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Sequence
Exercise: Examine whether the sequence ((1)n n1 ) is convergent. Also, find the limit if it exists.
Solution: Given > 0, there exists n0 N such that n0 > 1 . For all n n0 , we have
|(1)n n1 0| = n1 n10 < . Hence the given sequence is convergent with limit 0.
Exercise: If || < 1, then examine whether the sequence (n ) is convergent. Also, find the
limit if it exists.
Solution: If = 0, then n = 0 for all n N and so (n ) converges to 0. Now we assume that
1 1
6= 0. Since || < 1, || > 1 and so || = 1 + h for some h > 0. For all n N, we have
(1 + h)n = 1 + nh + n(n1)
2!
1
h2 + + hn > nh ||n = (1+h) 1
n < nh for all n N. Given > 0, we
1
choose n0 N satisfying n0 > h . Then |n 0| = ||n < n10 h < for all n n0 and hence (n )
converges to 0.
log
Alternative solution: Given > 0, we choose n0 N satisfying n0 > log ||
. Then for all n n0 ,
n n n0 n
we have | 0| = || || < and hence ( ) converges to 0. (This solution assumes the
definition of logarithm.)
3n+2
Example: The sequence ( 2n+5 ) is bounded.
Proof: For all n N, | 3n+2
2n+5
|= 3n+2
2n+5
< 3n+2
2n
= 3
2
+ 1
n
52 . Hence the given sequence is bounded.
Exercise: If (xn ) and (yn ) are non-convergent sequences in R, then show that it is possible
for the sequence (xn + yn ) to be convergent or non-convergent.
Solution: The sequences (xn ) = (1, 2, 1, 2, ...) and (yn ) = (2, 1, 2, 1, ...) are non-convergent, but the
sequence (xn + yn ) = (3, 3, 3, ...) is convergent.
Again, the sequences (xn ) = (1, 2, 1, 2, ...) and (yn ) = (0, 1, 0, 1, ...) are non-convergent and the
sequence (xn + yn ) = (1, 3, 1, 3, ...) is also non-convergent.
Exercise: If xn x and x 6= 0, then show that there exists n0 N such that xn 6= 0 for
all n n0 .
Solution: Since xn x and |x| > 0, there exists n0 N such that |xn x| < 21 |x| for all n n0 .
If for some n n0 , xn = 0, then we obtain |x| < 12 |x|, which is not possible. Hence xn 6= 0 for all
n n0 .
2
Exercise: Examine the convergence of the sequence ( 3n2n2 +5n+3
3n
) and find the limit (if possible).
3
2n2 3n 2 n 1
Solution: We have 3n2 +5n+3
= 5
3+ n + 3 for all n N. Since n
0, the given sequence is convergent
n2
20
with limit 3+0+0
= 23 .
Exercise: Examine the convergence of the sequence ( n + 1 n) and find the limit (if possi-
ble).
1
1
Solution: For all n N, n + 1 n = n+1+ n
= n
1
. Since n1 0, the given sequence is
1+ n +1
convergent with limit 0 = 0.
1+0+1
Exercise: Examine the convergence of the sequence ( 4n2 + n 2n) and find the limit (if
possible). n
Solution: For all n N, 4n2 + n 2n = 4n2 +n+2n = 1 1 . Since n1 0, the given sequence
4+ n +2
is convergent with limit 1 = 41 .
4+0+2
Exercise: Let xn = 1 + 1!1 + 2!1 + + n!1 for all n N. Show that (xn ) is convergent.
1 1 1
Solution: For all m, n N with m > n, we have |xm xn | = (n+1)! + (n+2)! + + m!
1
2n
+ 2n+1 + + 2m1 = 2n (1 2mn ) < 2n < n . Given > 0, we choose n0 N satisfying n0 > 2 .
1 1 2 1 2 2
Then for all m, n n0 , we get |xm xn | < n20 < . Consequently (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence in R
and hence (xn ) is convergent.
Exercise: Let 0 < < 1 and let (xn ) satisfy the condition |xn+1 xn | n for all n N.
Show that (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence.
Solution: For all m, n N with m > n, we have |xm xn | |xn xn+1 | + |xn+1 xn+2 | + +
n n
|xm1 xm | n + n+1 + + m1 = 1 (1 mn ) < 1 . Since 0 < < 1, n 0 and
n0
so given any > 0, we can choose n0 N such that 1 < . Hence for all m, n n0 , we have
n0
|xm xn | < 1 < . Therefore (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence.
Exercise: Let 0 < < 1 and let (xn ) satisfy the condition |xn+2 xn+1 | |xn+1 xn | for
all n N. Show that (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence.
Solution: For all m, n N with m > n, we have |xm xn | |xn xn+1 | + |xn+1 xn+2 | + +
n1 n1
|xm1 xm | (n1 + n + + m2 )|x2 x1 | = 1 (1 mn )|x2 x1 | 1 |x2 x1 |. Since
n0 1
0 < < 1, n1 0 and so given any > 0, we can choose n0 N such that 1 |x2 x1 | < .
n0 1
Hence for all m, n n0 , we have |xm xn | 1 |x2 x1 | < . Therefore (xn ) is a Cauchy
sequence.
