Unit3

WirelessSensorNetworkMACIntroduction
Sensornetworksarehighlydistributednetworksofsmall,lightweightwirelessnode,
deployedinlargenumberstomonitortheenvironmentorsystem.

Eachnodeofthesensornetworksconsistofthreesubsystem:

Sensorsubsystem:sensestheenvironment

Processingsubsystem:performslocalcomputationsonthesenseddata

Communicationsubsystem:responsibleformessageexchangewithneighboring
sensornodes

Thefeaturesofsensornodes

Limitedsensingregion,processingpower,energy

Theadvantageofsensornetworks

Robust:alargenumberofsensors

Reliable:

Accurate:sensornetworkscoveringawiderregion

Faulttolerant:manynodesaresensingthesameevent

Twoimportantoperationsinasensornetworks

Datadissemination:thepropagationofdata/queriesthroughoutthenetwork

Datagathering:thecollectionofobserveddatafromtheindividualsensornodesto
asink

Thedifferenttypesofsensors

Seismic,thermal,visual,infrared

ApplicationsofSensorNetworks
Usinginmilitary

Battlefieldsurveillanceandmonitoring,guidancesystemsofintelligentmissiles,
detectionofattackbyweaponsofmassdestructionsuchaschemical,biological,or
nuclear

Usinginnature

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 Forestfire,flooddetection,habitatexplorationofanimals

Usinginhealth

Monitorthepatientsheartrateorbloodpressure,andsentregularlytoalertthe
concerneddoctor,providepatientsagreaterfreedomofmovement

Usinginhome(smarthome)

Sensornodecanbuiltintoappliancesathome,suchasovens,refrigerators,and
vacuumcleaners,whichenablethemtointeractwitheachotherandberemote
controlled

Usinginofficebuilding

Airflowandtemperatureofdifferentpartsofthebuildingcanbeautomatically
controlled

Usinginwarehouse

Improvetheirinventorycontrolsystembyinstallingsensorsontheproductstotrack
theirmovement

ComparisonwithAdHocWirelessNetworks
DifferentfromAdHocwirelessnetworks

Thenumberofnodesinsensornetworkcanbeseveralordersofmagnitudelarge
thanthenumberofnodesinanadhocnetwork.

Sensornodesaremoreeasytofailureandenergydrain,andtheirbatterysources
areusuallynotreplaceableorrechargeable.

Sensornodesmaynothaveuniqueglobalidentifiers(ID),souniqueaddressingis
notalwaysfeasibleinsensornetworks.

Sensornetworksaredatacentric,thequeriesinsensornetworksareaddressedto
nodeswhichhavedatasatisfyingsomeconditions.AdHocnetworksareaddress
centric,withqueriesaddressedtoparticularnodesspecifiedbytheirunique
address.

Datafusion/aggregation:thesensornodesaggregatethelocalinformationbefore
relaying.Thegoalsarereducebandwidthconsumption,mediaaccessdelay,and
powerconsumptionforcommunication.

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IssuesandChallengesinDesigningaSensorNetwork
IssuesandChallenges

Sensornodesarerandomlydeployedandhencedonotfitintoanyregulartopology.
Oncedeployed,theyusuallydonotrequireanyhumanintervention.Hence,the
setupandmaintenanceofthenetworkshouldbeentirelyautonomous.

Sensornetworksareinfrastructureless.Therefore,allroutingandmaintenance
algorithmsneedtobedistributed.

Energyproblem

Hardwareandsoftwareshouldbedesignedtoconservepower

Sensornodesshouldbeabletosynchronizewitheachotherinacompletely
distributedmanner,sothatTDMAschedulescanbeimposed.

Asensornetworkshouldalsobecapableofadaptingtochangingconnectivitydueto
thefailureofnodes,ornewnodespoweringup.Theroutingprotocolsshouldbe
abletodynamicallyincludeoravoidsensornodesintheirpaths.

Realtimecommunicationoversensornetworksmustbesupportedthrough
provisionofguaranteesonmaximumdelay,minimumbandwidth,orotherQoS
parameters.

Provisionmustbemadeforsecurecommunicationoversensornetworks,especially
formilitaryapplicationswhichcarrysensitivedata.

