OSCILLATORS, PLL AND FREQUECY SYNTHESIZERS

Oscillators device that produces oscillations (i.e. generates a repetitive waveform)

converts a dc input voltage to an ac output voltage
Applications:
high-frequency carrier supplies
pilot supplies
clocks
timing circuits
Two Kinds:
free-running oscillators
1.self-sustaining
2.continuous
3.repetitive
triggered or one-shot
1.not self-sustaining
Feedback oscillators an amplifier with a feedback loop a path for energy to
propagate from the output back to the input

ex. Free-running oscillators

Barkhausen Criterion to sustain oscillation of feedback circuit

1.) Av 1 around the feedback loop
0
2.) phase shift must be a positive integer multiple of 360

Four requirements for feedback oscillator to work:

1. Amplification
2. Positive feedback has a regenerative feedback

Regenerative must have the correct phase and amplitude

Excessive amplitude amplifier saturates
Insufficient amplitude oscillation cease
3. Frequency determining components
- includes resistors, capacitors, inductors or crystals
4. Power source
 Closed-loop feedback amplifier

Input=V1 V2
V3
+ Subtractor Voltage amplifier Vout

- (Aol)

V4

Feedback Network

()

Aoj - open-loop voltage gain feedback path open circuited

- feedback ratio, V0
Vi
- transfer function of the feedback network
Acl - closed-loop voltage gain
- less than the open loop voltage gain

1 passive feedback network

Most common configurations for oscillators:
1.RC phase shift
2.LC tank circuits
3.IC

Factors considered for type of oscillators:

1. desired frequency of operation
2. required frequency stability
3. variable or fixed frequency operation
4. distortion requirements or limitation
5. desired output power
6. physical size
7. application (i.e. digital or analog)
8. cost
9. reliability and durability
10. desired accuracy
2 Kinds of Oscillators
1. Untuned
Ex. Wien-bridge
untuned RC phase shift oscillators that uses both positive and negative feedback
low-frequency (5 Hz to 1 MHz)
used by HP in their original signal generator design

For a lead-lag network:

At fo: R = Xc
- 45o phase shift across Z1
+ 45o phase shift across Z2
---------
00 total phase shift across the lead-lad network

At f < fo : phase shift across the network leads

At f > fo : phase shift across the network lags

At extremely low frequency: no output since C1 open circuit

At extremely high frequency: no output since C2 short circuit

Therefore lead-lag network is:

frequency selective
maximum output voltage at fo
Z2 1
transfer function, at fo at
R1 R2 and C1 C2
Z1 Z 2 3

1
fo with R R1 R2 and C C1 C2
2RC
For the Wien-Bridge Oscillator:

lead lag network positive feedback

resistive voltage divider negative feedback
balanced bridge Vdiff 0
in the voltage divider, ratio of resistors is 2:1
Rf
non-inverting voltage gain of amplifier A, to R 1 3
i
Ri

Vo
A
: ol
3
Vin
At f o

1

3
1
A
Loop voltage gain, ol 3 1
3
AGC Automatic Gain Control
- added in the circuit to compensate for unbalances in the bridge and
variations in component values due to heat
- Ri replaced with FET
- Voltage gain of amplifier automatically compensates for changes in
amplitude of output signal
2. Tuned Oscillator
- LC oscillator uses tuned LC tank circuits
1
fo at Q 10
2 LC
Examples:
Hartley Oscillator
 Q1 amplification for Av 1
Cc coupling capacitor
path for regenerative feedback
L1a, L1b and C1 frequency determining components
Vcc dc supply voltage
RFC Radio Frequency Choke
dc short
L1b
L1a L1b
determines the proportion of the oscillating energy that is fed back to Q1

if less damped oscillation

if more saturates the transistor
1
fo for Hartley oscillators frequency of oscillation
2 LC
Where L L1a L1b

C C1
2. Colpitts Oscillator
same as Hartley except that a capacitive divider is used instead of a tapped coil
 C1a
C1a C1b determine the amplitude of feedback signal
1
fo where
2 LC L L1
and C1a C1b
C
C1a C1b

3. Clapp Oscillator
- same with Colpitts except the addition of a small Cs
placed in series with L1
- for large reactance
- in determining the frequency of the tank circuit
- advantage: choose C1a and C1b for optimum feedback
Cs setting the frequency of oscillation
Frequency Stability
- ability of an oscillator to remain at a fixed frequency

2 Kinds:
1. short-term affected by fluctuations in dc operating voltages
2. long term affected by component aging, temperature and humidity

measured in terms of percentage of change in frequency from the desired value

Ex. f 100kHz 5%
o
95kHz f 105 kHz
for commercial FM broadcast station frequency stability/tolerance is 2kHz
or 0.002% tolerance
for commercial AM broadcast station 20 Hz
Factors affecting frequency stability
1. changes in L, C and R due to temperature and humidity
2. changes in Q of transistors and FET
3. AC ripple in dc power supplies

To solve frequency instability, use crystal oscillators instead of LC tank

 Usually used for:
fo
vfrequency counters
velectronic navigation system
vradio transmitter and receiver
vTV
vVCRs
vComputer system clocks

Crystallography study of the form, structure, properties and classification of crystals

deals with lattice, bonding and behavior of slices of crystal material
Piezoelectric Effect occurs when oscillating mechanical stresses applied across a
crystal lattice structure generate electrical oscillation and vice versa