1
Exercise: Let x1 = 1 and let xn+1 = xn +2
for all n N. Show that (xn ) is convergent and
find lim xn .
n
|xn+1 xn |
Solution: For all n N, we have |xn+2 xn+1 | = | xn+11 +2 xn1+2 | = |xn+1 +2||xn +2|
. Now, x1 > 0 and if
1
we assume that xk > 0 for some k N, then xk+1 = xk +2 > 0. Hence by the principle of mathemat-
ical induction, xn > 0 for all n N. Using this, we get |xn+2 xn+1 | 14 |xn+1 xn | for all n N.
It follows that (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence in R and hence (xn ) is convergent. Let ` = lim xn .
n
Then lim xn+1 = ` and since xn+1 = xn1+2 for all n N, we get ` = `+2 1
` = 1 2. Since
n
xn > 0 for all n N, we have ` 0 and so ` = 2 1.
Exercise: Let (xn ) be a sequence in R such that x2n ` R and x2n1 `. Show that
xn `.
Solution: Let > 0. Since x2n ` and x2n1 `, there exist n1 , n2 N such that |x2n `| <
for all n n1 and |x2n1 `| < for all n n2 . Taking n0 = max{2n1 , 2n2 1} N, we find
that |xn `| < for all n n0 . Hence xn `.
Series
P
Example: The geometric series arn1 (where a 6= 0) converges iff |r| < 1.
n=1
Proof: If r = 1, then the given series becomes a+a+ , which is not convergent, since (sn ) = (na)
Pn
a
does not converge as a 6= 0. We now assume that r 6= 1. Then sn = ari1 = 1r (1 rn ) for
i=1
a
all n N. If |r| < 1, then lim rn = 0 and so (sn ) converges to 1r
. Therefore the given series
n
a n
converges (with sum 1r ) if |r| < 1. If |r| 1, then the sequence (r ) does not converge and since
a 6= 0, it follows that (sn ) does not converge. Hence in this case the given series is not convergent.
P
1
Example: The series n(n+1)
is convergent with sum 1.
n=1
P
n
1
P
n
Proof: Here sn = k(k+1)
= ( k1 k+1
1 1
) = 1 n+1 1
for all n N. Since lim sn = lim (1 n+1 )=
k=1 k=1 n n
1, the given series is convergent with sum 1.
P
5n
Example: The series 3n +4n
is not convergent.
n=1
5n 1 5 5
Proof: Taking xn = 3n +4n
for all n N, we have lim |xn | n = lim 1 = 4
> 1 (since
n n (3n +4n ) n
1
lim (3n + 4n ) = 4, as shown earlier). Hence by the root test, the given series is not convergent.
n
n
for all x [1, ). Hence f is decreasing on [1, ) and so f (n + 1) f (n) for all n N. Thus
1
the sequence ( n3n+1 ) is decreasing. Also, n
n3 +1
= n2
1+ 13
0. Therefore by Leibnizs test, the given
n
alternating series is convergent.
n 1
P
1
Alternative proof: Since 0 < n3 +1
< n2
for all n N and since the series n2
converges, by
n=1
P
P
P
comparison test, the series |(1)n+1 n3n+1 | = n
n3 +1
converges. Thus (1)n n3n+1 is an ab-
n=1 n=1 n=1
solutely convergent series and hence it is convergent.
P
n+1
Example: The series (1)n+1 n+1
is convergent.
n=1
x+1
Proof: Let f (x) = x+1
for all x 1. Then f : [1, ) R is differentiable and f 0 (x) =
1x2 x
2 x(x+1)2
0 for all x 1. Hence f is decreasing on [1, ) and so f (n + 1) f (n) for all n N.
1 + 1
n+1 n+1 n
Consequently the sequence n+1 is decreasing. Also, n+1 = 1+ n
1 0. Hence by Leibnizs
n
test, the given series converges.
Example: If 1 21 + 13 14 + 15 61 + = s, then 1 + 13 12 + 15 + 17 14 + 19 + = 32 s.
Proof: We first note that by Leibnizs test, the series 1 12 + 13 14 + converges.
Let 1 12 + 13 14 + = s. (i)
Then the series 21 14 + 16 = 21 (1 12 + 13 ) converges to 12 s. It follows that the series
0 + 12 0 14 + 0 + 16 0 18 + (ii)
also converges to 2 s. Hence the series (1 + 0) + ( 21 + 12 ) + ( 31 0) + ( 14 14 ) + ( 51 + 0) + ,
1
which is the sum of the series (i) and (ii), converges to s + 12 s = 32 s. Therefore it follows that
1 + 13 12 + 15 + 17 14 + 19 + = 32 s.
P
xn
Exercise: Find the radius of convergence of the power series n!
.
n=0
Solution: If x = 0, then the given series becomes 0 + 0 + , which is clearly convergent. If
xn+1 |x|
x(6= 0) R, then since lim | (n+1)! xn!n | = lim n+1 = 0 < 1, by ratio test, the given series con-
n n
verges (absolutely). Therefore the radius of convergence of the given power series is .
P
Exercise: Find the radius of convergence of the power series n!xn .
n=0
Solution: If x = 0, then the given series becomes 0 + 0 + , which is clearly convergent. Let
x(6= 0) R and let an = n!xn for all n N. Then lim | an+1
an
| = and so there exists n0 N such
n
that | an+1
an
| > 2 for all n n0 . This gives |an | > 2nn0 |an0 | for all n n0 and hence lim an 6= 0.
n
P
Consequently an is not convergent. Therefore the radius of convergence of the given power
n=1
series is 0.
P
Exercise: Find the radius of convergence of the power series xn .
n=0
Solution: We know that the given series (which is a geometric series) converges if |x| < 1 and
diverges if |x| > 1. Hence the radius of convergence of the given power series is 1.
