INDEX

Topics Page No
(i) Acknowledgement 3
(ii) Company Profile 4
1 Automation 7
1.1 Content 7
1.2 Advantages and disadvantage 7
1.3 Need for Automation 8
1.4 Automation Tools 8
2. Programmable Logic Controller 9
2.1 PLC Architecture 10
2.2 PLC Scan 11
2.3 Advantages & disadvantages of PLC 13
2.4 Ladder Diagram Programming 13
2.5 Counters 21
2.6 Timers 24
2.7 Comparison & Math instructions 28
2.8 Star/delta connections 36
2.9 DOL Stator 37
2.9.1 Introduction 38
2.9.2 Principle of DOL Stator 38
2.9.3 Working of DOL Stator 41
2.9.4 Advantages & disadvantages of DOL Stator 42
3. Drives 43
(i) Motors 43
3.1 Advantages & disadvantages of motors 43
3.2 Types of motors 44
3.3 AC Motor 48
3.3.1 Principle of operation 48
3.3.2 Disadvantages 49
3.4 DC Motor 51
3.4.1 Construction 52
3.4.2 Principle of DC motor 54
3.5 Basic drive operation 59
3.6Forward/Reverse motor stator 64
4. HMI 65
4.1 Advantages & disadvantages of HMI 65
4.2 Features & benefits 66
4.3 Applications 67
5. SCADA 80
5.1 Introduction 80
5.2 Common system components 80
5.3 SCADA Architecture 83
5.4 Programming in SCADA 85
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Apart from the efforts of me, the success of my project depends largely on the encouragement and guidelines
of many others. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the people who have been instrumental in
the successful completion of this Training.

It gives me great pleasure to place on record my sincere thanks to my Teachers for having generously
providing necessary guidance, encouragement, and moral support during the course of the training period.

Finally, I express my indebtedness to all who have directly or indirectly contributed to the successful
completion of my industrial training.

Kuldeep Singh

PLACE: Ludhiana Roll No. 1302968

COMPANY PROFILE
 Wonder System (India) Pvt.ltd.

Address : E- 192, Ph-8b

Industrial Area, S.A.S Nagar
Mohali 160555

Phone : 0172-4657597

Email Id : info@wonderplctrg.com

This report is on six months industrial training at wonder system (INDIA) Ltd. Automation is most reputed
training provider in automation products in industrial automation industry. Involvement of modern
technology in the process of industrial development and automation is becoming more and more permanent.
The Indian market is fast growing up with new production technologies. This also helps us to upgrade the
skills of industrial work through short term specialized courses based on the Plcs (programmable logic
controller) & AC &DC DRIVES, HMI &SCADA in the hi-tech area of industry. This also provides
diagnostics and development curriculum and also introduced for manufactured

Situated in Mohali industrial area, company has one of the largest facilities in:

In house fabrication using C.N.C and bending machines

7 tank metal treatment process

Fully automatic powder coating plant

In house software development of PLC, SCADA, HMI, A.C DRIVES, D.C DRIVES.

Fully equipments customer training center as well as on-site training facility

 TRAINING OFFERED IN

PLC : GE FANUC , DELTA ,UNITRONICS ,ABB ,SCHNEIDER ,ALLEN BRADLEY

,SIEMENS,MESSUNG ,MITSUBISHI

A.C DRIVE: PARKER, CROMPTON, SIEMENS, ALLEN BRADLEY, ABB, SAEL, SCHNEIDER, DELTA.

D.C DRIVES :PARKER ,SAEL ,ABB ,ANALOG SINGLE PHASE ,THREE PHASE

H.M.I: DELTA, SCHNEIDER, UNITRONICS, PARKER.

OBJECTIVE
 To train new generation of skilled work force for service, maintenance commission and programming,
operation new range of machine, equipment being introduced by industrial use, high technology
operation and control.

To upgrade the skill existing industrial workers through short term specialized course in the newly
emerging high tech area of industry

To provide diagnostic and development curriculum design and high live dialectic support for training
system as well as industrial consultancy facilities
 INTRODUCTION

OF

AUTOMATION

1. AUTOMATION
 Automation is the use of machines, control systems and information technologies to optimize
productivity in the production of goods and delivery of services. The correct incentive for applying
automation is to increase productivity, and/or quality beyond that possible with current human labor
levels so as to realize economies of scale, and/or realize predictable quality levels. In the scope of
industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization prov023+ides
human operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular requirements of work, automation
greatly decreases the need for human sensory and mental requirements while increasing load
capacity, speed, and repeatability. Automation plays an increasingly important role in the world
economy and in daily experience.

1.1 Contents
Advantages and disadvantages

Applications

Automation tools

Limitations

Need For Automation

1.2 Advantages and disadvantages

The main advantages of automation are:

Increased throughput or productivity.

Improved quality or increased predictability of quality.

Improved robustness (consistency), of processes or product

The main disadvantages of automation are:

High initial cost: The automation of a new product or plant typically requires a very large initial
investment in comparison with the unit cost of the product, although the cost of a

Automation may be spread among many products and over time.

Applications
o Automated retail

o Automated mining

o Automated video surveillance

o Automated highway systems

 o Automated waste management

o Automated manufacturing

o Home automation

o Industrial automation

1.3 NEED FOR AUTOMATION

Economic advantage through increased Productivity.

Reduced labor costs.
Savings in supervision
Reduction in operating cost.
Improved accuracies with consistency of quality parameters.
Safety concerns Automation of component handling for hazardous process.
Elimination of human errors.
Suitable for mass production with better material handling.

1.4 Automation tools

ANN - Artificial neural network

BPM - Bonita Open Solution

DCS - Distributed Control System

HMI - Human Machine Interface

SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

PLC - Programmable Logic Controller

PAC - Programmable automation controller

Limitations to automation
Current technology is unable to automate all the desired tasks
As a process becomes increasingly automated, there is less and less labor to be saved or quality
improvement to be gained. This is an example of both diminishing returns and the logistic function.
 Similar to the above, as more and more processes become automated, there are fewer remaining non-
automated processes. This is an example of exhaustion of opportunities

2. P ROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

A Programmable Logic Controller, PLC or Programmable Controller is a digital computer used for
automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines,
amusement rides, or light fixtures. The abbreviation "PLC" and the term "Programmable Logic Controller"
are registered trademarks of the Allen-Bradley Company (Rockwell Automation)[1]. PLCs are used in many
industries and machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and
output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration
and impact.

2.1 PLC ARCHITECHTURE

 Fig.1

Program:- In PLC ladder logic programming is used Vertical and horizontal form.

Function For Programming:- In this programming we use Timers, Counters, Flags ,PII,PIQ and program.

System Data:- System data is an processor .It include RAM, ROM, ALU, Memory sub module and Serial
port.

Serial Ports:- Rs-232, Rs-485, Rs-422, Rj-45.

2.2 PLC SCAN

1. Houskeeping or start: plc is the purpose of build m/c control computer design to read the digital
&analog input from various the sensors. Execute a user defined logic program &write resulting digital
&analog outputs values to various elements.eg: indication lamp, motors.

2. Input scan: The digital and analog values present at the output card is Saved to an input memory table.

3. Logic execution: The user program is a scanned element by element then rung by rung until end of the
program and resulting value written to memory table.

4. Output scan: value from the resulting output memory table are written to output module. Once the o/p
scan is complete the process repeats itself until the plc is power down. The timer takes to complete a scan
cycle is approximately enough the scan millisecond. In order plc but in new plcs the scan cycle time is only
a few milli sec

2.3 Advantages of PLC

1. Flexibility

2. Correcting errors

3. Higher no. of contacts

4. High speed.

5. Ladder and Boolean programming method

6. Multipul functions.

Disadvantages of PLC
1. New technologies.

2. Costly.

3. Due to vibration PLC does not work

Logic programming
Although it seems each model of PLC has its own idiosyncratic standard for programming, there
Does exist an international standard for controller programming that most PLC manufacturers at
least attempt to confirm to. This is the IEC 61131-3 standard, which will be the standard presented
in this chapter.
One should take solace in the fact that despite differences in the details of PLC programming from
one manufacturer to another and from one model to another, the basic principles are largely the same.
There exist much greater disparities between different general-purpose programming languages (e.g.
C/C++, BASIC, FORTRAN, Pascal, Java, Ada, etc.) Than between the programming languages
supported by different PLCs, and this fact does not prevent computer programmers from being
Multilingual. I have personally written and/or analyzed programs for over a half-dozen different
Manufacturers of PLCs (Allen-Bradley, Siemens, Square D, Koyo, Fanuc, Moore Products APACS
And QUADLOG, and Medicos), with multiple PLC models within most of those brands, and I
Can tell you the differences in programming conventions are insignificant. After learning how to
Program one model of PLC, it is quite easy to adapt to programming other makes and models of
PLC. If you are learning to program a particular PLC that does not exactly conform to the IEC
61131-3 standard, you will still be able to apply every single principle discussed in this chapter
The fundamental concepts are truly that universal.
The IEC 61131-3 standard specifies five distinct forms of programming language for industrial
Controllers:
Ladder Diagram (LD)
Structured Text (ST)
Instruction List (IL)
Function Block Diagram (FBD)
Sequential Function Chart (SFC)

Fig.2

Just as a pressure switchs contacts

are actuated by a high pressure
condition, and a level switchs
Contacts are actuated by a high level condition, and a temperature switchs contacts are actuated by
a high temperature condition, so a PLCs virtual contact is actuated by a high bit condition . In
the context of any switch, an actuated condition is the opposite of its normal (resting) condition. An
Actuated NO contact will close (be colored), while an actuated NC contact will open (be un-colored).

