Electrochimica Acta 56 (2011) 17011710

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Electrochimica Acta
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/electacta

New ndings on intergranular corrosion mechanism of stabilized stainless steels

Jeong Kil Kim a,b , Yeong Ho Kim b , Bong Ho Lee c , Kyoo Young Kim a,
a
Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Graduate Institute of Ferrous Technology, Pohang, 790-784, Republic of Korea
b
POSCO Technical Research Laboratories, Pohang, 790-704, Republic of Korea
c
National Center for Nanomaterials Technology, Pohang, 790-784, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Number of different sets of stabilized both ferritic and austenitic stainless steels with various alloying
Received 17 June 2010 elements were evaluated to verify new ndings on the intergranular corrosion mechanism. The inter-
Received in revised form 10 August 2010 granular segregation and precipitation were analyzed by using a transmission electron microscopy with
Accepted 11 August 2010
an energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and a laser assisted three-dimensional atom probe. On the basis
Available online 19 August 2010
of the current result, it is newly proposed that the intergranular corrosion occurring in the stabilized
both ferritic and austenitic stainless steels is induced by Cr-depletion due to segregation of un-reacted
Keywords:
Cr atoms around carbides of stabilizer elements (Ti or Nb) along the grain boundary, but not due to for-
Intergranular corrosion
Stainless steel
mation of Cr-carbide. A prevention method for this type of intergranular corrosion is also suggested after
Stabilizer effect critical evaluation on the effect of Cr, C, and Ni.
Segregation 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Chromium

1. Introduction Recently, however, it was reported that automotive exhaust sys-

The intergranular corrosion (IGC) in stainless steels has been one
of the most extensively studied issues since IGC results in severe
loss of corrosion resistance, strength and ductility of the stainless
steels. IGC of stainless steels is known to be induced by electro-
chemical potential difference between the matrix and Cr-depleted
zone which is developed by formation of Cr-carbide in the grain
boundary area [17].
The Cr-carbides and Cr-carbontrides are usually regarded as the
reason for the Cr-depleted zone, although several studies assert
that other Cr compounds such as sigma (CrFe compound) and chi
(CrMoFe compound) phases also deplete Cr concentration in the
region along the grain boundaries [1,3].
Many studies to reduce the risk of IGC have been focused on
the practices to prevent the precipitation of Cr-carbides and Cr-
carbonitrides along the grain boundaries in stainless steels. The
effective practical methods to prevent IGC are decreasing the C
or N content and adding stabilizers such as Ti and Nb. Bond has
reported that C and N contents should be lower than 0.01 wt% to
resist the IGC in 17 wt% Cr ferritic stainless steel (FSS) [8]. Proper
amount of stabilizers such as Ti or Nb has also been recommended
as 920 (wt% C + wt% N) for 1820 wt% Cr stainless steels [914].
The guideline for the stabilizer addition is proposed on the basis of
the standard specication (ASTM A 240/a 240M-08).
Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 54 279 9018.
E-mail address: kykim@postech.ac.kr (K.Y. Kim).
tem made of Ti-stabilized 11 wt% Cr ferritic stainless steel (11Cr
FSS) developed IGC due to the corrosive exhaust gas and con-
densed water with Cl , SO4 2 , SO3 2 , CH3 COOH, CO3 2 and HCO3
[6,7,9,15], although the contents of C, N and stabilizers in the
materials meet the requirements of ASTM standard specication
mentioned above.
For the present study, it is assumed that IGC in Ti-stabilized
stainless steels may be induced by a new mechanism other than
the conventional IGC mechanism. To clarify the new ndings on
IGC mechanism, the intergranular segregation and precipitation
are critically analyzed by using a transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
(EDS) and a laser assisted three-dimensional atom probe (3DAP).
In this article, a new IGC mechanism is established rstly with Ti-
stabilized 11Cr FSS. Then, the effects of the content of Cr and C,
type of matrix and stabilizers on the IGC and intergranular precipi-
tation are examined with the stabilized both ferritic and austenitic
stainless steels with various amount of alloying elements.
2. Experimental
Table 1 lists the composition and matrix phase of the eight
kinds of ferritic and austenitic stainless steels used in this study.
The contents of C and N are not more than 0.006 wt% for FSS
and about 0.01 wt% for austenitic stainless steel (ASS), and the
content of stabilizers (Ti, Nb or Ti + Nb) are around 20 times that
of C and N in all FSS. This stabilizing ratio (Stabilizers/(C + N)) in
FSS well matches to the guide lines suggested by previous studies

0013-4686/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2010.08.042
1702 J.K. Kim et al. / Electrochimica Acta 56 (2011) 17011710

Table 1
Chemical composition of various stabilized stainless steels.

