as its quality. routes, low availability of precursor
chemicals, and low overall yield.
However, due to their low odor
 threshold, they should be diluted when
making a perfume.

Obtaining natural odorants

Main article: Extraction (fragrance)

Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume compositions must first be obtained.
Synthetic odorants are produced through organic synthesis and purified. Odorants from natural sources require the
use of various methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials. The results of the extraction are either
essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product.[19]

All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw
materials. This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process
which will denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their odor character or renders them odorless.

Maceration/Solvent extraction: The most used and economically important technique for extracting
aromatics in the modern perfume industry. Raw materials are submerged in a solvent that can dissolve the
desired aromatic compounds. Maceration lasts anywhere from hours to months. Fragrant compounds for
woody and fibrous plant materials are often obtained in this manner as are all aromatics from animal sources.
The technique can also be used to extract odorants that are too volatile for distillation or easily denatured
by heat. Commonly used solvents for maceration/solvent extraction include hexane, and dimethyl ether.
The product of this process is called a "concrete."
Supercritical fluid extraction: A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a
raw material, which often employs Supercritical CO2. Due to the low heat of process and the
relatively nonreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely
resemble the original odor of the raw material.
Ethanol extraction: A type of solvent extraction used to extract fragrant compounds directly from
dry raw materials, as well as the impure oily compounds materials resulting from solvent extraction or
enfleurage. Ethanol extraction is not used to extract fragrance from fresh plant materials since these
contain large quantities of water, which will also be extracted into the ethanol.
Distillation: A common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms
and roses. The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-
collected through condensation of the distilled vapour.
Steam distillation: Steam from boiling water is passed through the
raw material, which drives out their volatile fragrant compounds.
The condensate from distillation are settled in a Florentine flask.
This allows for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the
water. The water collected from the condensate, which retains
some of the fragrant compounds and oils from the raw material is
called hydrosol and sometimes sold. This is most commonly used
for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves, and stems.
Dry/destructive distillation: The raw materials are directly heated
in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant
compounds that are released from the raw material by the high
heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the An old perfume still on display
at Fragonard
 at Fragonard
formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different
fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant
woods where an intentional "burned" or "toasted" odor is desired.
Fractionation: Through the use of a fractionation column, different fractions distilled from a material
can be selectively excluded to modify the scent of the final product. Although the product is more
expensive, this is sometimes performed to remove unpleasant or undesirable scents of a material and
affords the perfumer more control over their composition process.
Expression: Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the oils are collected. Of all raw materials, only
the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in the citrus family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present
in large enough quantities as to make this extraction method economically feasible.
Enfleurage: Absorption of aroma materials into solid fat or wax and then extraction of odorous oils with
ethyl alcohol. Extraction by enfleurage was commonly used when distillation was not possible because some
fragrant compounds denature through high heat. This technique is not commonly used in the modern industry
due to prohibitive costs and the existence of more efficient and effective extraction methods.[13]

Fragrant extracts
Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term "essential oils", a more specific
language is used in the fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular
fragrant extract.

Of these extracts, only absolutes, essential oils, and tinctures are directly used to formulate perfumes.

Absolute: Fragrant materials that are purified from a pommade or concrete by soaking them in ethanol. By
using a slightly hydrophilic compound such as ethanol, most of the fragrant compounds from the waxy source
materials can be extracted without dissolving any of the fragrantless waxy molecules. Absolutes are usually
found in the form of an oily liquid.
Concrete: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from raw materials through solvent extraction using
volatile hydrocarbons. Concretes usually contain a large amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents
dissolve various hydrophobic compounds. As such concretes are usually further purified through distillation
or ethanol based solvent extraction. Concretes are typically either waxy or resinous solids or thick oily
liquids.
Essential oil: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from a source material directly through
distillation or expression and obtained in the form of an oily liquid. Oils extracted through expression are
sometimes called expression oils.
Pomade: A fragrant mass of solid fat created from the enfleurage process, in which odorous compounds in
raw materials are adsorbed into animal fats. Pommades are found in the form of an oily and sticky solid.
Tincture: Fragrant materials produced by directly soaking and infusing raw materials in ethanol. Tinctures
are typically thin liquids.[13]

Products from different extraction methods are known under different names even though their starting materials are
the same. For instance, orange blossoms from Citrus aurantium that have undergone solvent extraction produces
"orange blossom absolute" but that which have been steam distilled is known as "neroli oil".