The following (simplified) illustration shows a small PLC with two of its discrete input channels
electrically energized, causing those two bits to have 1 statuses. The color-highlighted contacts in
the programming editor softwares display shows a collection of contacts addressed to those input
bits in various states (colored = closed ; un-colored = open). As you can see, any contact addressed
to a set bit (1) is in its actuated state, while any contact addressed to a cleared bit (0) is in its normal
state:

Fig.3

Remember that a colored contact is a closed contact. The contacts appearing as colored are
either normally-closed contacts with 0 bit states, or normally-open contacts with 1 bit states.
It is the combination of bit state and contact type (NO vs. NC) that determines whether a particular
contact will be open or closed at any given time. Correspondingly, it is a combination of colored
highlighting and contact type that indicates the real-world energization status of a particular PLC
input at any given time. In my teaching experience, the main problem I see students having with
this concept is over-simplification: they want to directly associate electrical energization with color
on the screen, and that is not necessarily .
Once again, the fundamental rule one should keep in mind when examining a Ladder Diagram
PLC program is that each virtual contact shown in the program actuates whenever it.
reads a 1 state in its respective bit. Secondly, a colored contact is closed, while an
Un-colored contact is open. Normally-open (NO) virtual contacts will only pass virtual power
(be colored) if their respective bits are set (1). Normally-closed (NC) virtual contacts naturally
pass virtual power while in their resting states, when their respective bits are cleared (0).

2.4 Ladder Diagram (LD) programming

In the United States, the most common language used to program PLCs is Ladder Diagram
(LD), also known as Relay Ladder Logic (RLL). This is a graphical language showing the logical
relationships between inputs and outputs as though they were contacts and coils in a hard-wired
electromechanical relay circuit. This language was invented for the express purpose of making PLC
programming feel natural to electricians familiar with relay-based logic and control circuits. While
Ladder Diagram programming has many shortcomings, it remains extremely popular and so will be
the primary focus of this chapter.

Every Ladder Diagram program is arranged to resemble an electrical diagram, making this a
graphical (rather than text-based) programming language. Ladder diagrams are to be thought of
as virtual circuits, where virtual power flows through virtual contacts (when closed) to energize
virtual relay coils to perform logical functions. None of the contacts or coils seen in a Ladder
Diagram PLC program are real; rather, they act on bits in the PLCs memory, the logical interrelationships
between those bits expressed in the form of a diagram resembling a circuit.
The following computer screenshot shows a typical Ladder Diagram program15 being edited on
a personal computer:

Fig.4

Contacts appear just as they would in an electrical relay logic diagram as short vertical line
segments separated by a horizontal space. Normally-open contacts are empty within the space
between the line segments, while normally-closed contacts have a diagonal line crossing through
that space. Coils are somewhat different, appearing as either circles or pairs of parentheses. Other
instructions appear as rectangular boxes.
Each horizontal line is referred to as a rung, just as each horizontal step on a stepladder is called
a rung. A common feature among Ladder Diagram program editors, as seen on this screenshot, is
For example, you can see coil T2 energized at the upper-right corner of the screen (filled with light
blue coloring), while coil T3 is not. Correspondingly, each normally-open T2 contact appears colored,
indicating its closed status, while each normally-closed T2 contact is uncolored. By contrast, each
normally-open T3 contact is uncolored (since coil T3 is unpowered) while each normally-closed T3
contact is shown colored to indicate its conductive status. Likewise, the current count values of
timers T2 and T3 are shown as 193 and 0, respectively. The output value of the math instruction
box happens to be 2400, also shown in red text.

,
Contacts and coils
The most elementary objects in Ladder Diagram programming are contacts and coils, intended
to mimic the contacts and coils of electromechanical relays. Contacts and coils are discrete
programming elements, dealing with Boolean (1 and 0; on and off; true and false) variable states.
Each contact in a Ladder Diagram PLC program represents the reading of a single bit in memory,
while each coil represents the writing of a single bit in memory.

Discrete input signals to the PLC from real-world switches are read by a Ladder Diagram program
by contacts referenced to those input channels. In legacy PLC systems, each discrete input channel
has a specific address which must be applied to the contact(s) within that program. In modern PLC
systems, each discrete input channel has a tag name created by the programmer which is applied to
the contact(s) within the program. Similarly, discrete output channels referenced by coil symbols
in the Ladder Diagram must also bear some form of address or tag name label.

Our systems wiring is shown in the following diagram:

Each flame sensor outputs a DC voltage signal indicating the detection of flame at the burner,
either on (24 volts DC) or off (0 volts DC). These three discrete DC voltage signals are sensed by
the first three channels of the PLCs discrete input card. The indicator lamp is a 120 volt light bulb,
and so must be powered by an AC discrete output card, shown here in the PLCs last slot.
To make the ladder program more readable, we will assign tag names (symbolic addresses) to each
input and output bit in the PLC, describing its real-world device in an easily-interpreted format16.
We will tag the first three discrete input channels as IN sensor A, IN sensor B, and IN sensor C,
and the output as OUT burner lit.

A ladder program to determine if at least two out of the three sensors detect flame is shown here,
with the tag names referencing each contact and coil:
Series-connected contacts in a Ladder Diagram perform the logical AND function, while parallel
contacts perform the logical OR function. Thus, this two-out-of-three flame-sensing program could
be verbally described as:
Burner is lit if either A and B, or either B and C, or A and C
An alternate way to express this is to use the notation of Boolean algebra, where multiplication
represents the AND function and addition represents the OR function:
Burner lit = AB + BC + AC

Those two energized input channels set bits (1 status) in the PLCs memory representing
the status of flame sensors B and C. Flame sensor As bit will be clear (0 status) because its
corresponding input channel is de-energized. The fact that the output channel LED is energized (and
the Burner lit indicator lamp is energized) tells us the PLC program has set that corresponding
bit in the PLCs output memory register to a 1 state.

A display of input and output register bits shows the set and reset states for the PLC at
this moment in time:
Examining the Ladder Diagram program with status indication enabled, we would see how just
one of the series-connected contact pairs are passing virtual power to the output coil.

The two contacts corresponding to sensor B and the two contacts corresponding to sensor C all appear
highlighted (representing conductivity in the virtual circuit) because their bits are both set (1).
Recall also that the purpose of a coil in a PLC program is to write the status of a bit in the
PLCs memory. Here, the energized coil sets the bit for the PLC output 0 to a 1 state, thus
activating the real-world output and sending electrical power to the Burner lit lamp.
Note that the color highlighting does not indicate a virtual contact is conducting virtual power,
but merely that it is able to conduct power. Color highlighting around a virtual coil, however, does
indicate the presence of virtual power at that coil.

Contacts and relays are not just useful for implementing simple logic functions, but they may also
perform latching functions as well. A very common application of this in industrial PLC systems
is a latching start/stop program for controlling electric motors by means of momentary-contact
pushbutton switches. As before, this functionality will be illustrated by means of an hypothetical
example circuit and program:
In this system, two pushbutton switches are connected to discrete inputs on a PLC, and the
PLC in turn energizes the coil of a motor contactor relay by means of one of its discrete outputs.
Note the use of normally-open (NO) pushbutton switch contacts (again!), with no auxiliary
contact providing status indication of the contactor to the PLC. This is a very minimal program,
shown for the strict purpose of illustrating the use of set and reset latching coils in Ladder
Diagram PLC programming.

Set and Reset coils are examples of what is known in the world of PLC programming as
retentive instructions. A retentive instruction retains its value after being virtually de-energized
in the Ladder Diagram circuit. A standard output coil is non-retentive, which means it does not
latch when de-energized. The concept of retentive and non-retentive instructions will appear again
as we explore PLC programming, especially in the area of timers.

Ordinarily, we try to avoid multiple coils bearing the same label in a PLC Ladder Diagram
program. With each coil representing a write instruction, multiple coils bearing the same name
represents multiple write operations to the same bit in the PLCs memory. Here, with latching
coils, there is no conflict because each of the coils only writes to the OUT contactor bit when its
respective contact is energized. So long as only one of the pushbutton switches is actuated at a time,
there is no conflict between the identically-named coils.

This begs the question: what would happen if both pushbutton switches were simultaneously
pressed? What would happen if both Set and Reset coils were energized at the same time?
The result is that the OUT contactor bit would first be set (written to a value of 1) then reset
(written to a value of 0) in that order as the two rungs of the program were scanned from top
to bottom. PLCs typically do not typically update their discrete I/O registers while scanning the
Ladder Diagram program (this operation takes place either before or after each program scan), so
the real discrete output channel status will be whatever the last write operation told it to be, in this
case reset (0, or off).