Specimen C Cr Ni Ti Nb N Ti/(C + N) Matrix

11Cr 0.0054 11.10 0.246 0.0047 24.35 Ferritic

12Cr 0.0060 12.15 0.232 0.0051 20.9 Fenitic
13Cr 0.0040 13.17 0.238 0.0046 27.67 Ferritic
18Cr 0.0060 17.64 0.290 0.0064 23.38 Fenitic
Low C-11Cr 0.0023 11.30 0.212 0.0021 48.18 Fenitic
Nb 11Cr 0.0060 11.53 0.30 0.0058 25.42 Fenitic
Ti-Nb11Cr 0.0060 11.75 0.170 0.150 0.0050 29.1 Fenitic
18Cr-9Ni 0.0109 17.91 9.23 0312 0.0112 14.12 Austenitic

and standard specication (ASTM A 240/a 240M-08) [814]. All in water, followed by aging treatment at 400700 C for 0.510 h.
experimental steels were vacuum-melted, rolled to 1.2 mm thick Intergranular corrosion resistance of 1113 wt% Cr FSS was exam-
sheet and annealed at 950 C for 5 min. The as-annealed steels ined by the chemical corrosion test using a modied copper acid
were then solution treated at 1300 C for 10 min and quenched sulfate solution (0.5% H2 SO4 + 6% CuSO4 ) introduced by Devine