Composing perfumes
Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries ranging
from the luxury goods sectors, food services industries, to manufacturers
of various household chemicals. The purpose of using perfume or
fragrance compositions in these industries is to affect customers through
their sense of smell and entice them into purchasing the perfume or
perfumed product. As such there is significant interest in producing a
perfume formulation that people will find aesthetically pleasing.

The perfumer Counterfeit perfumes

Main article: Perfumer

The job of composing perfumes that will be sold is left up to an expert on perfume composition or known in the
fragrance industry as the perfumer. They are also sometimes referred to affectionately as a "Nez" (French for nose)
due to their fine sense of smell and skill in smell composition.

The composition of a perfume typically begins with a brief by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer. The
customers to the perfumer or their employers, are typically fashion houses or large corporations of various
industries. The perfumer will then go through the process of blending multiple perfume mixtures and sell the
formulation to the customer, often with modifications of the composition of the perfume.

The perfume composition will then be either used to enhance another product as a functional fragrance
(shampoos, make-up, detergents, car interiors, etc.), or marketed and sold directly to the public as a fine
fragrance.[12]

Technique

Although there is no single "correct" technique for the formulation of

a perfume, there are general guidelines as to how a perfume can be
constructed from a concept. Although many ingredients do not
contribute to the smell of a perfume, many perfumes include
colorants and anti-oxidants to improve the marketability and shelf
life of the perfume, respectively.

Basic framework

Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients and

these are typically organized in a perfume for the specific role they
Paper blotters (fr:mouillettes) are
will play. These ingredients can be roughly grouped into four groups:
commonly used by perfumers to sample
Primary scents (Heart): Can consist of one or a few main and smell perfumes and odorants.
ingredients for a certain concept, such as "rose". Alternatively,
multiple ingredients can be used together to create an "abstract" primary scent that does not bear a
resemblance to a natural ingredient. For instance, jasmine and rose scents are commonly blends for abstract
floral fragrances. Cola flavourant is a good example of an abstract primary scent.
Modifiers: These ingredients alter the primary scent to give the perfume a certain desired character: for
instance, fruit esters may be included in a floral primary to create a fruity floral; calone and citrus scents can
 be added to create a "fresher" floral. The cherry scent in cherry cola can be considered a modifier.
Blenders: A large group of ingredients that smooth out the transitions of a perfume between different "layers"
or bases. These themselves can be used as a major component of the primary scent. Common blending
ingredients include linalool and hydroxycitronellal.
Fixatives: Used to support the primary scent by bolstering it. Many resins, wood scents, and amber bases
are used as fixatives.

The top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate primary scents and supporting ingredients. The
perfume's fragrance oils are then blended with ethyl alcohol and water, aged in tanks for several weeks and filtered
through processing equipment to, respectively allow the perfume ingredients in the mixture to stabilize and to
remove any sediment and particles before the solution can be filled into the perfume bottles.[20]

Fragrance bases

Instead of building a perfume from "ground up", many modern perfumes

and colognes are made using fragrance bases or simply bases. Each
base is essentially modular perfume that is blended from essential oils and
aromatic chemicals, and formulated with a simple concept such as "fresh
cut grass" or "juicy sour apple". Many of Guerlain's Aqua Allegoria line,
with their simple fragrance concepts, are good examples of what perfume
fragrance bases are like.

The effort used in developing bases by fragrance companies or individual

perfumers may equal that of a marketed perfume, since they are useful in
that they are reusable. On top of its reusability, the benefit in using bases
for construction are quite numerous:

1. Ingredients with "difficult" or "overpowering" scents that are

tailored into a blended base may be more easily incorporated into
a work of perfume
2. A base may be better scent approximations of a certain thing than
the extract of the thing itself. For example, a base made to embody
the scent for "fresh dewy rose" might be a better approximation for A "perfume organ", where perfumers
the scent concept of a rose after rain than plain rose oil. Flowers play around with hundreds of
whose scents cannot be extracted, such as gardenia or hyacinth, essences, in Grasse
are composed as bases from data derived from headspace
technology.
3. A perfumer can quickly rough out a concept from a brief by combining multiple bases, then present it
feedback. Smoothing out the "edges" of the perfume can be done after a positive response.