P
xn
Exercise: Find the interval of convergence of the power series n
.
n=1
Solution: If x = 0, then the given series becomes 0 + 0 + , which is clearly convergent. Let
n P
x(6= 0) R and let an = xn for all n N. Then lim | an+1
an
| = |x|. Hence by ratio test, an
n n=1
is convergent (absolutely) if |x| < 1, i.e. if x (1, 1) and is not convergent if |x| > 1, i.e. if
P
P
1
x (, 1) (1, ). If x = 1, then an = n
is not convergent. Again, if x = 1, then
n=1 n=1
P
P
(1)n
an = n
is convergent by Leibniz test, since ( n1 ) is a decreasing sequence of positive real
n=1 n=1
1
numbers and lim = 0. Therefore the interval of convergence of the given power series is [1, 1).
n n
P
xn
Exercise: Find the interval of convergence of the power series n2
.
n=0
Solution: If x = 0, then the given series becomes 0 + 0 + , which is clearly convergent. Let
n P
x(6= 0) R and let an = xn2 for all n N. Then lim | an+1
an
| = |x|. Hence by ratio test, an
n n=1
is convergent (absolutely) if |x| < 1, i.e. if x (1, 1) and is not convergent if |x| > 1, i.e. if
P
P
1
P
x (, 1) (1, ). If |x| = 1, then |an | = n 2 is convergent and hence an is also
n=1 n=1 n=1
convergent. Therefore the interval of convergence of the given power series is [1, 1].
P
(1)n
Exercise: Find the interval of convergence of the power series n4n
(x 1)n .
n=1
Solution: If x = 1, then the given series becomes 0 + 0 + , which is clearly convergent. Let
n
x(6= 1) R and let an = (1)
n.4n
(x 1)n for all n N. Then lim | an+1 | = 14 |x 1|. Hence by ratio
n an
P
test, an is convergent (absolutely) if 41 |x 1| < 1, i.e. if x (3, 5) and is not convergent if
n=1
1
P
P
1
4
|x 1| > 1, i.e. if x (, 3) (5, ). If x = 3, then an = n
is not convergent.
n=1 n=1
P
P
(1)n
Again, if x = 5, then an = n
is convergent by Leibniz test, since ( n1 ) is a decreasing
n=1 n=1
1
sequence of positive real numbers and lim = 0. Therefore the interval of convergence of the
n n
given power series is (3, 5].
Continuity
Exercise: If both f, g : R R are discontinuous at 0, then show that it is possible for the
product function f g : R R to be continuous or discontinuous
at 0.
1 if x Q, 0 if x Q,
Solution: Let f (x) = and g(x) =
0 if x R \ Q, 1 if x R \ Q,
2
Then both f, g : R R are discontinuous at 0, f = f is discontinuous at 0 and since (f g)(x) = 0
for all x R, f g is continuous at 0.
Example: The equation x2 = x sin x + cos x has at least two real roots.
Proof: Let f (x) = x2 x sin x cos x for all x R. Then f : R R is continuous and
f () = 2 + 1 > 0, f (0) = 1 < 0 and f () = 2 + 1 > 0. Hence by the intermediate value
theorem, the equation f (x) = 0 has at least one root in (, 0) and at least one root in (0, ).
Thus the equation f (x) = 0 has at least two real roots.
Example: If f : [0, 1] [0, 1] is continuous, then there exists c [0, 1] such that f (c) = c.
Proof: Let g(x) = f (x) x for all x [0, 1]. Since f is continuous, g : [0, 1] R is continuous.
If f (0) = 0 or f (1) = 1, then we get the result by taking c = 0 or c = 1 respectively. Otherwise
g(0) = f (0) > 0 and g(1) = f (1) 1 < 0 (since it is given that 0 f (x) 1 for all x [0, 1]).
Hence by the intermediate value theorem, there exists c (0, 1) such that g(c) = 0, i.e. f (c) = c.
Exercise: Let f : [0, 2] R be continuous such that f (0) = f (2). Show that there exist
x1 , x2 [0, 2] such that x1 x2 = 1 and f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
Solution: Let g(x) = f (x + 1) f (x) for all x [0, 1]. Since f is continuous, g : [0, 1] R is
continuous. Also, g(0) = f (1) f (0) and g(1) = f (2) f (1) = g(0), since f (0) = f (2). If
g(0) = 0, then f (1) = f (0) and we get the result by taking x1 = 1 and x2 = 0. If g(0) 6= 0,
then g(0) and g(1) are of opposite signs and hence by the intermediate value theorem, there exists
c (0, 1) such that g(c) = 0, i.e. f (c+1) = f (c). We get the result by taking x1 = c+1 and x2 = c.
Example: There does not exist any continuous function from [0, 1] onto (0, ).
Proof: If f : [0, 1] (0, ) is continuous, then f must be bounded and hence f cannot be onto.
Exercise: Does there exist a continuous function from (0, 1) onto (0, )?
x
Solution: Yes, the function f : (0, 1) (0, ), defined by f (x) = 1x for all x (0, 1), is contin-
y
uous and onto. (We note that if y (0, ), then x = 1+y (0, 1) such that f (x) = y.)
Differentiation
x sin x1 if x(6= 0) R,
Example: Let f (x) =
0 if x = 0.
Then f : R R is not differentiable at 0.