Even if the discrete output is not confused due to the conflicting write operations of the Set
and Reset coils, other rungs of the program written between the Set and Reset rungs might
be. Consider for example a case where there were other program rungs following the Set and
Reset rungs reading the status of the OUT contactor bit for some purpose. Those other rungs
would indeed become confused because they would see the OUT contactor bit in the set state
while the actual discrete output of the PLC (and any rungs following the Reset rung) would see
the OUT contactor bit in the reset state:

Multiple (non-retentive) output coils with the same memory address are almost always a
programming faux pax for this reason, but even retentive coils which are designed to be used in
matched pairs can cause trouble if the implications of simultaneous energization are not anticipated.
Multiple contacts with identical addresses are no problem whatsoever, because multiple read
operations to the same bit in memory will never cause a conflict.

The IEC 61131-3 PLC programming standard specifies transition-sensing contacts as well as the
more customary static contacts. A transition-sensing contact will actuate only for a duration
of one program scan, even if its corresponding bit remains active. Two types of transition-sensing
Ladder Diagram contacts are defined in the IEC standard: one for positive transitions and another
for negative transitions. The following example shows a wiring diagram, Ladder Diagram program,
and a timing diagram demonstrating how each type of transition-sensing contact functions when
stimulated by a real (electrical) input signal to a discrete channel:

When the pushbutton switch is pressed and the discrete input energized, the first test lamp will
blink on for exactly one scan of the PLCs program, then return to its off state. The positive transition
contact (with the letter P inside) activates the coil OUT test1 only during the scan it
sees the status of IN test transition from false to true, even though the input remains energized
for many scans after that transition. Conversely, when the pushbutton switch is released and the
discrete input de-energizes, the second test lamp will blink on for exactly one scan of the PLCs
program then return to its off state. The negative-transition contact (with the letter N inside)
activates the coil OUT test2 only during the scan it sees the status of IN test transition from true
to false, even though the input remains de-energized for many scans after that transition:
It should be noted that the duration of a single PLC program scan is typically very short:
measured in milliseconds. If this program were actually tested in a real PLC, you would probably
not be able to see either test lamp light up, since each pulse is so short-lived. Transitional contacts are
typically used any time it is desired to execute an instruction just one time following a triggering
event, as opposed to executing that instruction over and over again so long as the event status is
maintained true.

Contacts and coils represent only the most basic of instructions in the Ladder Diagram PLC
programming language. Many other instructions exist, which will be discussed in the following
subsections.
2.5 Counters
A counter is a PLC instruction that either increments (counts up) or decrements (counts down)
an integer number value when prompted by the transition of a bit from 0 to 1 (false to true).
Counter instructions come in three basic types: up counters, down counters, and up/down counters.
Both up and down counter instructions have single inputs for triggering counts, whereas
up/down counters have two trigger inputs: one to make the counter increment and one to make the
counter decrement.
To illustrate the use of a counter instruction, we will analyze a PLC-base system designed to count objects
as they pass down a conveyor belt.

In this system, a continuous (unbroken) light beam causes the light sensor to close its output
contact, energizing discrete channel IN4. When an object on the conveyor belt interrupts the
light beam from source to sensor, the sensors contact opens, interrupting power to input IN4. A
pushbutton switch connected to activate discrete input IN5 when pressed will serve as a manual
reset of the count value. An indicator lamp connected to one of the discrete output channels will
serve as an indicator of when the object count value has exceeded some pre-set limit.
We will now analyze a simple Ladder Diagram program designed to increment a counter
instruction each time the light beam breaks.

This particular counter instruction (CTU) is an incrementing counter, which means it counts
up with each off-to-on transition input to its CU input. The normally-closed virtual contact
(IN sensor object) is typically held in the open state when the light beam is continuous, by virtue
of the fact the sensor holds that discrete input channel energized while the beam is continuous. When
the beam is broken by a passing object on the conveyor belt, the input channel de-energizes, causing
the virtual contact IN sensor object to close and send virtual power to the CU input of the
counter instruction. This increments the counter just as the leading edge of the object breaks the
beam. The second input of the counter instruction box (R) is the reset input, receiving virtual
power from the contact IN switch reset whenever the reset pushbutton is pressed. If this input is
activated, the counter immediately resets its current value (CV) to zero.

Status indication is shown in this Ladder Diagram program, with the counters preset value
(PV) of 25 and the counters current value (CV) of 0 shown highlighted in blue. The preset value is
something programmed into the counter instruction before the system put into service, and it serves
as a threshold for activating the counters output (Q), which in this case turns on the count indicator
lamp (the OUT counts reached coil). According to the IEC 61131-3 programming standard, this
counter output should activate whenever the current value is equal to or greater than the preset
value (Q is active if CV PV).

If all we did not care about maintaining an accurate total count of objects past 25 but merely
wished the program to indicate when 25 objects had passed by we could also use a down counter
instruction preset to a value of 25, which turns on an output coil when the count reaches zero.

Here, a load input causes the counters current value to equal the preset value (25) when
activated. With each sensor pulse received, the counter instruction decrements. When it reaches
zero, the Q output activates.
One solution to this problem is to use an up/down counter, capable of both incrementing
(counting up) and decrementing (counting down), and equip this counter with two light-beam sensors
capable of determining direction of travel. If two light beams are oriented parallel to each other,
closer than the width of the narrowest object passing along the conveyor belt, we will have enough
information to determine direction of object travel:

This is called quadrature signal timing, because the two pulse waveforms are approximately 90o
(one-quarter of a period) apart in phase. We can use these two phase-shifted signals to increment or
decrement an up/down counter instruction, depending on which pulse leads and which pulse lags.

A Ladder Diagram PLC program designed to interpret the quadrature pulse signals is shown
here, making use of negative-transition contacts as well as standard contacts.

The counter will increment (count up) when sensor B de-energizes only if sensor A is already in
the de-energized state (i.e. light beam A breaks before B). The counter will decrement (count down)
when sensor A de-energizes only if sensor B is already in the de-energized state (i.e. light beam B
breaks before A).

Note that the up/down counter has both a reset (R) input and a load input (LD) to force
the current value. Activating the reset input forces the counters current value (CV) to zero, just
as we saw with the up counter instruction. Activating the load input forces the counters current
value to the pre-set value (PV), just as we saw with the down counter instruction. In the case of
an up/down counter, there are two Q outputs: a QU (output up) to indicate when the current value
is equal to or greater than the pre-set value, and a QD (output down) to indicate when the current
value is equal to or less than zero.
Note how the current value (CV) of each counter shown is associated with a tag name of its own,
in this case parts counted. The integer number of a counters current value (CV) is a variable in
the PLCs memory just like boolean values such as IN sensor A and IN switch reset, and may be
associated with a tag name or symbolic address just the same22. This allows other instructions in a
PLC program to read (and sometimes write!) values from and to that memory location.

2.6 Timers
A timer is a PLC instruction measuring the amount of time elapsed following an event. Timer
instructions come in two basic types: on-delay timers and off-delay timers. Both on-delay and
off-delay timer instructions have single inputs triggering the timed function.
An on-delay timer activates an output only when the input has been active for a minimum
amount of time. Take for instance this PLC program, designed to sound an audio alarm siren prior
to starting a conveyor belt. To start the conveyor belt motor, the operator must press and hold
the Start pushbutton for 10 seconds, during which time the siren sounds, warning people to clear
away from the conveyor belt that is about to start. Only after this 10-second start delay does the
motor actually start (and latch on):

Similar to an up counter, the on-delay timers elapsed time (ET) value increments once per
second until the preset time (PT) is reached, at which time its output (Q) activates. In this program,
the preset time value is 10 seconds, which means the Q output will not activate until the Start
switch has been depressed for 10 seconds. The alarm siren output, which is not activated by the
timer, energizes immediately when the Start pushbutton is pressed.

An important detail regarding this particular timers operation is that it be non-retentive. This
means the timer instruction should not retain its elapsed time value when the input is de-activated.
Instead, the elapsed time value should reset back to zero every time the input de-activates. This
ensures the timer resets itself when the operator releases the Start pushbutton. A retentive on delay
timer, by contrast, maintains its elapsed time value even when the input is de-activated. This
makes it useful for keeping running total times for some event.

Most PLCs provide retentive and non-retentive versions of on-delay timer instructions, such
that the programmer may choose the proper form of on-delay timer for any particular application.
The IEC 61131-3 programming standard, however, addresses the issue of retentive versus non retentive
timers a bit differently. According to the IEC 61131-3 standard, a timer instruction maybe specified with an
additional enable input (EN) that causes the timer instruction to behave non retentively when activated, and
retentively when de-activated. The general concept of the enable (EN) input is that the instruction behaves
normally so long as the enable input is active (in this case, non-retentive timing action is considered
normal according to the IEC 61131-3 standard),but the instruction freezes all execution whenever the
enable input de-activates. This freezing of operation has the effect of retaining the current time (CT) value
even if the input signal de-activates.