Reverse engineering
Creating perfumes through reverse engineering with analytical techniques such as Gas chromatographymass
spectrometry (GC/MS) can reveal the "general" formula for any particular perfume. The difficulty of GC/MS
analysis arises due to the complexity of a perfume's ingredients. This is particularly due to the presence of natural
essential oils and other ingredients consisting of complex chemical mixtures. However, "anyone armed with good
GC/MS equipment and experienced in using this equipment can today, within days, find out a great deal about the
GC/MS equipment and experienced in using this equipment can today, within days, find out a great deal about the
formulation of any perfume... customers and competitors can analyze most perfumes more or less precisely."[21]

Antique or badly preserved perfumes undergoing this analysis can also be difficult due to the numerous degradation
by-products and impurities that may have resulted from breakdown of the odorous compounds. Ingredients and
compounds can usually be ruled out or identified using gas chromatograph (GC) smellers, which allow individual
chemical components to be identified both through their physical properties and their scent. Reverse engineering of
best-selling perfumes in the market is a very common practice in the fragrance industry due to the relative simplicity
of operating GC equipment, the pressure to produce marketable fragrances, and the highly lucrative nature of the
perfume market.[20]

Health and environmental issues

Perfume ingredients, regardless of natural or synthetic origins, may all
cause health or environmental problems when used or abused in
substantial quantities. Although the areas are under active research, much
remains to be learned about the effects of fragrance on human health and
the environment.

Health

Immunological A musk pod. The extensive hunting

the male musk deer for their pods in
Evidence in peer-reviewed journals shows that some fragrances can recent history have resulted in the
cause asthmatic reactions in some individuals, especially those with detriment of the species.
severe or atopic asthma.[22] Many fragrance ingredients can also cause
headaches, allergic skin reactions[23] or nausea.[24][25][26]

In some cases, an excessive use of perfumes may cause allergic reactions of the skin. For instance, acetophenone,
ethyl acetate[citation needed] and acetone[20] while present in many perfumes, are also known or potential
respiratory allergens. Nevertheless this may be misleading, since the harm presented by many of these chemicals
(either natural or synthetic) is dependent on environmental conditions and their concentrations in a perfume. For
instance, linalool, which is listed as an irritant, causes skin irritation when it degrades to peroxides, however the use
of antioxidants in perfumes or reduction in concentrations can prevent this. As well, the furanocoumarin present in
natural extracts of grapefruit or celery can cause severe allergic reactions and increase sensitivity to ultraviolet
radiation.[27]

Some research on natural aromatics have shown that many contain compounds that cause skin irritation.[28]
However some studies, such as IFRA's research claim that opoponax is too dangerous to be used in perfumery,
still lack scientific consensus.[29] It is also true that sometimes inhalation alone can cause skin irritation.

Carcinogenicity

There is scientific evidence that nitro-musks such as musk xylene can cause cancer while common ingredients, like
certain polycyclic synthetic musks, can disrupt the balance of hormones in the human body (endocrine
disruption).[30][31] Some natural aromatics, such as oakmoss absolutes, contain allergens and carcinogenic
compounds.[28][32]
compounds.
Toxicity

Certain chemicals found in perfume are often toxic, at least for small insects if not for humans. For example the
compound Tricyclodecenyl allyl ether is often found in synthetic perfumes[33][34] and has insect repellent property.

Environmental

Pollution

Synthetic musks are pleasant in smell and relatively inexpensive, as such they are often employed in large quantities
to cover the unpleasant scent of laundry detergents and many personal cleaning products. Due to their large-scale
use, several types of synthetic musks have been found in human fat and milk,[35] as well as in the sediments and
waters of the Great Lakes.[36]

These pollutants may pose additional health and environmental problems when they enter human and animal diets.

Species endangerment

The demands for aromatic materials like sandalwood, agarwood, musk has led to the endangerment of these
species as well as illegal trafficking and harvesting.