Proof: Since lim f (x)f
x0
(0)
= lim sin x1 does not exist, f is not differentiable at 0.
x0 x0
(To see that lim sin x1 does not exist, we apply the sequential criterion for existence of limit. If
x0
2 1
xn = (4n+1)
and yn = n
for all n N, then xn 0 and yn 0, but sin x1n 1 and sin y1n 0.)
x2 sin x1 if x(6= 0) R,
Example: Let f (x) =
0 if x = 0.
Then f : R R is differentiable but f 0 : R R is not continuous at 0.
Proof: Clearly f is differentiable at all x(6= 0) R and f 0 (x) = 2x sin x1 cos x1 for all x(6= 0) R.
Also, for each > 0, choosing = > 0, we find that | f (x)f x0
(0)
| = |x sin x1 | |x| < for all
x R satisfying 0 < |x| < . Hence lim f (x)f x0
(0)
= 0 and consequently f is differentiable at 0
x0
with f 0 (0) = 0. Thus f : R R is differentiable.
1 1
Again, since 2n 0 but f 0 ( 2n ) 1 6= f 0 (0), f 0 : R R is not continuous at 0.
3
x sin x1 if x(6= 0) R,
Example: Let f (x) =
0 if x = 0.
Then f : R R is differentiable, f : R R is continuous, but f 0 is not differentiable at 0.
0
Proof: Clearly f is differentiable at all x(6= 0) R and f 0 (x) = 3x2 sin x1 x cos x1 for all x(6= 0) R.
Also, for each > 0, choosing = > 0, we find that | f (x)f x0
(0)
| = |x2 sin x1 | |x|2 < for all
x R satisfying 0 < |x| < . Hence lim f (x)f x0
(0)
= 0 and consequently f is differentiable at 0
x0
with f 0 (0) = 0. Thus f : R R is differentiable.
Clearly f 0 : R R is continuous at all x(6= 0) R. Also, since lim x2 sin x1 = 0 and lim x cos x1 = 0
x0 x0
(similar to what we have shown earlier), we obtain lim f 0 (x) = 0 = f 0 (0), which shows that f 0 is
x0
continuous at 0. Thus f 0 : R R is continuous.
0 0 (0)
Again, lim f (x)f
x0
= lim (3x sin x1 cos x1 ) does not exist, because if xn = 1
2n
and yn =
x0 x0
1
(2n+1)
for all n N, then xn 0 and yn 0, but lim (3xn sin x1n cos 1
xn
) = 1 and
n
lim (3yn sin y1n cos y1n ) = 1. Therefore f 0 is not differentiable at 0.
n
x2 if x Q,
Example: Let f (x) =
0 if x R \ Q.
Then f : R R is differentiable only at 0 and f 0 (0) = 0.
Proof: If x0 (6= 0) Q, then there exists a sequence (tn ) in R\Q such that tn x0 . Since f (tn ) = 0
for all n N, f (tn ) 0 6= x20 = f (x0 ). Hence f is not continuous at x0 . Also, if u0 R \ Q,
then there exists a sequence (rn ) in Q such that rn u0 . Since f (rn ) = rn2 u20 6= 0 = f (u0 ), f
is not continuous at u0 . Thus f is not continuous at any x(6= 0) R and therefore f cannot be
differentiable at any x(6= 0) R.
Again, for each > 0, choosing = > 0, we find that | f (x)f x0
(0)
| |x| < for all x R sat-
f (x)f (0)
isfying 0 < |x| < . Hence lim x0 = 0 and consequently f is differentiable at 0 with f 0 (0) = 0.
x0
Exercise: Let f (x) = x2 |x| for all x R. Examine the existence of f 0 (x), f 00 (x) and f 000 (x),
where x R. 3
x if x 0,
Solution: Here f (x) =
x3 if x < 0.
0 3x2 if x > 0,
Clearly f : R R is differentiable at all x(6= 0) R and f (x) =
3x2 if x < 0.
Also, lim f (x)f
x0
(0)
= lim x2 = 0 and lim f (x)f
x0
(0)
= lim (x2 ) = 0.
x0+ x0+ x0 x0
0 f (x)f (0)
Hence f (0) = lim x0 = 0.
x0
0 00 6x if x > 0,
Again, it is clear that f : R R is differentiable at all x(6= 0) R and f (x) =
6x if x < 0.
f 0 (x)f 0 (0) f 0 (x)f 0 (0)
Also, lim x0
= lim 3x = 0 and lim x0
= lim (3x) = 0.
x0+ x0+ x0 x0
00 f 0 (x)f 0 (0)
Hence f (0) = lim x0
= 0.
x0
00 000 6 if x > 0,
Finally, it is clear that f : R R is differentiable at all x(6= 0) R and f (x) =
6 if x < 0.
f 00 (x)f 00 (0) f 00 (x)f 00 (0)
Also, lim x0
= lim 6 = 6 and lim x0
= lim (6) = 6.
x0+ x0+ x0 x0
f 00 (x)f 00 (0) 000
Hence lim x0
does not exist, i.e. f (0) does not exist.
x0
Example: The equation x2 = x sin x + cos x has exactly two (distinct) real roots.