SensorNetworkArchitecture
Thetwobasickindsofsensornetworkarchitecture

LayeredArchitecture

ClusteredArchitecture

1.LayeredArchitecture

Alayeredarchitecturehasasinglepowerfulbasestation,andthelayersofsensornodes
arounditcorrespondtothenodesthathavethesamehopcounttotheBS.

Intheinbuildingscenario,theBSactsanaccesspointtoawirednetwork,andsmallnodes
formawirelessbackbonetoprovidewirelessconnectivity.

Theadvantageofalayeredarchitectureisthateachnodeisinvolvedonlyinshortdistance,
lowpowertransmissionstonodesoftheneighboringlayers.

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2.ClusteredArchitecture

Aclusteredarchitectureorganizesthesensornodesintoclusters,eachgovernedbya
clusterhead.Thenodesineachclusterareinvolvedinmessageexchangeswiththeir
clusterheads,andtheseheadssendmessagetoaBS.

Clusteredarchitectureisusefulforsensornetworksbecauseofitsinherentsuitabilityfor
datafusion.Thedatagatheredbyallmemberoftheclustercanbefusedattheclusterhead,
andonlytheresultinginformationneedstobecommunicatedtotheBS.

Theclusterformationandelectionofclusterheadsmustbeanautonomous,distributed
process.

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DataDissemination
Datadisseminationistheprocessbywhichqueriesordataareroutedinthesensornetwork.
Thedatacollectedbysensornodeshastobecommunicatedtothenodewhichinterestedin
thedata.

Thenodethatgeneratesdataiscallsourceandtheinformationtobereportediscalledan
event.Anodewhichinterestedinaneventiscalledsink.

Datadisseminationconsistofatwostepprocess:interestpropagationanddata
propagation.

Interestpropagation:foreveryeventthatasinkisinterestedin,itbroadcastsits
interesttoisneighbor,andacrossthenetwork.

Datadissemination:Whenaneventisdetected,itreportedtotheinterestednodes
(sink).

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1.Flooding

Eachnodewhichreceivesapacket(queries/data)broadcastsitifthemaximumhopcountof
thepacketisnotreachedandthenodeitselfisnotthedestinationofthepacket.

Disadvantages:

Implosion:thisisthesituationwhenduplicatemessagesaresendtothesamenode.
Thisoccurswhenanodereceivescopiesofthesamemessagesfrommanyofits
neighbors.

Overlap:thesameeventmaybesensedbymorethanonenodeduetooverlapping
regionsofcoverage.Thisresultsintheirneighborsreceivingduplicatereportsofthe
sameevent.

Resourceblindness:thefloodingprotocoldoesnotconsidertheavailableenergyat
thenodesandresultsinmanyredundanttransmissions.Hence,itreducesthe
networklifetime.

2.Gossiping

Modifiedversionofblooding

Thenodesdonotbroadcastapacket,butsendittoarandomlyselectedneighbor.

Avoidtheproblemofimplosion

Ittakesalongtimeformessagetopropagatethroughoutthenetwork.

Itdoesnotguaranteethatallnodesofnetworkwillreceivethemessage.

3.RumorRouting

Agentbasedpathcreationalgorithm

Agentisalonglivedpacketcreatedatrandombynodes,anditwilldieaftervisitkhops.

Itcirculatedinthenetworktoestablishshortestpathstoeventsthattheyencounter.

Whenanagentfindsanodewhosepathtoaneventislongerthanitsown,itupdatesthe
nodesroutingtable.

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4.SequentialAssignmentRouting(SAR)

Thesequentialassignmentrouting(SAR)algorithmcreatesmultipletrees,wheretherootof
eachtreeisaonehopneighborofthesink.

Toavoidnodeswithlowthroughputorhighdelay.

Eachsensornoderecordstwoparametersabouteachpaththoughit:availableenergy
resourcesonthepathandanadditiveQoSmetricsuchasdelay.

Higherprioritypacketstakelowerdelaypaths,andlowerprioritypacketshaveto
usethepathsofgreaterdelay,sothatthepriorityxdelayQoSmetricismaintained.

SARminimizestheaverageweightedQoSmetricoverthelifetimeofthenetwork.

5.DirectedDiffusion

Thedirecteddiffusionprotocolisusefulinscenarioswherethesensornodesthemselves
generaterequests/queriesfordatasensedbyothernodes.