Stress: * when AC voltage at its natural to is

1. compression applied mechanical oscillation occurs
2. tension exciting a crystal into mechanical
3. torsion vibrations
4. shearing
 BAW Bulk Acoustic Waves
mechanical vibrations is directly proportional to the amplitude of the voltage applied
Examples of crystals and piezoelectric effects:
1. quartz
2. Rochelle salt mostly used in microphone
3. tourmaline
4. ADP, EDT and DKT

Synthetic quartz used for frequency control in oscillators because of its permanence,
low temperature coefficient and high mechanical Q.
Crystal Cuts
 3 sets of axes:
1. optical z axis
2. electrical x axis
3. mechanical y axis
different crystal cuts results to different frequency
65.5
h where h = crystal thickness (inches)
fn
fn = crystal natural resonant frequency (Hz)

thinner crystal wafer gives higher frequency oscillation

difficult to make crystal oscillators for f > 30 MHz
fragile crystals higher cost

Overtone Crystal Oscillator

harmonically related vibrations that occur simultaneously with the fundamental vibratio
are used (3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th harmonics)
increase frequency to 200 MHz

Temperature Coefficient
Temperature Coefficient

f k f n xC
where f = change in frequency (Hz)
k temp. coef. (Hz/MHz/oC)

fn natural crystal freq. (MHz)

C - change in temp. (oC)

and f o f n f
where

fo freq. of operation

k depends on the crystal cut type and its operating frequency

Example: For a 10 Mhz crystal with a temperature coefficient of
k 10 Hz / MHz / 0 C determine
the frequency of operation if the temperature
a. Increases by 10o C
Ans. f k f xC 10 10 10 1kHz
n
f o f n f 10 MHz 1kHz 10.001MHz
b. decreases by 5 o C
Ans. f k f n xC 10 10 5 500 Hz
f o f n f 10 MHz 500 Hz 9.9995MHz
E. Crystal Equivalent Circuit

C2 actual capacitance formed between the electrodes of the crystal (dielectric)

C1 equivalent to the mechanical compliance of the crystal
also called resilience or elasticity
L mass of the crystal in vibration
R mechanical friction loss

Series resonant frequency:

1
f1
2 LC1
Parallel resonant frequency:

1
f1 where C series combination of C1 & C2
2 LC
F. Crystal Oscillator Circuits
2 Kinds:
1. Pierce Oscillator
a. Discrete Pierce Oscillator has operating frequency which spans the full fundamental
(1 kHz 30 MHz)
- has few components
- high output signal power
b. IC Pierce Oscillator
- less frequency stability
- reduce costs, simple IC design
2. RLC Half Bridge Crystal Oscillator
- best frequency stability
 G. Crystal Oscillator Module
- composed of a crystal-controlled oscillator and a voltage variable
components such as a varactor diode

Varactor diode specially constructed diode whose internal capacitance is

enhanced when reversed biased, and by varying the reverse-bias
voltage, the capacitance of the diode can be adjusted.

Large-Scale Integration Oscillators (LSI Integration)

- IC oscillators have excellent frequency stability, wide tuning range and
easy to use
1. IC Waveform Generation

4 basic sections:
1. Oscillator generate basic periodic waveform
2. Waveshaper converts the output from the oscillator to either a sine, square,
triangle or ramp-shaped waveform
3. Optional AM modulator
4. Output buffer amplifier isolate the oscillator from the load and provide
drive current
A. Monolithic function generators produces sine, square, triangle, ramp
and pulse waveform
B. Monolithic voltage-controlled oscillators provides stable frequency
C. Monolithic precision oscillators excellent temperature stability and
wide linear sweep range
PHASE LOCKED LOOPS (PLL)
- closed loop feedback control system that considers the phase and
frequency instead of the amplitude of the signal

External input
signal (fi)
vd
Phase Low pass Amplifier
comparator filter

Feedback
Feedback loop vout
loop

VCO output signal Voltage-

(fo) controlled
oscillator

(fn)
free-running frequency frequency of VCO when PLL is not locked
Uses:
1.modulation / demodulation
2.signal processing
3.carrier and clock recovery
4.frequency generation
5.frequency synthesis

3 operating states of PLL:

1. free running VCO oscillates at its natural frequency
2. capture PLL is in the process of acquiring frequency lock
3. lock state VCO output frequency follows or tracks the changes in the frequency of
the external input

Loop Acquisition
Loop Acquisition
 Pull-in time time required to achieve lock
PLL Capture and Lock Ranges

Capture Range band of frequencies centered around the VCO natural

frequency where the PLL can establish frequency lock with an external
input signal from an unlocked condition
between 0.5 to 1.7 times the VCOs natural frequency
also called acquisition range

Pull-in range capture range expressed as a peak value

Capture range = 2 times the pull-in range

Lock range band of frequencies centered on the VCOs natural frequency over which
a PLL can maintain frequency lock with an external input signal
- also known as tracking range

hold-in range lock range expressed as a peak value

lock range = 2 times hold-in range
capture and lock range directly proportional to the dc gain of the PLLs
feedback loop
capture range < lock range
Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
- a free-running multivibrator with a stable frequency of oscillation that depend
on an external bias voltage
- output is frequency and its input is a bias or control ac or dc signal

f
Ko where Ko - input vs output transfer function (hz/volt)
V
V - change in the input control voltage (volts)
f - change in the output frequency (hz)
Phase Comparator
- also known as phase detector
Inputs:
1. external input frequency fi
2. VCO output signal f o
Output:

fi fo
- produces an output voltage that is proportional to the
difference in phase between input voltages