Proof: Let f (x) = x2 x sin x cos x for all x R. Then f : R R is differentiable (and hence
continuous) with f 0 (x) = x(2 cos x) for all x R. Since cos x 6= 2 for any x R, the equation
f 0 (x) = 0 has exactly one real root, viz. x = 0. As a consequence of Rolles theorem, it follows that
the equation f (x) = 0 has at most two real roots. Also, since f () = 2 + 1 > 0, f (0) = 1 < 0
and f () = 2 + 1 > 0, by the intermediate value property of continuous functions, the equation
f (x) = 0 has at least one root in (, 0) and at least one root in (0, ). Thus the equation f (x) = 0
has exactly two (distinct) real roots and so the given equation has exactly two (distinct) real roots.
Exercise: Find the number of (distinct) real roots of the equation x4 + 2x2 6x + 2 = 0.
Solution: Taking f (x) = x4 + 2x2 6x + 2 for all x R, we find that f : R R is twice
differentiable with f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 4x 6 and f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 4 for all x R. Since f 00 (x) 6= 0 for all
x R, as a consequence of Rolles theorem, it follows that the equation f 0 (x) = 0 has at most one
real root and hence the equation f (x) = 0 has at most two real roots. Again, since f (0) = 2 > 0,
f (1) = 2 < 0 and f (2) = 14 > 0, by the intermediate value property of continuous functions, the
equation f (x) = 0 has at least one real root in (0, 1) and at least one real root in (1, 2). Therefore
the given equation has exactly two (distinct) real roots.
3
Example: sin x x x6 for all x [0, 2 ].
3
Proof: Let f (x) = sin x x + x6 for all x [0, 2 ]. Then f : [0, 2 ] R is infinitely differentiable
2
and f 0 (x) = cos x 1 + x2 , f 00 (x) = sin x + x and f 000 (x) = 1 cos x for all x [0, 2 ]. Since
f 000 (x) 0 for all x [0, 2 ], f 00 (x) f 00 (0) = 0 for all x [0, 2 ] f 0 (x) f 0 (0) = 0 for all
3
x [0, 2 ] f (x) f (0) = 0 for all x [0, 2 ] sin x x x6 for all x [0, 2 ].
Exercise: Let f : R R be differentiable such that f (1) = 5, f (0) = 0 and f (1) = 10.
Prove that there exist c1 , c2 (1, 1) such that f 0 (c1 ) = 3 and f 0 (c2 ) = 3.
Solution: By the mean value theorem, there exist (1, 0) and (0, 1) such that f 0 () =
f (0)f (1)
0(1)
= 5 and f 0 () = f (1)f
10
(0)
= 10. Hence by the intermediate value property of deriva-
tives, there exist c1 , c2 (, ) (and so c1 , c2 (1, 1)) such that f 0 (c1 ) = 3 and f 0 (c2 ) = 3.
Exercise: Find the local maxima and local minima of f , where f (x) = 1 x2/3 for all x R.
Solution: f : R R is differentiable at all x(6= 0) R and f 0 (x) = 32 x1/3 6= 0 for all
x(6= 0) R. Hence f does not have local maxima or local minima at any x(6= 0) R. Again,
since f (x) 1 = f (0) for all x R, f has a local maximum at 0 and the local maximum value is
f (0) = 1.
Alternative method for showing local maximum at 0: Since f 0 (x) > 0 for all x < 0 and f 0 (x) < 0
for all x > 0, f has a local maximum at 0.
1+x1 1
Example: lim x
= 2
x0
d
1+x1 ( 1+x1)|x=0
Proof: Applying LHopitals rule, we obtain lim x
= dx
d
(x)|x=0
= 21 .
x0 dx
1sin x 1
Example: lim =
x 2 1+cos 2x 4
1sin x cos x sin x
Proof: Applying LHopitals rule twice, we obtain lim = lim = lim = 14 .
x 2 1+cos 2x x 2 2 sin 2x x 2 4 cos 2x
x2 sin x1
Example: lim =0
x0 sin x 2 1
x sin
Proof: For all x(6= 0) R, we have 0 sin x x | sinx x ||x|. Since lim = 1, we get sin x
x
2 1 x0
x x sin
lim | sin x ||x| = 0 and so by the sandwich theorem (for limit of functions), we get lim sin x x = 0.
x0 x0
x2 sin 1
It follows that lim sin x x = 0.
x0
1
Example: lim ( sinx x ) x = 1
x0
1
Proof: Let f (x) = ( sinx x ) x for all x(6= 0) R. Then f (x) > 0 for all x (1, 1) \ {0} and
log( sinx x ) x cos xsin x x sin x
we have lim log f (x) = lim x
= lim x sin x
(applying LHopitals rule) = lim
x0 x0 x0 x0 sin x+x cos x
sin x sin x
(applying LHopitals rule again) = lim sin x = 0 (since lim x
= 1). By the continuity of
x0 x +cos x x0
0
the exponential function, it follows that lim f (x) = e = 1.
x0
Example: The Maclaurin series for sin x converges to sin x for all x R.
Proof: If f (x) = sin x for all x R, then f : R R is infinitely differentiable and f (2n1) (x) =
(1)n+1 cos x, f (2n) (x) = (1)n sin x for all x R and for all n N. Hence the Maclaurin series
P
x2n1
for sin x is the series (1)n+1 (2n1)! , where x R. For x = 0, the Maclaurin series of sin x
n=1
becomes 0 0 + 0 , which clearly converges to sin 0 = 0. Let x(6= 0) R. The remainder
xn+1 (n+1)
term in the Taylor expansion of sin x about the point 0 is given by Rn (x) = (n+1)! f (cn ),
|x|n+1
where cn lies between 0 and x. Since | sin cn | 1 and | cos cn | 1, we get |Rn (x)| (n+1)!