Eachsensornodenamesitsdatawithoneormoreattributes.

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 Eachsensornodeexpresstheirinterestdependingontheseattributes.

Eachpathisassociatedwithainterestgradient,whilepositivegradientmakethedataflow
alongthepath,negativegradientinhibitthedistributiondataalongaparticularpath.

Example:twopathformedwithgradient0.4and0.8,thesourcemaytwiceasmuch
dataalongthehigherone

Supposethesinkwantsmorefrequentupdatefromthesensorwhichhavedetected
anevent=>sendahigherdataraterequirementforincreasingthegradientofthat
path.

6.SensorProtocolsforInformationviaNegotiation

SPINusenegotiationandresourceadaptationtoaddressthedisadvantageofflooding.

Reduceoverlapandimplosion,andprolongnetworklifetime.

Usemetadatainsteadofrawdata.

SPINhasthreetypesofmessages:ADV,REQ,andDATA.

SPIN2usinganenergythresholdtoreduceparticipation.AnodemayjoinintheADVREQ
DATAhandshakeonlyifithassufficientresourceaboveathreshold.

7.CostFieldApproach

Thecostfieldapproachconsiderstheproblemofsettinguppathstoasink.Thefirstphase
beingtosetupthecostfield,basedonmetricssuchasdelay.Thesecondphasebeingdata
disseminationusingthecosts.

AsinkbroadcastsanADVpacketwithitsowncostas0.

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 WhenanodeNhearsanADVmessagefromnodeM,itsetsitsownpathcosttomin
(LN,LM+CNM),whereLNisthetotalpathcostfromnodeNtothesink,LMisthecostofnodeM
tothesink,CNMisthecostfromNtoM.

IfLNupdated,thenewcostisbroadcastthoughanotherADV.

ThebackofftimemakeanodedeferitsADVinsteadofimmediatelybroadcastit.Theback
offtimeisrxCMN,whererisaparameterofalgorithm.

8.GeographicHashTable(GHT)

GHThasheskeysintogeographiccoordinatesandstoresa(key,value)pairatthesensor
nodenearesttothehashvalue.

Storeddataisreplicatedtoensureredundancyincaseofnodefailures.

Thedataisdistributedamongnodessuchthatitisscalableandthestorageloadisbalanced.

Theroutingprotocolusedisgreedyperimeterstatelessrouting(GPSR),whichagainuses
geographicinformationtoroutethedataandqueries.

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DataGathering
Theobjectiveofthedatagatheringproblemistotransmitthesenseddatafromeachsensor
nodetoaBS.

Thegoalofalgorithmwhichimplementdatagatheringis

maximizethelifetimeofnetwork

Minimumenergyshouldbeconsumed

Thetransmissionoccurwithminimumdelay

Theenergyxdelaymetricisusedtocomparealgorithm

1.DirectTransmission

AllsensornodestransmittheirdatadirectlytotheBS.
ItcostexpensivewhenthesensornodesareveryfarfromtheBS.
NodesmusttaketurnswhiletransmittingtotheBStoavoidcollision,sothemediaaccess
delayisalsolarge.Hence,thisschemeperformspoorlywithrespecttotheenergyxdelay
metric.

2.PowerEfficientGatheringforSensorInformationSystems

PEGASISbasedontheassumptionthatallsensornodesknowthelocationofeveryother
node.

AnynodehastherequiredtransmissionrangetoreachtheBSinonehop,whenitisselected
asaleader.

ThegoalofPEGASISareasfollowing

Minimizethedistanceoverwhicheachnodetransmit

Minimizethebroadcastingoverhead

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 MinimizethenumberofmessagesthatneedtobesenttotheBS

Distributetheenergyconsumptionequallyacrossallnodes

Toconstructachainofsensornodes,startingfromthenodefarthestfromtheBS.Ateach
step,thenearestneighborwhichhasnotbeenvisitedisaddedtothechain.

Itisreconstructedwhennodesdieout.

Ateverynode,datafusionoraggregationiscarriedout.

AnodewhichisdesignatedastheleaderfinallytransmitsonemessagetotheBS.

Leadershipistransferredinsequentialorder.

ThedelayinvolvedinmessagesreachingtheBSisO(N)

3.BinaryScheme

ThisisachainbasedschemelikePEGASIS,whichclassifiesnodesintodifferentlevels.