For example, if we wished to add a retentive timer to our conveyor control system to record total
run time for the conveyor motor, we could do so using an enabled IEC 61131-3 timer instruction
like this:

When the motors contactor bit (OUT contactor) is active, the timer is enabled and allowed to
time. However, when that bit de-activates (becomes false), the timer instruction as a whole is
disabled, causing it to freeze and retain its current time (CT) value23. This allows the motor to
be started and stopped, with the timer maintaining a tally of total motor run time.
If we wished to give the operator the ability to manually reset the total run time value to zero,
we could hard-wire an additional switch to the PLCs discrete input card and add reset contacts
to the program like this.

Whenever the Reset switch is pressed, the timer is enabled (EN) but the timing input (IN) is
Disabled, forcing the timer to (non-retentively) reset its current time (CT) value to zero.
The other major type of PLC timer instruction is the off-delay timer. This timer instruction
differs from the on-delay type in that the timing function begins as soon as the instruction is deactivated,
not when it is activated. An application for an off-delay timer is a cooling fan motor
control for a large industrial engine. In this system, the PLC starts an electric cooling fan as soon as
the engine is detected as rotating, and keeps that fan running for two minutes following the engines
shut-down to dissipate residual heat:

When the input (IN) to this timer instruction is activated, the output (Q) immediately activates
(with no time delay at all) to turn on the cooling fan motor contactor. This provides the engine
with cooling as soon as it begins to rotate (as detected by the speed switch connected to the PLCs
discrete input). When the engine stops rotating, the speed switch returns to its normally-open
position, de-activating the timers input signal which starts the timing sequence. The Q output
remains active while the timer counts from 0 seconds to 120 seconds. As soon as it reaches 120
seconds, the output de-activates (shutting off the cooling fan motor) and the elapsed time value
remains at 120 seconds until the input re-activates, at which time it resets back to zero.

The following timing diagrams compare and contrast on-delay with off-delay timers:

While it is common to find on-delay PLC instructions offered in both retentive and non-retentive
forms within the instruction sets of nearly every PLC manufacturer and model, it is almost unheard
of to find retentive off-delay timer instructions. Typically, off-delay timers are non-retentive only.
2.7 COMPARISON INSTRUCTION AND MATH
INSTRUCTIONS IN PLC PROGRAMMING
COMPARISON INSTRUCTION

A comparison instruction compares values of data. Depending on the data to be compared it returns true or
false logic. They are controlling instructions and can be used any-where in a ladder logic program, except
at the right-most position of a rung. Some of the comparison instructions are as follows:

Equal (EQU)

Not Equal (NEQ)

Less Than (LES)

Less Than or Equal (LEQ)

Greater Than (GRT)

Greater Than or Equal (GEQ)

Comparison (CMP)

Limit (LIM)

The Q output for each instruction box activates whenever the evaluated comparison function
is true and the enable input (EN) is active. If the enable input remains active but the comparison
function is false, the Q output de-activates. If the enable input de-de-activates, the Q output retains
its last state.

A practical application for a comparative function is something called alternating motor control,
where the run-times of two redundant electric motors are monitored, with the PLC determining
which motor to turn on next based on which motor has run the least.
EQU [Equal]
This input instruction is true when Source A = Source B.
The EQU instruction compares two user specified values. If the values are equal, it allows rung
continuity. The rung goes true and the output is energized

You must enter a word address for Source A. You can enter a program constant or a word address for
Source B.

NEQ [Not Equal]

Use the NEQ instruction to test whether two values are not equal.
If Source A and Source B are not equal, the instruction is logically true. If the two values are equal,
the instruction is logically false.

Source A must be a word address.

Source B can be a word address or program constant

LES [Less Than]

This conditional input instruction tests whether one value (Source A) is less than another (Source B).
If the value at Source A is less than the value at Source B, the instruction is logically true.

If the value at Source A is greater than or equal to the value at Source B, the instruction is logically
false.
Enter a word address for Source A. Enter a constant or a word address for Source B.

LEQ [Less Than or Equal]

This conditional input instruction tests whether one value (source A) is less than or equal to another
(source B).
If the value at source A is less than or equal to the value at source B, the instruction is logically true.
 If the value at source A is greater than the value at source B, the instruction is logically false.

GRT [Greater Than]

This input instruction compares two user specified values.
If the value stored in Source A is greater than the value stored in Source B, it allows rung continuity.
The rung will go "true" and the output will be energized (provided no other instructions affect the
rung's status).

If the value at Source A is less than or equal to the value at Source B, the instruction is logically
false.

GEQ [Greater Than or Equal To]

If the value stored in Source A is greater than or equal to the value stored in Source B, it allows rung
continuity. The rung will go true and the output will be energized (provided no other instructions
affect the rung's status).

If the value at Source A is less than the value at Source B, the instruction is logically false.

LIM [Limit Test]

Use the LIM instruction to test for values within or outside a specified range, depending on how you
set the limits.

The instruction is true when the Test value is between the limits or is equal to either limit.
If the Test value is outside the limits, the instruction is false.
MATH INSTRUCTIONS
Mathematical functions are controlled instructions which retrieve one or more values, perform an operation
and store the result in memory. In a ladder logic program, when its rung is true, the mathematical operation
is performed. Commonly used math instructions include:

ADD (value,value,destination) - add two values

SUB (value,value,destination) - subtract
MUL (value,value,destination) - multiply
DIV (value,value,destination) divide The IEC 61131-3 standard specifies several dedicated ladder
instructions for performing arithmetic
calculations. Some of them are shown here.
As with the data comparison instructions, each of these math instructions must be enabled by
an energized signal to the enable (EN) input. Input and output values are linked to each math
instruction by tag name.

An example showing the use of such instructions is shown here, converting a temperature
measurement in units of degrees Fahrenheit to units of degrees Celsius. In this particular case, the
program inputs a temperature measurement of 138 oF and calculates the equivalent temperature of
58.89 C
Note how two separate math instructions were required to perform this simple calculation, as
well as a dedicated variable (X) used to store the intermediate calculation between the subtraction
and the division boxes.
Although not specified in the IEC 61131-3 standard, many programmable logic controllers
support Ladder Diagram math instructions allowing the direct entry of arbitrary equations. Rockwell
(Allen-Bradley) Logix5000 programming, for example, has the Compute (CPT) function, which
allows any typed expression to be computed in a single instruction as opposed to using several
dedicated math instructions such as Add, Subtract, etc. General-purpose math instructions
dramatically shorten the length of a ladder program compared to the use of dedicated math
instructions for any applications requiring non-trivial calculations.

For example, the same Fahrenheit-to-Celsius temperature conversion program implemented in

Logix5000 programming only requires a single math instruction and no declarations of intermediate
variables:

BASIC LOGIC INSTRUCTIONS

AND INSTRUCTION
OR INSTRUCTION
NAND INSTRUCTION
NOT INSTRUCTION
X-OR INSTRUCTION
X-NOR INSTRUCTION

NOT function
The simplest of all logic functions is the NOT gate.

It's sole function in life is to invert of flip the logic state. So an input of 1 will come out as a 0 and visa
versa. Shown below is a truth table (it doesn't lie) showing all possible inputs and the resulting logical
output.

The AND function

The AND gate is associated with the following symbol that can have any number of inputs but only one
output.

The truth table below shows that the output is only turned on when all the inputs are true (1). An easy way
to remember this is AND works like multiplication.
Basic instructions

Positive Logic (most PLCs follow this convention)

True = logic 1 = input energized.

False = logic 0 = input NOT energized.

Negative Logic

True = logic 0 = input NOT energized

False = logic 1 = input energized.

Normally Open

This instruction is true (logic 1) when the hardware input (or internal relay equivalent) is energized.

Normally Closed

This instruction is true (logic 1) when the hardware input (or internal relay equivalent) is NOT
energized.

Output Enable

(OTE) - OuTput Enable.

This instruction mimics the action of a conventional relay coil.

On Timer

(TON) - Timer ON.

Generally, ON timers begin timing when the input (enable) line goes true, and reset if the enable line
goes false before setpoint has been reached. If enabled until setpoint is reached then the timer output
goes true, and stays true until the input (enable) line goes false.

Off Timer

(TOF) - Timer OFF.

Generally, OFF timers begin timing on a true-to-false transition, and continue timing as long as the
preceding logic remains false. When the accumulated time equals setpoint the TOF output goes on,
and stays on until the rung goes true.
 (JSR) - Jump to Sub Routine For jumping from one rung to another the JSR (Jump to Subroutine)
command is used.