Fig. 1. No-etched surfaces of 11 wt% Cr FSS after the chemical corrosion test: (a) as-annealed, (b) solution treated, (c) aged for 1 h at 500 C, and (d)
timetemperaturesensitization curve.
 J.K. Kim et al. / Electrochimica Acta 56 (2011) 17011710
Fig. 2. DL-EPR curves of type 409L grade FSS aged at 500 C for various aging times
[21].
for low Cr FSS (1013 wt% Cr) [3,16,17]. Rectangular test coupons
(12 mm 12 mm 1.2 mm) with surface grinded with abrasive
paper to #2000 were immersed in the boiling solution of 300 ml
for 20 h, with electrochemical contact with copper balls in the
solution. Metallographic observation was performed on the no-
etched specimens after corrosion test. Analysis on the precipitates
was carried out with carbon replica of all stainless steels using
TEM with EDS, Philips CM-200, operated at 200 kV. The atomic
distribution around the grain boundary was analyzed using 3DAP,
Cameca LA-WATAPTM , which was particularly useful to analyze
elemental distribution with near-atomic resolution [18].
3. Result and discussion
3.1. IGC characteristics of Ti-stabilized 11 wt% Cr FSS
The Ti-stabilized 11Cr FSS were heat-treated in various condi-
tions and subjected to the chemical corrosion test. Fig. 1 presents
the no-etched surfaces of 11Cr FSS after corrosion test and
timetemperaturesensitization (TTS) curve plotted on the basis
of the result. The surface of 1 h-aged specimen at 500 C shows
dark regions (indicated as A in Fig. 1(c)) and these are the evi-
dence of IGC called grain dropout according to some literature
[19,20]. But, the grain dropouts are not observed from the surfaces
of as-annealed and solution treated ones. TTS curve implies that IGC
occurs in the specimen aged at the temperature range of 400600 C
(gray region). Except this temperature range, IGC does not occur.
The sensitization nose is around 600 C.
We have reported previously a similar result after IGC tests
for type 409L grade FSS (11.1 wt% Cr0.0048 wt% C-0.23 wt% Ti-
0.0055 wt% N, Ti/(C + N) = 22.3) by both the chemical corrosion test
and double loop electrochemical potentiokinetic reactivation (DL-
EPR) test [21]. For both the chemical corrosion and DL-EPR tests of
this steel, the as-annealed specimen was solution treated at 1300 C
for 10 min. Fig. 2 and Table 2 are cited from our previous report.
Fig. 2 presents the DL-EPR test result and Table 2 lists the sum-
mary of Ir , Ia , and Ir /Ia , which indicates the degree of sensitization,
Table 2
Summary of Ia , Ir and Ir /Ia determined by the DL-EPR test [21].
Aging time/h Ir (A cm2 ) Ia (A cm2 )
As-annealed 1.37 104 9.29 103
Solution treated 1.39 104 11.20 103
0.5 1.78 104 9.32 103
1 2.97 104 9.56 103
4 3.31 104 9.28 103
10 7.14 104 9.36 103
1703
determined from DL-EPR test. Fig. 3 compares IGC morphologies
observed after two different test methods of the chemical corrosion
test and DL-EPR test for type 409L FSS aged at 500 C for various
aging times. In the result, it is clearly observed that in the speci-
mens with Ir /Ia > 0.03 the grain dropouts are clearly observed from
the chemical test result and DL-EPR test result also indicates the
ditch structure which is the evidence of IGC. However, IGC does
not occur if the value of Ir /Ia < 0.018.
Fig. 4 depicts TEM and EDS analysis on the matrix and the grain
boundaries in as-annealed 11Cr FSS in which IGC did not develop
during corrosion test. The precipitates were identied as TiC or
TiN in the matrix, and there was no precipitation along the grain
boundaries.
The grain boundary of 11Cr FSS aged for 10 h at 500 C, which
developed IGC, was analyzed with TEM and EDS and the results
are presented in Fig. 5. Lots of ne precipitates were formed along
the grain boundary. EDS spectra in Fig. 5(b) show peaks for Ti, Cr
and C. The electron diffraction analysis on the precipitate shown in
Fig. 5(c) veries that the precipitates are TiC carbides with a face
centered cubic structure having the lattice parameter of 0.433 nm.
But, no second phase such as Cr-carbides or intermetallic phases of
Cr was detected at all from this analysis. Then, the question is the
origin of EDS peak for Cr, and this question is solved by the critical
evaluations which will be explained below.
3.2. New ndings on IGC mechanism
From TEM and EDS analysis on the intergranular precipitates of
10 h-aged 11Cr FSS, it is clearly evidenced that IGC has not been
induced by formation of Cr-carbide which results in Cr-depletion
in the grain boundary area according to the conventional theory
of IGC. There should be a new mechanism operating in this steel
system, which may explain clearly the cause of Cr-depletion in the
grain boundary area.
To understand this new IGC mechanism of this steel, the rst
work is to identify where Cr peak comes from. It may come from Cr
dissolved in TiC, Cr precipitates (i.e., Cr-carbonitride) or Cr segrega-
tion. A thermodynamic calculation using the Thermo-Calc program
[22] was performed. Fig. 6 is the calculated fraction of individual
phases for the elements of Ti-stabilized 11Cr FSS listed in Table 1.
Any kind of Cr compounds such as Cr carbides was not predicted to
be formed in the temperature range of 01500 C, moreover the sol-
ubility of Cr in Ti(C, N) was calculated to be about 107 at% at aging
temperature of 500 C. This result means that Cr atoms would not
precipitate any new second phase and also would not be dissolved
in the intergranular TiC at the aging temperature. Therefore, it is
believed that the Cr peak detected from the EDS analysis is most
probably due to the Cr segregation adjacent to the intergranular TiC
carbides.
3DAP characterization is carried out with 10 h-aged 11Cr FSS for
further investigation of Cr segregation around TiC and is shown in
Fig. 7. Segregations of Cr as well as Ti and C is clearly observed along
the grain boundary in the atom map of Fig. 7(a), although TiC pre-
cipitate itself is unfortunately missed out of the specimen for 3DAP.
In the concentration-depth prole across the grain boundary, it is
also veried that Cr atoms extensively segregates up to 18 at% on
the grain boundary and a consequent Cr-depletion zone is resulted
inevitably in the vicinity of the Cr segregation. The Cr content of the
depletion zone is only around 7 at%.
Ir /Ia Fig. 8 illustrates schematically a new IGC mechanism operat-
ing in Ti-stabilized 11Cr FSS on the basis of TEM, EDS and 3DAP
0.015
0.012
analysis. At rst, the solution treatment at 1300 C dissolves TiC
0.018 carbides (not TiN which is stable even at this temperature [7]) in
0.033 the matrix and the dissolution of TiC produce soluble carbon atoms
0.036 as illustrated in Fig. 8(a). During aging the solution-treated speci-
0.076
men, the soluble C atoms would diffuse to the grain boundary as
1704 J.K. Kim et al. / Electrochimica Acta 56 (2011) 17011710