Safety regulation
The perfume industry in the US is not directly regulated by the FDA, instead the FDA controls the safety of
perfumes through their ingredients and requires that they be tested to the extent that they are Generally recognized
as safe (GRAS). Due to the need for protection of trade secrets, companies rarely give the full listing of ingredients
regardless of their effects on health. In Europe, as from 11 March 2005, the mandatory listing of a set of 26
recognized fragrance allergens was enforced.[37] The requirement to list these materials is dependant on the
intended use of the final product. The limits above which the allegens are required to be declared are 0.001% for
products intended to remain on the skin, and 0.01% for those intended to be rinsed off. This has resulted in many
old perfumes like chypres and fougre classes, which require the use of oakmoss extract, being reformulated.

Preserving perfume
Fragrance compounds in perfumes will degrade or break down if improperly stored in the presence of:

Heat
Light
Oxygen
Extraneous organic materials

Proper preservation of perfumes involves keeping them away from sources of heat and storing them where they will
not be exposed to light. An opened bottle will keep its aroma intact for several years, as long as it is well stored.[12]
However the presence of oxygen in the head space of the bottle and environmental factors will in the long run alter
the smell of the fragrance.
Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight aluminium bottles or in their original packaging when not in use,
and refrigerated to relatively low temperatures: between 3-7C (37-45F). Although it is difficult to completely
remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray dispensers instead of rollers and
"open" bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also have the advantage of isolating fragrance inside a bottle
and preventing it from mixing with dust, skin, and detritus, which would degrade and alter the quality of a perfume.

There exist several archives and museums devoted to the preservation of historical perfumes, namely the
Osmothque, which stocks over 3,000 perfumes from the past two millennia in their original formulations. All scents
in their collection are preserved in non-actinic glass flasks flushed with argon gas, stored in thermally insulated
compartments maintained at 12C (53.6F) in a large vault.[38]

Lists of perfumes
Further information: List of Famous Perfumes
Further information: List of celebrity endorsed perfumes

See also
Aromatherapy
Cosmetics
FiFi Awards - annual fragrance awards
Fixative (perfumery)
Fragrance companies
Fragrance lamp
Fragrance Museum
Fragrance oil
Incense Potpourri, by Edwin Austin Abbey, 1899
Ittar
Museo del Profumo
Pheromone
Pomander
Potpourri
Sachet
Scented water
Sex in advertising
Toilet water