2.8 STAR / DELTA CONNECTIONS

Star/Delta starters are probably the most common reduced voltage starters in the 50Hz world. (Known as
Wye/Delta starters in the 60Hz world). They are used in an attempt to reduce the start current applied to the
motor during start as a means of reducing the disturbances and interference on the electrical supply.
Component: The Star/Delta starter is manufactured from three contactors, a timer and a thermal overload.
The contactors are smaller than the single contactor used in a Direct on Line starter as they are controlling
winding currents only. The currents through the winding are 13 = 0.58 (58%) of the current in the line. this
connection amounts to approximately 30% of the delta values. The starting current is reduced to one third of
the direct starting current.
How it works?
There are two contactors that are close during run, often referred to as the main contactor and the delta
contactor. These are AC3 rated at 58% of the current rating of the motor. The third contactor is the star
contactor and that only carries star current while the motor is connected in star. The current in star is one
third of the current in delta, so this contactor can be AC3 rated at one third of the motor rating.
In operation, the Main Contactor (KM3) and the Star Contactor (KM1) are closed initially, and then after a
period of time, the star contactor is opened, and then the delta contactor (KM2) is closed. The control of the
contactors is by the timer (K1T) built into the starter. The Star and Delta are electrically interlocked and
preferably mechanically interlocked as well. In effect, there are four states:

1. OFF State. All Contactors are open

2. Star State. The Main and the Star contactors are closed and the delta contactor is open. The motor is
connected in star and will produce one third of DOL torque at one third of DOL current.

3. Open State. The Main contactor is closed and the Delta and Star contactors are open. There is voltage
on one end of the motor windings, but the other end is open so no current can flow. The motor has a
spinning rotor and behaves like a generator.

4. Delta State. The Main and the Delta contactors are closed. The Star contactor is open. The motor is
connected to full line voltage and full power and torque are available.

5. This type of operation is called open transition switching because there is an open state between the
star state and the delta state.
2.9 DOL STATOR (Direct Online Stator)
A Dual starter connects the motor terminals directly to the power supply. Hence, the motor is subjected to
the full voltage of the power supply. Consequently, high starting current flows through the motor. This type
of starting is suitable for small motors below 5 hp (3.75 kW).

Reduced-voltage starters are employed with motors above 5 hp. Although Dual motor starters are available
for motors less than 150kW on 400 V and for motors less than 1 MW on 6.6 kV.
Supply reliability and reserve power generation dictates the use of reduced voltage or not to reduce the
starting current of an induction motor the voltage across the motor need to be reduced. This can be done by
1. Autotransformer starter, 2. Star-delta starter or 3. Resistor starter. Now-a-days VVVF drive used
extensively for speed control serves this purpose also.

In dual starter the motor is directly fed from the line and in star delta starter then motor is started initially
from star and later during running from delta. This is a starting method that reduces the starting current and
starting torque. The Motor must be delta connected during a normal run, in order to be able to use this
starting method.
The received starting current is about 30 % of the starting current during direct on line start and the starting
torque is reduced to about 25 % of the torque available at a D.O.L start.
 2.9.1

Introduction:
Different starting methods are employed for starting induction motors because Induction Motor
draws more starting current during starting. To prevent damage to the windings due to the high starting
current flow, we employ different types of starters.
The simplest form of motor starter for the induction motor is the Direct On Line starter. The DOL
starter consist a MCCB or Circuit Breaker, Contactor and an overload relay for protection.
Electromagnetic contactor which can be opened by the thermal overload relay under fault conditions.
Typically, the contactor will be controlled by separate start and stop buttons, and an auxiliary contact
on the contactor is used, across the start button, as a hold in contact. I.e. the contactor is electrically
latched closed while the motor is operating.
2.9.2. Principle of DOL:
To start, the contactor is closed, applying full line voltage to the motor windings. The motor will
draw a very high inrush current for a very short time, the magnetic field in the iron, and then the current
will be limited to the Locked Rotor Current of the motor. The motor will develop Locked Rotor Torque
and begin to accelerate towards full speed.
As the motor accelerates, the current will begin to drop, but will not drop significantly until the
motor is at a high speed, typically about 85% of synchronous speed. The actual starting current curve is a
function of the motor design, and the terminal voltage, and is totally independent of the motor load.
The motor load will affect the time taken for the motor to accelerate to full speed and therefore the
duration of the high starting current, but not the magnitude of the starting current.
Provided the torque developed by the motor exceeds the load torque at all speeds during the start
cycle, the motor will reach full speed. If the torque delivered by the motor is less than the torque of the
load at any speed during the start cycle, the motor will stops accelerating. If the starting torque with a
DOL starter is insufficient for the load, the motor must be replaced with a motor which can develop a
higher starting torque.
 The acceleration torque is the torque developed by the motor minus the load torque, and will change
as the motor accelerates due to the motor speed torque curve and the load speed torque curve. The start
time is dependent on the acceleration torque and the load inertia.
DOL starting have a maximum start current and maximum start torque. This may cause an
electrical problem with the supply, or it may cause a mechanical problem with the driven load. So this
will be inconvenient for the users of the supply line, always experience a voltage drop when starting a
motor. But if this motor is not a high power one it does not affect much.
Parts of DOL Starters:
(1) Contactors & Coil.
Magnetic contactors are electromagnetically operated switches that provide a safe and convenient
means for connecting and interrupting branch circuits.
Magnetic motor controllers use electromagnetic energy for closing switches. The electromagnet
consists of a coil of wire placed on an iron core. When a current flow through the coil, the iron of the
magnet becomes magnetized, attracting an iron bar called the armature. An interruption of the current
flow through the coil of wire causes the armature to drop out due to the presence of an air gap in the
magnetic circuit.

Line-voltage magnetic motor starters are electromechanical devices that provide a safe, convenient,
and economical means of starting and stopping motors, and have the advantage of being controlled
remotely. The great bulk of motor controllers sold are of this type.
Contactors are mainly used to control machinery which uses electric motors. It consists of a coil
which connects to a voltage source. Very often for Single phase Motors, 230V coils are used and for three
phase motors, 415V coils are used. The contactor has three main NO contacts and lesser power rated
contacts named as Auxiliary Contacts [NO and NC] used for the control circuit. A contact is conducting
metal parts which completes or interrupt an electrical circuit.
NO-normally open
NC-normally closed
(2) Over Load Relay (Overload protection).
Overload protection for an electric motor is necessary to prevent burnout and to ensure maximum
operating life.
Under any condition of overload, a motor draws excessive current that causes overheating. Since
motor winding insulation deteriorates due to overheating, there are established limits on motor operating
temperatures to protect a motor from overheating. Overload relays are employed on a motor control to
limit the amount of current drawn.
 The overload relay does not provide short circuit protection. This is the function of over
current protective equipment like fuses and circuit breakers, generally located in the disconnecting
switch enclosure.
The ideal and easiest way for overload protection for a motor is an element with current-sensing
properties very similar to the heating curve of the motor which would act to open the motor circuit when
full-load current is exceeded. The operation of the protective device should be such that the motor is
allowed to carry harmless over-loads but is quickly removed from the line when an overload has persisted
too long.
Normally fuses are not designed to provide overload protection. Fuse is protecting against short
circuits (over current protection). Motors draw a high inrush current when starting and conventional fuses
have no way of distinguishing between this temporary and harmless inrush current and a damaging
overload. Selection of Fuse is depend on motor full-load current, would blow every time the motor is
started. On the other hand, if a fuse were chosen large enough to pass the starting or inrush current, it
would not protect the motor against small, harmful overloads that might occur later.
The overload relay is the heart of motor protection. It has inverse-trip-time characteristics, permitting
it to hold in during the accelerating period (when inrush current is drawn), yet providing protection on
small overloads above the full-load current when the motor is running. Overload relays are renewable and
can withstand repeated trip and reset cycles without need of replacement. Overload relays cannot,
however, take the place of over current protection equipment.

The overload relay consists of a current-sensing unit connected in the line to the motor, plus a
mechanism, actuated by the sensing unit, which serves, directly or indirectly, to break the circuit.
Overload relays can be classified as being thermal, magnetic, or electronic.
1. Thermal Relay: As the name implies, thermal overload relays rely on the rising temperatures caused
by the overload current to trip the overload mechanism. Thermal overload relays can be further
subdivided into two types: melting alloy and bimetallic.
2. Magnetic Relay: Magnetic overload relays react only to current excesses and are not affected by
temperature.
3. Electronic Relay: Electronic or solid-state overload relays, provide the combination of high-speed
trip, adjustability, and ease of installation. They can be ideal in many precise applications.

Wiring of DOL Starter:

(1) Main Contact:
Contactor is connecting among Supply Voltage, Relay Coil and Thermal Overload Relay.
L1 of Contactor Connect (NO) to R Phase through MCCB
L2 of Contactor Connect (NO) to Y Phase through MCCB
L3 of Contactor Connect (NO) to B Phase through MCCB.
NO Contact (-||-):
(13-14 or 53-54) is a normally Open NO contact (closes when the relay energizes)
 Contactor Point 53 is connecting to Start Button Point (94) and 54 Point of Contactor is connected to
Common wire of Start/Stop Button.
NC Contact (-|/|-):
(95-96) is a normally closed NC contact (opens when the thermal overloads trip if associated with the
overload block)
(2) Relay Coil Connection:
A1 of Relay Coil is connecting to any one Supply Phase and A2 is connecting to Thermal over Load
Relays NC Connection (95).
(3) Thermal Overload Relay Connection:
T1,T2,T3 are connect to Thermal Overload Relay
Overload Relay is Connecting between Main Contactor and Motor
NC Connection (95-96) of Thermal Overload Relay is connecting to Stop Button and Common
Connection of Start/Stop Button.