Fig. 3. Comparison of no-etched surfaces of type 409L grade FSS aged at 500 C for various aging times after the chemical corrosion and the DL-EPR test [21].

shown in Fig. 8(b). This diffusion of C atoms induces the segrega-
tion of Cr and Ti atoms both of which have a strong afnity for
carbon. However, C atoms preferentially react with Ti, leaving the
un-reacted Cr to be segregated along the grain boundaries, since
Ti atoms have much stronger afnity for C than Cr atoms. Fig. 8(c)
illustrates development of Cr-depletion zone due to the segrega-
tion of the un-reacted Cr atoms in the grain boundary area. The
newly proposed IGC mechanism operating in Ti-stabilized 11Cr FSS
may be summarized as illustrated in Fig. 8(d) which shows distri-
butions of Ti-carbide, Cr-segregation and Cr-depletion in the grain
boundary area.
3.3. Prevention methods for IGC in stabilized stainless steel
As discussed previously, it was conrmed that IGC in Ti-
stabilized 11Cr FSS was induced by Cr-depletion not due to
 J.K. Kim et al. / Electrochimica Acta 56 (2011) 17011710 1705

Fig. 4. TEM characterization of the precipitates in the matrix and grain boundaries of as-annealed 11 wt% Cr FSS: (a) carbon replica of the precipitates in the matrix, (b)
carbon replica around the grain boundary, (c) EDS spectra of TiC in the matrix, and (d) EDS spectra of TiN in the matrix.

formation of the intergranular Cr carbides or Cr carbonitrides, but
due to the intergranular Cr segregation around TiC carbides. Since
the IGC mechanism in the Ti-stabilized FSS is reasonably well
understood, the effects of several factors such as the content of
Cr and C, type of matrix and kind of stabilizers were examined to
conrm the newly proposed IGC mechanism and to nd a way to
prevent IGC occurring in the stabilized stainless steels.
Since Cr is the most important element to improve the cor-
rosion resistance in stainless steels, rst of all, the effect of Cr
content on IGC and intergranular precipitation were evaluated with
Ti-stabilized 1118 wt% Cr FSS. Fig. 9 is TTS curves plotted accord-
ing to the results of the chemical corrosion test carried out with
1113 wt% Cr FSS which were aged in various conditions. The TTS
curve clearly explains that increase in Cr content improves IGC
resistance of the steel, but it cannot prevent IGC. In TEM and EDS
analysis on 1218 Cr FSS aged at 500 C for 14 h means that,
regardless Cr content, the intergranular precipitates in all the tested
specimens are TiC precipitates with Cr peak as those observed
previously from 11 wt% Cr specimen as presented in Fig. 10. There-
fore, with these results, it can be made clear that in Ti-stabilized
1118 wt% Cr FSS, IGC is induced by the same mechanism; i.e., by
Cr-depletion due to segregation of the un-reacted Cr atoms around
the intergranular TiC precipitates. Furthermore, increase in the Cr
content cannot be a practical solution to prevent IGC (Fig. 11).
In the new IGC mechanism by Cr segregation, carbon plays the
critical role to induce the segregation of Cr and Ti. A low carbon 11Cr
FSS with 0.002 wt% C was used to investigate the effect of C con-
tent on the intergranular precipitation. The precipitation analysis
results on this steel aged for 10 h at 500 C is presented in Fig. 10. It
can be noticed that this steel shows different precipitation charac-
teristics from other Ti-stabilized FSS with about 0.005 wt% C. Along
the grain boundary, neither TiC precipitates with Cr nor any other

Fig. 5. TEM characterization of the grain boundary of 11 wt% Cr FSS aged at 500 C for 10 h: (a) carbon replica of intergranular precipitates, (b) EDS spectra of the intergranular
precipitates, and (c) electron diffraction pattern analyzed on the intergranular precipitates.
1706 J.K. Kim et al. / Electrochimica Acta 56 (2011) 17011710

Fig. 9. Timetemperaturesensitization curve of 1113 wt% Cr FSS.

Fig. 6. Calculated fraction of individual phase in 11 wt% Cr FSS by Thermo-Calc.

Fig. 7. 3DAP characterization around the grain boundary of 11 wt% Cr FSS aged at 500 C for 10 h. (a) 3DAP element maps, and (b) Concentration prole across the grain
boundary.