. Also,
n+2 n+1
since lim |x| (n+1)!
|x|n+1
= lim |x| = 0 < 1, we get lim |x| = 0 and hence it follows that
n (n+2)! n n+2 n (n+1)!
lim Rn (x) = 0. Therefore the Maclaurin series of sin x converges to sin x.
n
Example: The Maclaurin series for cos x converges to cos x for all x R.
Proof: If f (x) = cos x for all x R, then f : R R is infinitely differentiable and f (2n1) (x) =
(1)n sin x, f (2n) (x) = (1)n cos x for all x R and for all n N. Hence the Maclaurin series
P
x2n
for cos x is the series 1 + (1)n (2n)! , where x R. For x = 0, the Maclaurin series of cos x
n=1
becomes 1 0 + 0 , which clearly converges to cos 0 = 1. Let x(6= 0) R. The remainder
xn+1 (n+1)
term in the Taylor expansion of sin x about the point 0 is given by Rn (x) = (n+1)! f (cn ),
|x|n+1
where cn lies between 0 and x. Since | sin cn | 1 and | cos cn | 1, we get |Rn (x)| (n+1)!
. Also,
|x|n+2 (n+1)! |x| |x|n+1
since lim |x|n+1
= lim = 0 < 1, we get lim = 0 and hence it follows that
n (n+2)! n n+2 n (n+1)!
lim Rn (x) = 0. Therefore the Maclaurin series of cos x converges to cos x.
n
Exercise: Find all the local maximum and local minimum values of f , where f (x) = x5
5x4 + 5x3 + 12 for all x R.
Solution: f : R R is infinitely differentiable and f 0 (x) = 5x2 (x 1)(x 3), f 00 (x) = 10x(2x2
6x + 3), f 000 (x) = 30(2x2 4x + 1) for all x R. Since f 0 (x) = 0 iff x = 0, 1, or 3, f has neither a
local maximum nor a local minimum at any point of R \ {0, 1, 3}. Again, since f 00 (1) = 10 < 0,
f 00 (3) = 90 > 0, f 00 (0) = 0 and f 000 (0) = 30 6= 0, f has a local maximum at 1 with local maximum
value f (1) = 13, f has a local minimum at 3 with local minimum value f (3) = 15 and f has
neither a local maximum nor a local minimum at 0.
Integration
Exercise: Let f (x) = x4 4x3 + 10 for all x [1, 4]. Calculate U (f, P ) and L(f, P ) for the
partition P = {1, 2, 3, 4} of [1, 4].
Solution: Since f 0 (x) = 4x2 (x3) for all x [1, 4], we have f 0 (x) < 0 for all x (1, 3) and f 0 (x) > 0
for all x (3, 4). Hence f is strictly decreasing on [1, 3] and strictly increasing on [3, 4]. Conse-
quently sup{f (x) : x [1, 2]} = f (1) = 7, sup{f (x) : x [2, 3]} = f (2) = 6, sup{f (x) : x
[3, 4]} = f (4) = 10 and inf{f (x) : x [1, 2]} = f (2) = 6, inf{f (x) : x [2, 3]} = f (3) = 17,
inf{f (x) : x [3, 4]} = f (3) = 17. Therefore U (f, P ) = 7(2 1) + (6)(3 2) + 10(4 3) = 11
and L(f, P ) = (6)(2 1) + (17)(3 2) + (17)(4 3) = 40.
Example: Let k R and let f (x) = k for all x [0, 1]. Then f : [0, 1] R is Riemann
R1
integrable on [0, 1] and f (x) dx = k.
0
Proof: Clearly f is bounded on [0, 1]. Let P = {x0 , x1 , ..., xn } be any partition of [0, 1]. Clearly
P
n
Mi = k = mi for i = 1, ..., n and hence U (f, P ) = L(f, P ) = k(xi xi1 ) = k. Consequently
i=1
R1 R1 R1
f (x) dx = k =f (x) dx. Therefore f is Riemann integrable on [0, 1] and f (x) dx = k.
0 0 0
0 if x (0, 1],
Example: Let f (x) =
1 if x = 0.
R1
Then f : [0, 1] R is Riemann integrable on [0, 1] and f (x) dx = 0.
0
Proof: Clearly f is bounded on [0, 1]. Let P = {x0 , x1 , ..., xn } be any partition of [0, 1]. Then
R1
mi = 0 and Mi 0 for i = 1, ..., n and so L(f, P ) = 0 and U (f, P ) 0. Hence f (x) dx = 0
0
R1
and f (x) dx 0. Again, if 0 < < 1, then considering the partition P1 = {0, 2 , 1} of [0, 1], we
0
R1
R1
get 0 f (x) dx U (f, P1 ) = 2
< and consequently f (x) dx = 0. Therefore f is Riemann
0 0
R1
integrable on [0, 1] and f (x) dx = 0.
0
1 if x [0, 1] Q,
Example: Let f (x) =
0 if x [0, 1] (R \ Q.
Then f : [0, 1] R is not Riemann integrable on [0, 1].
Proof: Clearly f is bounded on [0, 1]. Let P = {x0 , x1 , ..., xn } be any partition of [0, 1]. Since
every interval contains a rational as well as an irrational number, we get Mi = 1 and mi = 0 for
P
n R1
i = 1, ..., n and hence U (f, P ) = (xi xi1 ) = 1 and L(f, P ) = 0. Consequently f (x) dx = 1
i=1 0
R1 R1 R1
and f (x) dx = 0. Since f (x) dx 6= f (x) dx, f is not Riemann integrable on [0, 1].