2.9.3 Working of DOL Starter:

The main heart of DOL starter is Relay Coil. Normally it gets one phase constant from incoming
supply Voltage (A1).when Coil gets second Phase relay coil energizes and Magnet of Contactor produce
electromagnetic field and due to this Plunger of Contactor will move and Main Contactor of starter will
closed and Auxiliary will change its position NO become NC and NC become (shown Red Line in
Diagram) .
Pushing Start Button:
When We Push the start Button Relay Coil will get second phase from Supply Phase-Main
contactor(5)-Auxiliary Contact(53)-Start button-Stop button-96-95-To Relay Coil (A2).Now Coil
energizes and Magnetic field produce by Magnet and Plunger of Contactor move. Main Contactor closes
and Motor gets supply at the same time Auxiliary contact become (53-54) from NO to NC .
Release Start Button:
Relay coil gets supply even though we release Start button. When We release Start Push Button
Relay Coil gets Supply phase from Main contactor (5)-Auxiliary contactor (53) Auxiliary contactor
(54)-Stop Button-96-95-Relay coil (shown Red / Blue Lines in Diagram).
In Overload Condition of Motor will be stopped by intermission of Control circuit at Point 96-95.
Pushing Stop Button:
When we push Stop Button Control circuit of Starter will be break at stop button and Supply of
Relay coil is broken, Plunger moves and close contact of Main Contactor becomes Open, Supply of
Motor is disconnected.

2.9.4 Advantages of DOL Starter:

1. Most Economical and Cheapest Starter
2. Simple to establish, operate and maintain
3. Simple Control Circuitry
4. Easy to understand and troubleshoot.
5. It provides 100% torque at the time of starting.
6. Only one set of cable is required from starter to motor.
7. Motor is connected in delta at motor terminals.

Disadvantages of DOL Starter:

1. High Starting Current: Very High Starting Current (Typically 6 to 8 times the FLC of the
motor).
2. Mechanically Harsh: Thermal Stress on the motor, thereby reducing its life.
3. Voltage Dip: There is a big voltage dip in the electrical installation because of high in-rush current
affecting other customers connected to the same lines and therefore not suitable for higher size squirrel
cage motors
4. High starting Torque: Unnecessary high starting torque, even when not required by the load,
thereby increased mechanical stress on the mechanical systems such as rotor shaft, bearings, gearbox,
coupling, chain drive, connected equipments, etc. leading to premature failure and plant downtimes.

3.DRIVES
MOTOR:- An electric motor is an electric machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy.

Electric motors very typically operate through the interaction between an electric motor's magnetic field and
winding currents to generate force within the motor. Many electric motors can also perform the reverse and
act as generators, to produce electrical energy from mechanical energy, as is done by electrical generators
such as an alternator or a dynamo. For example, a traction motor on a vehicle may perform both tasks.

Found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances,
power tools, and disk drives, electric motors can be powered by direct current sources, such as from
batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by alternating current sources, such as from the power grid,
inverters or generators. Small motors may be found in electric wristwatches. General-purpose motors with
highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use.
The largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage
applications with ratings approaching a megawatt. Electric motors may be classified by electric power
source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, and so on.

Devices such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers that convert electricity into motion but do not generate
usable mechanical power are respectively referred to as actuators and transducers. Electric motors are used
to produce rotary or linear torque or force.

The Motor Principle: when a current-carrying conductor is located in an external magnetic field
perpendicular to the conductor, the conductor experiences a force perpendicular to itself and to the external
magnetic field.

The right-hand rule for force on a conductor can be used to determine the direction of the force
experienced on the conductor: if the right thumb points in the direction of the current in the conductor and
the fingers of the right hand point in the direction of the external magnetic field, then the force on the
conductor is directed outward from the palm of the right hand.

The motor principle is used to form a precise definition of ampere. 1 ampere is the amount of current
flowing through two straight parallel conductors 1 meter apart in a vacuum which produces a force 2 10-7
newtons per meter of conductor
3.1 Advantages of Motors
1.DC motors provide excellent speed control for acceleration and deceleration with effective and simple
torque control. The fact that the power supply of a DC motor connects directly to the field of the motor
allows for precise voltage control, which is necessary with speed and torque control applications.

2.DC motors perform better than AC motors on most traction equipment. They are also used for mobile
equipment like golf carts, quarry and mining equipment. DC motors are conveniently portable and well
suited to special applications, such as industrial tools and machinery that is not easily run from remote power
sources.

Disadvantages of Motor
1.It depends entirely on the motor design. The only universal disadvantage of a DC motor (vs. an AC motor) is the
need for a DC power supply (DC power is more difficult to transmit efficiently over long distances, hence the use of
AC for typical power grids).

2.Typical brushed DC motors (the cheapest and hence one of the most common type of DC motor) tend to wear out
eventually due to friction and draw MUCH higher current when stalled than when turning, which can cause
overheating. They are also typically heavier than AC motors with similar specs. Of course all of these problems can be
eliminated by using a (slightly more complex) brush-less motor design.

3.2 Types of Motor

1.DC MOTOR

Shunt motor
Separatly excited motor
Series motor
Permanent motor
Compound motor

2.AC motor

Induction motor
Synchronous motor

3.Other Motors

Stepper motor
Brushless motor

Two pole motor

Two pole motor is that which has two opposite poles i.e north and south.

If same poles are there in a two pole motor then the motor will not start.
 Figure 6.1 Two pole motor

Four pole Motor

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

The basic construction of AC induction motors has changed very little over the years. The Squirrel cage
induction motor which is the most common electric motor has four main parts:

1. Stator: is a stationary component. Made of copper windings that carry current. The stators coils
set up a magnetic field that moves in a circular motion. The stator surrounds the Rotor.

Figure 6.2 Four pole Motor

Figure 6.3: Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

2. Rotor: as the name suggests, rotates. It is caused to rotate under the influence of the magnetic
field of the stator. The rotor tries to keep up with the stators magnetic field.

3. Fan: used to cool the motor.

4. Bearings and seals: allows motor saft to move smoothly. Reduces energy losses thatwould
occur through friction. The seals keep dust from entering the motor.
It is possible to arrange the stator windings in such formations as to provide any number of pairs of poles
and so we can offer 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 pole motors etc. Motors over 12 poles are available if required, but they
are not in common use.

The synchronous speed of a motor can be determined by the formula:

where:

speed is expressed in rpm (revolutions per minute)

f equals frequency in Hz (hertz)

poles is an even number, ie 2,4,6 etc.

The formula for synchronous speed makes it obvious to see that as the frequency varies, the speed
varies in a direct proportion, that is, if we double the frequency, the speed doubles.

We call the hypothetical speed synchronous speed because it is the maximum speed that would be
obtained if the rotor rotated in synchrony with the magnetic field, that is if the rotor kept up with
the rotating magnetic field of the stator

3.3 AC MOTOR
An AC Motor converts electric energy into mechanical energy. An AC Motor uses alternating current - in
other words, the direction of current flow changes periodically. In the case of common AC that is used
throughout most of the United States, the current flow changes direction 120 times every second. This
current is referred to as "60 cycle AC" or "60 Hertz AC" in honor of Mr. Hertz who first conceived the
AC current concept. Another characteristic of current flow is that it can vary in quantity. For example,
the flow can occur in 5 amp, 10 amp or 100 amp.
It would be rather difficult for the current to be flowing at say 100 amps in a positive direction one
moment and then flow at an equal intensity in the negative direction. Instead, as the current is getting
ready to change directions, it tapers off until it reaches zero flow and then gradually builds up in the
other direction. The maximum current flow (the peaks of the line) in each direction is more than the
specified value (100 amps in this case). Therefore, the specified value is given as an average. What is
 important to remember is that the strength of the magnetic field, produced by an AC electro-magnetic
coil, increases and decreases with the increase and decrease of this alternating current flow.
An AC motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current (AC).
It commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils supplied with
alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to the output shaft
that is given a torque by the rotating field.
There are two main types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used. The first type is the
induction motor or asynchronous motor. The magnetic field on the rotor of this motor is created by an
induced current. The second type is the synchronous motor, which does not rely on induction and as a
result, can rotate exactly at the supply frequency or a sub-multiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic
field on the rotor is either generated by current delivered through slip rings or by a permanent magnet.
The induction motor is running slightly slower than the synchronous motor because its speed is reduced
by the slip. Therefore it is also called asynchronous motor. Other types of motors include eddy current
motors, and also AC/DC mechanically commutated machines in which speed is dependent on voltage
and winding connection.

3.3.1 Principles of Operation:

The principle of operation for all AC motors relies on the interaction of a revolving magneticfield created
in the stator by AC current, with an opposing magnetic field either induced on therotor or provided by
a separate DC current source. The resulting interaction produces usabletorque, which can be
coupled to desired loads throughout the facility in a convenient manner.Prior to the discussion of specific
types of AC motors, some common terms and principles mustbe introduced.