Fig. 8. Schematic illustration of newly proposed IGC mechanism developed by Cr-depletion due to segregation of the un-reacted Cr atoms in the grain boundary area.
 J.K. Kim et al. / Electrochimica Acta 56 (2011) 17011710 1707

Fig. 10. TEM characterization of the grain boundary of 12, 13 and 18 wt% Cr FSS aged at 500 C for 10 various aging times.

kinds of precipitates are observed, although the specimen was aged
for the longest time in the study. In addition, Ti suldes are detected
from the matrix instead of TiC and TiN observed in the matrices
of other Ti-stabilized stainless steels. Sulfur was not intentionally
added in all the specimens used in this study. However, the S con-
tent in all specimens was around 0.003 wt% and it resulted in Ti
suldes in low C11Cr specimen. As shown in Fig. 12, this specimen
actually shows good resistance to IGC in the chemical corrosion test.
It means that reducing C content to extremely low level could be a
method to prevent IGC.
Fig. 13 indicates the corrosion test result performed on Nb- and
TiNb-stabilized 11Cr FSS aged for 2 h at 500 C. The grain dropouts

Fig. 11. TEM characterization of low carbon 11 wt% Cr FSS aged at 500 C for 10 h. (a) Carbon extraction replica around the grain boundary, (b) Higher magnication of A
marked in (a), and (c) EDS spectra of Ti suldes in the matrix.
1708 J.K. Kim et al. / Electrochimica Acta 56 (2011) 17011710

Fig. 12. No-etched surface of low carbon 11 wt% Cr FSS after the chemical corrosion
test.

Fig. 14. TEM characterization of Nb-stabilized 11 wt% Cr FSS and TiNb-stabilized

11 wt% Cr FSS aged at 500 C for 4 h: (a) carbon extraction replica around the grain
boundary of Nb-stabilized 11 wt%Cr FSS, (b) EDS spectra of intergranular precipitates
of Nb-stabilized 11 wt% Cr FSS, (c) carbon extraction replica around the grain bound-
ary of TiNb-stabilized 11 wt% Cr FSS, (d) EDS spectra of intergranular precipitates
Fig. 13. No-etched surfaces of (a) Nb-stabilized 11 wt% Cr FSS and (b) TiNb-
of TiNb-stabilized 11 wt% Cr FSS.
stabilized 11 wt% Cr FSS aged at 500 C for 4 h after the chemical corrosion test.
 J.K. Kim et al. / Electrochimica Acta 56 (2011) 17011710 1709

are found in the no-etched surface of Nb-stabilized FSS, while no
grain dropout was observed from the no-etched surface of the spec-
imen stabilized with TiNb after corrosion test. Nevertheless, in the
TiNb-stabilized FSS, a sign of grain boundary attack is detected
as indicated as A in Fig. 13(b). The authors in the study thought
that the specimen did already undergo IGC. Fig. 14 presents TEM
and EDS analysis on the intergranular precipitates in Nb11Cr and
TiNb11Cr FSS, in which IGC is clearly developed. NbC carbides
and (Ti, Nb) C carbides are observed in NbFSS and in TiNbFSS,
respectively, and Cr peak is also detected in both kinds of carbides
in EDS analysis. It is clear again that the Cr peak is due to the Cr
segregation around the intergranular carbides, and it is the cause
of IGC in the ferritic stainless steel stabilized with Nb and TiNb.
Now, the question is whether the new IGC mechanism is oper-
ated in the stabilized austenitic stainless steel (ASS), or not. It is
generally known that IGC occurs much slower in ASS than in FSS
due to difference in the solubility limit of C and N [2326]. Further
investigation with TEM and EDS analysis was carried out with the
replicas of 1 and 4 h-aged 18Cr9Ni ASS specimens stabilized with
Ti to compare the precipitation and segregation behaviors of ASS
with those of FSS. The analysis on the 1 h-aged ASS indicates that
no precipitation was formed along the grain boundary as shown in

Fig. 15. TEM characterization of 18 wt% Cr-9 wt% Ni ASS aged at 500 C for 1 h: (a) Carbon extraction replica around the grain boundary and (b) higher magnication of A
marked in (a).