0 0 0
Example: Let f (x) = x for all x [0, 1]. Then f : [0, 1] R is Riemann integrable on
R1
[0, 1] and f (x) dx = 21 .
0
Proof: Clearly f is bounded on [0, 1]. For each n N, Pn = {0, n1 , ..., nn = 1} is a partition of [0, 1].
Also, L(f, Pn ) = n1 (0 + n1 + + n1
n
) = 12 2n
1
12 and U (f, Pn ) = n1 ( n1 + + nn ) = 12 + 2n
1
12 .
R1
Hence by the following exercise, f is Riemann integrable on [0, 1] and f (x) dx = 21 .
0
2
Example: Let f (x) = x for all x [0, 1]. Then f : [0, 1] R is Riemann integrable on
R1
[0, 1] and f (x) dx = 31 .
0
Proof: Clearly f is bounded on [0, 1]. For each n N, Pn = {0, n1 , ..., nn = 1} is a partition of [0, 1].
2 2
Also, L(f, Pn ) = n1 (0 + n12 + + (n1)
n2
) = (1 n1 )( 13 6n
1
) 31 and U (f, Pn ) = n1 ( n12 + + nn2 ) =
(1 + n1 )( 13 + 6n
1
) 13 . Hence by the following exercise, f is Riemann integrable on [0, 1] and
R1
f (x) dx = 31 .
0
Exercise: Let f : [a, b] R be bounded. Let there exist a sequence (Pn ) of partitions of
Rb
[a, b] such that L(f, Pn ) and U (f, Pn ) . Show that f R[a, b] and that f = .
a
Rb Rb
Solution: We have L(f, Pn ) f (x) dx f U (f, Pn ) for all n N. Since L(f, Pn ) and
a a
Rb Rb Rb Rb
U (f, Pn ) , we get f (x) dx f f (x) dx = = f . Hence f R[a, b] and
a a a a
Rb
f = .
a
x if x [0, 1] Q,
Exercise: Let f (x) =
0 if x [0, 1] (R \ Q.
R1
Examine whether f is Riemann integrable on [0, 1]. Also, find f , if it exists.
0
Solution: Clearly f is bounded on [0, 1]. Let P = {x0 , x1 , ..., xn } be any partition of [0, 1]. Since
between any two distinct real numbers, there exist a rational as well as an irrational number, it
follows that Mi = xi and mi = 0 for i = 1, ..., n. (Note that Mi cannot be less than xi , because
otherwise we can find a rational number ri between Mi and xi and so f (ri ) = ri > Mi , which is not
P
n Pn P
n Pn
possible.) Hence L(f, P ) = 0 and U (f, P ) = xi (xi xi1 ) = x2i xi xi1 12 (x2i x2i1 )
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
R1 R1
(since x2i + x2i1 2xi xi1 for i = 1, ..., n) = 12 . Consequently f (x) dx 1
2
and f (x) dx = 0.
0 0
R1 R1
Since f (x) dx 6=
f (x) dx, f is not Riemann integrable on [0, 1].
0 0
1 if x = n1 for some n N,
Exercise: Let f : [0, 1] R be defined by f (x) =
0 otherwise.
R1
Examine whether f is Riemann integrable on [0, 1]. Also, find f , if it exists.
0
R1
Solution: f is Riemann integrable on [0, 1] and f = 0. The justification is exactly similar to the
0
solution provided for Ex.18 of Tutorial Problem Set.
R1 2
Exercise: Show that 31 2 x1+x dx 13 .
0
2 2
Solution: Since 1 1 + x 2 for all x [0, 1], we get x 2 x1+x x2 for all x [0, 1].
Since all the given functions are continuous and hence Riemann integrable on [0, 1], we get
R1 x2 R1 x2 R1 2 1
R1 x2
dx
2
1+x
dx x dx
3 2
1+x
dx 13 .
0 0 0 0
Exercise: If f : [a, b] R is continuous, then show that there exists c [a, b] such that
Rb
f (x) dx = (b a)f (c).
a
Rn
Solution: Since f is continuous on [a, b], f R[a, b] and so m(b a) f (x) dx M (b a),
a
where m = inf{f (x) : x [a, b]} and M = sup{f (x) : x [a, b]}. Since f is continuous on [a, b],
Rb
f (x) dx
there exist , [a, b] such that f () = m and f () = M . Hence f () a ba f (). By
the intermediate value property of continuous functions, there exists c between and (both
Rb
f (x) dx Rb
inclusive) such that f (c) = a
ba
, i.e. f (x) dx = (b a)f (c).
a
Exercise: Let f : [a, b] R and g : [a, b] R be continuous and let g(x) 0 for all x [a, b].