ThisschemeispossiblewhennodescommunicateusingCDMA,sothattransmissionsof
eachlevelcantakeplacesimultaneously.

ThedelayisO(logN)

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 4.ChainBasedThreeLevelScheme

FornonCDMAsensornodes

Thechainisdividedintoanumberofgroupstospaceoutsimultaneoustransmissionsin
ordertominimizeinterference.

Withinagroup,nodestransmitdatatothegroupleader,andtheleaderfusionthedata,and
becomethemembertothenextlevel.

Inthesecondlevel,allnodesaredividedintotwogroups.

Inthethirdlevel,consistsofamessageexchangebetweenonenodefromeachgroupofthe
secondlevel.

Finally,theleadertransmitasinglemessagetotheBS.

MACProtocolsforSensorNetworks
ThechallengesposedbysensornetworkMACprotocol

Nosinglecontrollingauthority,soglobalsynchronizationisdifficult

Powerefficiencyissue

Frequenttopologychangesduetomobilityandfailure

TherearethreekindsofMACprotocolsusedinsensornetwork:

Fixedallocation

Demandbased

Contentionbased

FixedallocationMACprotocol

Sharethecommonmediumthroughapredeterminedassignment.

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 Itissuitableforsensornetworkthatcontinuouslymonitorandgenerate
deterministicdatatraffic

Provideaboundeddelayforeachnode

However,inthecaseofburstytraffic,wherethechannelrequirementsof
eachnodemayvaryovertime,itmayleadtoinefficientusageofthechannel.

DemandbasedMACprotocol

Usedinsuchcases,wherethechannelisallocatedaccordingtothedemand
ofthenode

Variableratetrafficcanbeefficientlytransmitted

Requiretheadditionaloverheadofareservationprocess

ContentionbasedMACprotocol

Randomaccessbasedcontentionforthechannelwhenpacketsneedtobe
transmitted

Suitableforburstytraffic

Collisionsandnodelayguarantees,arenotsuitablefordelaysensitiveor
realtimetraffic

1.SelfOrganizingMACforSensorNetworksandEavesdropandRegister

SelfOrganizingMACforsensor(SMACS)networksandeavesdropandregister(EAR)
aretwoprotocolswhichhandlenetworkinitializationandmobilitysupport,
respectively.

InSMACS

neighbordiscoveryandchannelassignmenttakeplacesimultaneouslyina
completelydistributedmanner.

Acommunicationlinkbetweentwonodesconsistsofapairoftimeslots,at
fixedfrequency.

Thisschemerequiressynchronizationonlybetweencommunicating
neighbors,inordertodefinetheslotstobeusedfortheircommunication.

Powerisconservedbyturningoffthetransceiverduringidleslots.

InEARprotocol

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 Enableseamlessconnectionofnodesundermobileandstationary
conditions.

Thisprotocolmakeuseofcertainmobilenodes,besidestheexisting
stationarysensornodes,toofferservicetomaintainconnections.

Mobilenodeseavesdroponthecontrolsignalsandmaintainneighbor
information

2.HybridTDMA/FDMA

ApureTDMAschememinimizethetimeforwhichanodehastobekepton,butthe
associatedtimesynchronizationcostareveryhigh.

ApureFDMAschemeallotstheminimumrequiredbandwidthforeachconnection

Ifthetransmitterconsumesmorepower,aTDMAschemeisfavored,sinceitcanbe
switchoffinidleslotstosavepower.

Ifthereceiverconsumesgreaterpower,aFDMAschemeisfavored,becausethe
receiverneednotexpendpowerfortimesynchronization.

3.CSMABaseMACProtocols

CSMAbasedschemesaresuitableforpointtopointrandomlydistributedtraffic
flows.

ThesensingperiodsofCSMAareconstantforenergyefficiency,whilethebackoffis
randomtoavoidrepeatedcollisions.

Binaryexponentialbackoffisusedtomaintainfairnessinthenetwork.

Useanadaptivetransmissionratecontrol(ARC)tobalanceoriginatingtrafficand
routethroughtrafficinnodes.ThisensuresthatnodesclosertotheBSarenot
favoredoverfarthernodes.

CSMAbasedMACprotocolsarecontentionbasedandaredesignedmainlyto
increaseenergyefficiencyandmaintainfairness.

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