Basic AC Motor Operation.

An AC motor has two basic electrical parts: a "stator" and a "rotor" as shown in Figure 8. The stator is in
the stationary electrical component. It consists of a group of individual electro-magnets arranged in such
a way that they form a hollow cylinder, with one pole of each magnet facing toward the center of the
group. The term, "stator" is derived from the word stationary. The stator then is the stationary part of the
AC motor. The rotor is the rotating electrical component. It also consists of a group of electro-magnets
arranged around a cylinder, with the poles facing toward the stator poles. The rotor is located inside the
stator and is mounted on the AC motor's shaft. The term "rotor" is derived from the word rotating. The
rotor then is the rotating part of the AC motor. The objective of these motor components is to make the
rotor rotate which in turn will rotate the motor shaft. This rotation will occur because of the previously
discussed magnetic phenomenon that unlike magnetic poles attract each other and like poles repel. If you
progressively change the polarity of the stator poles in such a way that their combined magnetic field
rotates, then the rotor will follow and rotate with the magnetic field of the stator.
 As shown in Figure 9, the stator has six magnetic poles and the rotor has two poles. At time 1, stator
poles A-1 and C-2 are north poles and the opposite poles, A-2 and C-1, are south poles. The S-pole of the
rotor is attracted by the two N-poles of the stator and the two south poles of the stator attract the N-pole
of the rotor. At time 2, the polarity of the stator poles is changed so that now C-2 and B-1 and N-poles
and C-1 and B-2 are S-poles. The rotor then is forced to rotate 60 degrees to line up with the stator poles
as shown. At time 3, B-1 and A-2 are N. At time 4, A-2 and C-1 are N. As each change is made, the
opposite poles on the stator attract the poles of the rotor. Thus, as the magnetic field of the stator rotates,
the rotor is forced to rotate with it.

3.3.2 Disadvantages of AC Motors:

1. Simple Design:

The simple design of AC motor

Simply a series of three windings in the exterior (stator) section with a simple rotating section (rotor).
The changing field caused by the 50 or 60 Hertz AC line voltage causes the rotor to rotate around the
axis of the ac motor.
The speed of the AC motor depends only on three variables:
a) The fixed number of winding sets (known as poles) built into the ac motor, which determines the ac
motor's base speed.
b) The frequency of the AC line voltage. Variable speed drives (Adjustable speed drives) change this
frequency to change the speed of the motor.
c) The amount of torque loading on the motor, which causes slip.

2. Low Cost
The AC motor has the advantage of being the lowest cost motor for applications which require more than
about 1/2 hp (325 watts) of power. This is due to the simple design of ac motor. For this reason, AC
motors are overwhelmingly preferred for fixed speed applications in our industrial applications and for
commercial and domestic applications where AC line power can be easily attached. In fact over 90% of
all motors are AC induction motors. AC induction motors are found in air conditioners, washers, dryers,
industrial machinery, fans, blowers, vacuum cleaners, and many, many other applications.

3. Reliable Operation
The simple design of the AC motor results in extremely reliable, low maintenance operation. Unlike the
DC motor, there are no brushes to replace for ac motors. If run in the appropriate environment for its
enclosure, AC motor can expect to need new bearings after several years of operation. In fact if the
 application is well designed, an AC motor may not need new bearings for m.ore than a decade.

4 Easily Found Replacements of AC motors

The wide use of AC motors has resulted in easily found replacements. And many manufacturers adhere
to either European (metric) or American (NEMA) standards. (For Replacement Motors)

Limitations:
AC motors are typically more expensive than DC motors for most horsepower ratings. If the rotor of an
AC motor rotates faster than the speed command of the AC drive, the motor acts as a generator and
pumps, or regenerates, energy into the drive. If the drive cannot absorb this energy, the drive will switch
off, or trip, with a fault. AC drives capable of regeneration are more complex and more expensive than
DC regenerative drives. AC motors may also produce more audible noise than DC motors.

DC Motor:
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Largest Supplier Base. Top Deals!
Motor Control Tutorials:
Free Web Tutorials from Galil, The
World Leader in Motor Control.
Rotary actuator:
compact, limit switches integrated.
G+H Acoustics:
Noise control, Noise screens
Noise hoods and silencers
Hardwired control unit
Hardwired control units are implemented through use of sequential logic units, featuring a finite number
of gates that can generate specific results based on the instructions that were used to invoke those
responses. Hardwired control units are generally faster than microprogrammed designs.
Their design uses a fixed architecture it requires changes in the wiring if the instruction set is
modified or changed. This architecture is preferred in reduced instruction set computers (RISC) as they
use a simpler instruction set.
The hardwired approach has become less popular as computers have evolved as at one time, control units
for CPUs were ad-hoc logic, and they were difficulties.

3.4 DC MOTORS
Almost every mechanical movement that we see around us is accomplished by an electric motor.
Electricmachines are a means of converting energy. Motors take electrical energy and produce mechanical
energy.Electric motors are used to power hundreds of devices we use in everyday life. Motors come in
various sizes.Huge motors that can take loads of 1000s of Horsepower are typically used in the industry.
Some examples oflarge motor applications include elevators, electric trains, hoists, and heavy metal rolling
mills. Examples ofsmall motor applications include motors used in automobiles, robots, hand power tools
and food blenders.Micro-machines are electric machines with parts the size of red blood cells, and find many
applications inmedicine.
Electric motors are broadly classified into two different categories: DC (Direct Current) and AC
(AlternatingCurrent). Within these categories are numerous types, each offering unique abilities that suit
them well forspecific applications. In most cases, regardless of type, electric motors consist of a stator
(stationary field) and arotor (the rotating field or armature) and operate through the interaction of magnetic
flux and electric current to produce rotational speed and torque. DC motors are distinguished by their ability
to operate from direct current.
There are different kinds of D.C. motors, but they all work on the same principles. In this chapter, we will
studytheir basic principle of operation and their characteristics. Its important to understand motor
charact.eristics so we can choose the right one for our application requirement. The learning objectives for
this chapter are listed below.

Learning Objectives:
Understand the basic principles of operation of a DC motor.
Understand the operation and basic characteristics of simple DC motors.
Compute electrical and mechanical quantities using the equivalent circuit.
Use motor nameplate data.
Study some applications of DC motors.
Recommended text for this section of the course:
(i) Allan R. Hambley, Electrical Engineering Principles and Applications, Chapter 16.
(ii) Giorgio Rizzoni, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, Chapter 17
2 DC Motors
(i)Electromechanical Energy Conversion
An electromechanical energy conversion device is essentially a medium of transfer between an input
side and an output side. Three electrical machines (DC, induction and synchronous) are used extensively
for
electromechanical energy conversion. Electromechanical energy conversion occurs when there is a
change in
magnetic flux linking a coil, associated with mechanical motion.
Electric Motor:

The input is electrical energy (from the supply source), and the output is mechanical energy (to the load).
Electrical Electromechanical Mechanical
energy energy conversion device energy
Source Motor Load
Electric Genrator:
The Input is mechanical energy (from the prime mover), and the output is electrical energy.
Mechanical Electromechanical Electrical
energy energy conversion device energy
Source Generator Load

3.4.1 Construction
DC motors consist of one set of coils, called armature winding, inside another set of coils or a set of
permanent magnets, called the stator. Applying a voltage to the coils produces a torque in the armature,
resulting
in motion.
Stator
 The stator is the stationary outside part of a motor.
The stator of a permanent magnet dc motor is composed of two or more permanent magnet pole pieces.
The magnetic field can alternatively be created by an electromagnet. In this case, a DC coil (field
winding) is wound around a magnetic material that forms part of the stator.
Rotor
The rotor is the inner part which rotates.
The rotor is composed of windings (called armature windings) which are connected to the external
circuit through a mechanical commutator.
Both stator and rotor are made of ferromagnetic materials. The two are separated by air-gap.
Winding
A winding is made up of series or parallel connection of coils.
Armature winding - The winding through which the voltage is applied or induced.
Field winding - The winding through which a current is passed to produce flux (for the electromagnet)
Windings are usually made of copper.
DC Motors

DC Motor Basic Principles

(i) Energy Conversion
If electrical energy is supplied to a conductor lying perpendicular to a magnetic field, the interaction of
current flowing in the conductor and the magnetic field will produce mechanical force (and therefore,
mechanical energy).
(ii) Value of Mechanical Force
There are two conditions which are necessary to produce a force on the conductor. The conductor must
be carrying current, and must be within a magnetic field. When these two conditions exist, a force will be
applied to the conductor, which will attempt to move the conductor in a direction perpendicular to the
magnetic
field. This is the basic theory by which all DC motors operate.
The force exerted upon the conductor can be expressed as follows.
F = B i l Newton (1)
where B is the density of the magnetic field, l is the length of conductor, and i the value of current
flowing in the
conductor. The direction of motion can be found using Flemings Left Hand Rule.
Figure 3: Flemings Left Hand Rule
The first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field (first - field), which goes from the North pole
to the
South pole. The second finger points in the direction of the current in the wire (second - current). The
thumb
then points in the direction the wire is thrust or pushed while in the magnetic field (thumb - torque or
thrust).
How much force will be created on a wire that is parallel to the magnetic field?
9 DC Motors