References
1. ^ Merriam-webster.com (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/perfume)
2. ^ Strathern, Paul (2000). Mendeleyev's Dream - The Quest For the Elements. New York: Berkley Books. ISBN 0-
425-18467-6.
3. ^ Levey, Martin (1973). Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction Based on Ancient and Medievl Sources.
Brill Archive. p. 9. ISBN 90-04-03796-9.
4. ^ Archaeologynews.multiply.com (http://archaeologynews.multiply.com/journal/item/309)
5. ^ 4,000-Year-Old Perfumes Found (http://www.perfumerflavorist.com/news/6663832.html)
 5. ^ 4,000-Year-Old Perfumes Found (http://www.perfumerflavorist.com/news/6663832.html)
6. ^ Fox News: Ancient Perfumes Recreated, Put on Display in Rome
(http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,261631,00.html?sPage=fnc.science/archaeology)
7. ^ al-Hassani, Woodcok and Saoud (2006) 1001 Inventions; Muslim Heritage in Our World, FSTC, p.22.
8. ^ a b "Glossary (C)" (http://www.fragrance.org/glossary.php?l=C). The Fragrance Foundation. Retrieved
November 7, 2012.
9. ^ Agata A. Listowska, MA and Mark A. Nicholson, ASO (2011). Complementary Medicine, Beauty and
Modelling. Xlibris Corporation. pp. 1534. ISBN 9781456888954.
10. ^ a b Turkington, Carol and Jeffrey S. Dover (2009). The Encyclopedia of Skin and Skin Disorders. Infobase
Publishing. p. 148. ISBN 9780816075096.
11. ^ a b "Fragrance Info / FAQs" (http://www.fragrance.org/faqs.php). The Fragrance Foundation. Retrieved
November 7, 2012.
12. ^ a b c Burr, Chandler (2003). The Emperor of Scent: A Story of Perfume, Obsession, and the Last Mystery of the
Senses. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-50797-3.
13. ^ a b c Perfume connoisseurs speak of a fragrance's "sillage", or the discernible trail it leaves in the air when
applied. Fortineau, Anne-Dominique (2004). "Chemistry Perfumes Your Daily Life". Journal of Chemical
Education.81(1)
14. ^ Edwards, Michael (2006). "Fragrances of the World 2006". Crescent House Publishing. ISBN 0-9756097-1-8
15. ^ Osborne, Grant (1 May 2001). "Interview with Michael Edwards" (http://www.basenotes.net/interviews/int-
medwards.html). Basenotes. Retrieved 17 December 2006.
16. ^ Zibetto, civet, civette, profumi animali, aromaterapia, feromoni, pheromons, animal, scents, perfumes, parfums
animaux (http://www.profumo.it/internet-documents/zibetto/suffering.htm)
17. ^ Aftelier.com (http://aftelier.com/store/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=5_8&products_id=52)
18. ^ "Iso E Super" (http://www.iff.com/Ingredients.nsf/0/E69A1213546C4F8B80256993003995C6). International
Flavors & Fragrances. 2007.
19. ^ Camps, Arcadi Boix (2000). "Perfumery Techniques in Evolution". Allured Pub Corp. ISBN 0-931710-72-3
20. ^ a b c Burr, Chandler (2008). The Perfect Scent: A Year Inside the Perfume Industry in Paris & New York. Henry
Holt and Co. ISBN 978-0-8050-8037-7.
21. ^ Calkin, Robert R. & Jellinek, J. Stephen (1994). "Perfumery: practice and principles". John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
ISBN 0-471-58934-9
22. ^ Kumar P, Caradonna-Graham VM, Gupta S, Cai X, Rao PN, Thompson J (November 1995). "Inhalation
challenge effects of perfume scent strips in patients with asthma". Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 75 (5): 42933.
PMID 7583865 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7583865).
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individual constituents and chemical detection in relevant cosmetic products". Contact Derm. 52 (4): 21625.
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24. ^ Deborah Gushman. "The Nose Knows" (http://www.hanahou.com/pages/magazine.asp?
Action=DrawArticle&ArticleID=373&MagazineID=23). http://www.hanahou.com/. Retrieved 7 May 2008.
25. ^ Apostolidis S, Chandra T, Demirhan I, Cinatl J, Doerr HW, Chandra A (2002). "Evaluation of carcinogenic
potential of two nitro-musk derivatives, musk xylene and musk tibetene in a host-mediated in vivo/in vitro assay
system". Anticancer Res. 22 (5): 265762. PMID 12529978 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12529978).
26. ^ Schmeiser HH, Gminski R, Mersch-Sundermann V (May 2001). "Evaluation of health risks caused by musk
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(http://dx.doi.org/10.1078%2F1438-4639-00047). PMID 11434209 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11434209).
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in perfumes and similar products". Contact Derm. 50 (6): 36770. doi:10.1111/j.0105-1873.2004.00379.x
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Further reading
Burr, Chandler (2004). "The Emperor of Scent: A True Story of Perfume and Obsession" Random House
Publishing. ISBN 978-0-375-75981-9
Edwards, Michael (1997). "Perfume Legends: French Feminine Fragrances". Crescent House Publishing.
ISBN 0-646-27794-4.
Moran, Jan (2000). "Fabulous Fragrances II: A Guide to Prestige Perfumes for Women and Men".
Crescent House Publishing. ISBN 0-9639065-4-2.
Turin, Luca (2006). "The Secret of Scent". Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-21537-8.
Stamelman, Richard: "Perfume - Joy, Obsession, Scandal, Sin". Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0-8478-2832-6. A
cultural history of fragrance from 1750 to the present day.
Sskind, Patrick (2006). "Perfume: The Story of a Murderer". Vintage Publishing (English edition). ISBN
978-0-307-27776-3. A novel of perfume, obsession and serial murder. Also released as a movie with same
name in 2006.

External links
Natural Perfumers Guild (http://www.naturalperfumers.com)
The World of Smell: An Inside Tour of the World's Largest Perfume Lab
(http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/perfume) from Time.com
Basenotes (http://www.basenotes.net): Guide to the world of perfume and fragrances
 Basenotes (http://www.basenotes.net): Guide to the world of perfume and fragrances

IFRA (http://www.ifraorg.org/): International Fragrance Association

The Fragrance Foundation (http://www.fragrance.org) "FiFi"
The British Society of Perfumers (http://www.bsp.org.uk)

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