Fig. 16. TEM characterization of 18 wt% Cr-9 wt% Ni ASS aged at 500 C for 4 h. (a) Carbon extraction replica around the grain boundary, (b) Higher magnication of A marked
in (a), (c) EDS spectra of intergranular precipitates, and (d) Electron diffraction pattern analyzed on the intergranular precipitates.
1710 J.K. Kim et al. / Electrochimica Acta 56 (2011) 17011710
Fig. 15. However, along the grain boundaries of 4 h-aged ASS spec-
imen, as shown in Fig. 16, precipitation developed, and also Cr as
well as Ti and C were detected in intergranular precipitates. Elec-
tron diffraction pattern analysis makes clear that these precipitates
are the same TiC carbides with Cr segregation as those found in FSS
suffered from IGC. Therefore, it is again conrmed that the new
IGC mechanism is operated in the Ti-stabilized ASS as the same
way as observed from the stabilized FSS. This investigation also
suggests that IGC cannot be prevented even with the austenitic
matrix, except that it takes only longer time for IGC development
in Ti-stabilized ASS.
4. Conclusions
Intergranular corrosion in the stabilized both ferritic and aut-
enitic stainless steel was induced by Cr depleted zone due to
segregation of the un-reacted Cr atoms near the grain boundary car-
bides [TiC, (Ti,Nb)C or NbC], but not due to formation of Cr-carbides.
The increase in Cr content improves IGC resistance of FSS, but
cannot prevent intergranular corrosion. Along the grain boundaries
of low carbon 11 wt% Cr ferritic stainless steel with 0.002 wt% C con-
tent, no intergranular corrosion developed. Therefore, decreasing
carbon content to around 0.0020 wt% may be a method to pre-
vent IGC. IGC developed much slower in austenitic stainless than in
ferritic stainless steel because of its slow kinetics of diffusion and
precipitation.
References
[1] A. John Sedriks, Corrosion of Stainless Steels, 2nd ed., Weily, 1996.
[2] A.A. Ogwu, T.J. Davies, Scr. Mater. 37 (1997) 259.
[3] A. Pardo, M.C. Merino, A.E. Coy, F. Viejo, M. Carboneras, R. Arrabal, Acta Mater.
55 (2007) 2239.
[4] D.N. Wasnik, V. Kain, I. Samajdar, B. Verlinden, P.K. De, Acta Mater. 50 (18)
(2002).
[5] E.L. Hall, C.L. Briant, Metall. Mater. Trans. A 15 (1984) 793.
[6] T.J. Nichol, J.A. Davis, Intergranular Corrosion of Stainless Alloy, vol. 656, ASTM,
STP, 1978, p. 179.
[7] J.D. Gate, R.A. Jago, Mater. Sci. Technol. 3 (1987) 450.
[8] A.P. Bond, Trans. AIME 245 (1969) 2127.
[9] Y. Hisamatsu, H. Ogawa, Iron Steel 63 (1977) 585.
[10] J.D. Fritz, I.A. Franson, Mater. Sel. Des. (1997) 57.
[11] C.L. Briant, R.A. Mulford, E.L. Hall, Corrosion 38 (1982) 468.
[12] C.L. Briant, E.L. Hall, Corrosion 43 (1987) 525.
[13] X.M. You, Z.H. Jiang, H.B. Li, J. Iron Steel Res. Int. 14 (2007) 24.
[14] M. Suzuki, S. Hamada, P.J. Maziasz, M.P. Tanaka, D.A. Hishnuma, Effect of Radi-
ation on Materials, vol. 1046, ASTM, STP, 1989, p. 160.
[15] T. Utsunomiya, T. Adachi, Nisshin Steel Tech. Rep. 68 (1993) 49.
[16] C.L. Briant, E.L. Hall, Corrosion 42 (1986) 522.
[17] T.M. Devine, B.J. Drummond, Corrosion 38 (1982) 327.
[18] K. Hono, Acta Mater. 47 (1999) 3127.
[19] S. Frangini, A. Mignone, Corrosion 48 (1992) 715.
[20] J.B. Lee, Corrosion 40 (1984) 163.
[21] J.K. Kim, Y.H. Kim, S.H. Uhm, J.S. Lee, K.Y. Kim, Corrosion Sci. 51 (2009) 2716.
[22] B. Sundman, B. Jansson, J.O. Andersson, Calphad 9 (1985) 153.
[23] R.A. Lula, A.J. Lena, G.C. Kiefer, Trans. ASM 46 (1954) 197.
[24] R.A. Lula, J.A. Davis, Intergranular Corrosion of Stainless Alloy, vol. 656, ASTM,
STP, 1978, p. 233.
[25] B. Poulson, Corrosion Sci. 18 (1978) 371.
[26] H. Arai, S. Takeda, Y. Arata, Trans. JWRI 16 (1987) 131.