Rb Rb
Show that there exists c [a, b] such that f (x)g(x) dx = f (c) g(x) dx.
a a
Solution: Since f is continuous on [a, b], f is bounded on [a, b] and there exist , [a, b] such
that f () = inf{f (x) : x [a, b]} and f () = sup{f (x) : x [a, b]}. We have f () f (x) f ()
for all x [a, b] f ()g(x) f (x)g(x) f ()g(x) for all x [a, b] (since g(x) 0 for all
Rb
x [a, b]). Since f, g are continuous on [a, b], g, f g R[a, b] and hence we obtain f () g(x) dx
a
Rb Rb Rb Rb
f (x)g(x) dx f () g(x) dx. If g(x) dx = 0, then f (x)g(x) dx = 0 and so we can choose
a a a a
Rb
Rb Rb f (x)g(x) dx
any c [a, b]. If g(x) dx 6= 0, then g(x) dx > 0 and hence we get f () a
Rb
f ().
a a g(x) dx
a
By the intermediate value property of the continuous function f , there exists c between and
Rb
f (x)g(x) dx Rb Rb
(both inclusive) such that f (c) = a
Rb
, i.e. f (x)g(x) dx = f (c) g(x) dx.
g(x) dx a a
a
1 1 1
Exercise: Evaluate lim [ n+1 + n+2
+ + n+n
].
n
1
Solution: Let f (x) for all x [0, 1]. Considering the partition Pn = {0, n1 , n2 , ..., nn = 1} of
= 1+x
P
n P
n
[0, 1] for each n N, we find that S(f, Pn ) = f ( ni )( ni i1
n
) = 1
n+i
. Since f : [0, 1] R is
i=1 i=1
1
P
n R1
continuous, f R[0, 1] and hence lim = lim S(f, Pn ) = f = log(1 + x)|1x=0 = log 2.
n i=1 n+i n 0
R 1
Example: tp
dt converges iff p > 1.
1
Rx 1 1
Rx 1
Proof: For all x > 1, we have tp
dt = 1p
(x1p 1) if p 6= 1 and t
dt = log x. Hence
1 1
Rx 1 1
Rx 1
R 1
lim tp
dt = 1p
if p > 1 and lim tp
dt = if p 1. Therefore tp
dt converges iff p > 1.
x 1 x 1 1
R
Exercise: Examine whether the improper integral et dt converges.
R R0 R
Solution: In order that the improper integral et dt converges, both et dt and et dt must
0
R Rx
converge. However, et dt does not converge, because lim et dt = lim (ex 1) = . Hence
0 x 0 x
R
et dt does not converge.
R 1
Exercise: Examine whether the improper integral 1+t2
dt converges.
0
1
Rx
Solution: Since lim 2 dt = lim tan1 x = 2 , the given improper integral converges.
x 0 1+t x
R cos t
Example: 1+t2
dt converges.
0
R1 cos t
R cos t R cos t
Proof: Since 1+t2
dt exists (in R) as a Riemann integral, 1+t2
dt converges iff 1+t2
dt con-
0 0 1
cos t 1
R 1 R cos t
verges. Now | 1+t 2| t2
for all t 1 and t2
dt converges. Hence by comparison test, | 1+t 2 | dt
1 1
R cos t R cos t
converges and consequently 1+t2
dt converges. By our remark at the beginning, 1+t2
dt con-
1 0
verges.
R1 1
Example: tp
dt converges iff p < 1.
0
R1 1
Proof: tp
dt exists (in R) as a Riemann integral if p 0. So let p > 0. Then for 0 < x < 1, we
0
R1 1 1
R1 1
R1
1 1
have tp
dt = 1p
(1 x1p ) if p 6= 1 and t
dt = log x. Hence lim p dt = if p < 1 and
x x x0+ x t 1p
R1 1
R1 1
lim tp
dt = if p 1. Therefore tp
dt converges iff p < 1.
x0+ x 0
2 2
Exercise: Find the perimeter of the ellipse xa2 + yb2 = 1.
Solution: The parametric equations of the given ellipse are x = a cos t, y = b sin t, where
R2
0 t 2. Hence the perimeter of the given ellipse is a2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t dt. (This inte-
0
gral does not have a simple expression in terms of a and b.)
Exercise: Find the area above the x-axis which is included between the parabola y 2 = ax
and the circle x2 + y 2 = 2ax, where a > 0.
Solution: Solving y 2 = ax and x2 + y 2 = 2ax, we obtain the x-coordinates of the common points
on the given parabola and the circle as 0 and a. Therefore the required area is
Ra Ra
( 2ax x2 ax) dx = ( 38 12
)a2
. (The integral 2ax x2 dx can be evaluated by the sub-
0 0
stitution x = 2a sin2 .)
Exercise: A solid lies between planes perpendicular to the x-axis at x = 0 and x = 4. The
cross sections perpendicular
to the axis on the interval
0 x 4 are squares whose diagonals run
from the parabola y = x to the parabola y = x. Find the volume of the solid.
Solution:
The length of the diagonal of the cross-sectional square at a distance x from the origin
is 2 x and hence the cross-sectional area at a distance x from the origin is 2x. Therefore the
R4
volume of the solid is 2x dx = 16.
0
Exercise: Consider the funnel formed by revolving the curve y = x1 about the x-axis, between
x = 1 and x = a, where a > 1. If Va and Sa denote respectively the volume and the surface area
of the funnel, then show that lim Va = and lim Sa = .
a a
Ra Ra q Ra 2
Solution: For each a > 1, we have Va = x2 dx = (1 a1 ) and Sa = 2x
1 + 1
x2
dx x
dx =
1 1 1
2 log a. Hence lim Va = and since lim log a = , we get lim Sa = .
a a a
Exercise: Find the volume and area of the curved surface of a paraboloid of revolution formed
by revolving the parabola y 2 = 4ax about the x-axis, and bounded by the section x = x1 .
Rx1
Solution: The required volume is 4ax dx = 2ax21 and the required surface area is
0
Rx1 p dy 3 3
2 4ax 1 + xa dx (since dx
= 2a
y
) = 83 a((a + x1 ) 2 a 2 ).
0