(iii) Principle of operation

Consider a coil in a magnetic field of flux density B (figure 4). When the two ends of the coil are
connected across a DC voltage source, current I flows through it. A force is exerted on the coil as a result
of the
 interaction of magnetic field and electric current. The force on the two sides of the coil is such that the
coil starts
to move in the direction of force.
Figure 4: Torque production in a DC motor
In an actual DC motor, several such coils are wound on the rotor, all of which experience force,
resulting in rotation. The greater the current in the wire, or the greater the magnetic field, the faster the
wire
moves because of the greater force created.
At the same time this torque is being produced, the conductors are moving in a magnetic field. A
different positions, the flux linked with it changes, which causes an emf to be induced (e = d/dt) as
shown in
figure 5. This voltage is in opposition to the voltage that causes current flow through the conductor and is
referred to as a counter-voltage or back emf.
Figure 5: Induced voltage in the armature winding of DC motor
The value of current flowing through the armature is dependent upon the difference between the
applied voltage and this counter-voltage. The current due to this counter-voltage tends to oppose the very
cause
for its production according to Lenzs law. It results in the rotor slowing down. Eventually, the rotor
slows just
Induced emf
Flux
DC Motors
5
enough so that the force created by the magnetic field (F = Bil) equals the load force applied on the
shaft. Then
the system moves at constant velocity.

(iv) DC Motor Rating

DC Motors are typically rated in terms of :
Rated voltage:
the operating voltage on the input side of the motor
Rated power :
Power (in horsepower hp or watts) that the motor is designed to deliver to the load (i.e., output power) for
continuous operation.
(Note that 1 hp = 746 W)
Rated speed
Speed (in revolutions per minute, denoted by r/min or rpm) for which the motor is designed to operate for
continuous operation.
3.4.2 Principle Of DC Motor
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying conductor
generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force
proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field. As you are
well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like
polarities (North and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to
harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to
generate rotational motion.
Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet or winding with a
"North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a "South" polarization).

Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator, field magnet(s), and
brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that BEAMers will see), the external magnetic field is
produced by high-strength permanent magnets1. The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes
the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle
and attached commutator) rotate with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a
core), the windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common
motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.

The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that when power is applied,
the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until
it is almost aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the
next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation
reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic field,
driving it to continue rotating.

In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a very common number). In
particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You can imagine how with our example two-pole
motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field magnets), it will get
"stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out the
power supply (i.e., both brushes touch both commutator contacts simultaneously). This would be bad for the
power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well. Yet another disadvantage of such a
simple motor is that it would exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce
is cyclic with the position of the rotor).

So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker with the workings of one via an
interactive animation (JavaScript required):
 You'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a time (but two others are
"partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one commutator contact to the next, one coil's field
will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this occurs within a few microsecond).
We'll see more about the effects of this later, but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the
coil windings' series wiring:

There's probably no better way to see how an average DC motor is put together, than by just opening one up.
Unfortunately this is tedious work, as well as requiring the destruction of a perfectly good motor.

Luckily for you, I've gone ahead and done this in your stead. The guts of a disassembled Mabuchi FF-030-
PN motor (the same model that Solarbotics sells) are available for you to see here (on 10 lines / cm graph
paper). This is a basic 3-pole DC motor, with 2 brushes and three commutator contacts.

The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite common, and has a number of
advantages2. First off, the iron core provides a strong, rigid support for the windings -- a particularly
important consideration for high-torque motors. The core also conducts heat away from the rotor windings,
allowing the motor to be driven harder than might otherwise be the case. Iron core construction is also
relatively inexpensive compared with other construction types.

But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron armature has a relatively high inertia
which limits motor acceleration. This construction also results in high winding inductances which limit
brush and commutator life.

In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a 'coreless' armature winding. This design
depends upon the coil wire itself for structural integrity. As a result, the armature is hollow, and the
permanent magnet can be mounted inside the rotor coil. Coreless DC motors have much lower
 armature inductance than iron-core motors of comparable size, extending brush and commutator life

. The coreless design also allows manufacturers to build smaller motors; meanwhile, due to the lack of iron
in their rotors, coreless motors are somewhat prone to overheating. As a result, this design is generally used
just in small, low-power motors. BEAMers will most often see coreless DC motors in the form of pager
motors.

Again, disassembling a coreless motor can be instructive -- in this case,

my hapless victim was a cheap pager vibrator motor. The guts of this
disassembled motor are available for you to see here (on 10 lines / cm
graph paper). This is (or more accurately, was) a 3-pole coreless DC
motor.

I disembowel 'em so you don't have to...

To get the best from DC motors in BEAMbots, we'll need to take a closer look at DC motor behaviors --
both obvious and not

Converting AC to DC
Thyristor. A.primary.function.of.a.DC.drive,.such.as.the.SIMOREG.6RA70
DC MASTER,.is.to.convert.AC.voltage.into.a.variable DC voltage
It.is.necessary.to.vary.to.DC.voltage.in.order.to.control the
speed of a.DC.motor..A.thyristor.is.one.type.of.device.
commonly.used.to.convert.AC.to.DC...A.thyristor.consists.of.an.
anode,.cathode,.and.a.gate.

Gate Current. A.thyristor.acts.as.a.switch..Initially,.a.thyristor.will.conduct.

(switch.on).when.the.anode.is.positive.with.respect.to.the.
cathode.and.a.positive.gate.current.is.present..The.amount.of.
gate.current.required.to.switch.on.a.thyristor.varies..Smaller.
 devices.require.only.a.few.milliamps;.however,.larger.devices.
such.as.required.in.the.motor.circuit.of.a.DC.drive.may.require.
several.hundred.milliamps..

Holding Current. Holding.current.refers.to.the.amount.of.current.flowing.from.

anode.to.cathode.to.keep.the.thyristor.turned.on..The.gate.
current.may.be.removed.once.the.thyristor.has.switched.on..
The.thyristor.will.continue.to.conduct.as.long.as.the.anode.
remains.sufficiently.positive.with.respect.to.the.cathode.to.
allow.sufficient.holding.current.to.flow..Like.gate.current,.the.
amount.of.holding.current.varies.from.device.to.device..Smaller.
devices.may.require.only.a.few.milliamps.and.larger.devices.
may.require.a.few.hundred.milliamps.

AC to DC Conversion. The.thyristor.provides.a.convenient.method.of.converting.AC.
voltage.to.a.variable.DC.voltage.for.use.in.controlling.the.speed.
of.a.DC.motor..In.this.example.the.gate.is.momentarily.applied.
when.AC.input.voltage.is.at.the.top.of.the.sinewave..The.
thyristor.will.conduct.until.the.inputs.sinewave.crosses.zero..
At.this.point.the.anode.is.no.longer.positive.with.respect.to.the.
cathode.and.the.thyristor.shuts.off..The.result.is.a.half-wave.
rectified.DC..

The.amount.of.rectified.DC.voltage.can.be.controlled.by.timing.
the.input.to.the.gate..Applying.current.on.the.gate.at.the.
beginning.of.the.sinewave.results.in.a.higher.average.voltage.
applied.to.the.motor..Applying.current.on.the.gate.later.in.the.
sinewave.results.in.a.lower.average.voltage.applied.to.the.
motor.
DC Drive Converter. The.output.of.one.thyristor.is.not.smooth.enough.to.control.
the.voltage.of.industrial.motors..Six.thyristors.are.connected.
together.to.make.a.3.bridge.rectifier...
 3.5 Basic Drive Operation

Controlling a DC Motor. A.thyristor.bridge.is.a.technique.commonly.used.to.control.the.

speed.of.a.DC.motor.by.varying.the.DC.voltage..Examples.of.
how.a.DC.rectifier.bridge.operates.are.given.on.the.next.few.
pages..Voltage.values.given.in.these.examples.are.used.for.
explanation.only..The.actual.values.for.a.given.load,.speed,.and.
motor.vary..

It.is.important.to.note.that.the.voltage.applied.to.a.DC.motor.
be.no.greater.than.the.rated.nameplate..Armature.windings.
are.commonly.wound.for.500.VDC..The.control.logic.in.the.
drive.must.be.adjusted.to.limit.available.DC.voltage.to.0.-.500.
VDC..Likewise,.the.shunt.field.must.be.limited.to.the.motors.
nameplate.value...
Basic Operation. A.DC.drive.supplies.voltage.to.the.motor.to.operate.at.a.desired.
speed..The.motor.draws.current.from.this.power.source.in.
proportion.to.the.torque.(load).applied.to.the.motor.shaft..

100% Speed, 0% Load. In.this.example.an.unloaded.motor.connected.to.a.DC.drive.is.

being.operated.at.100%.speed..The.amount.of.armature.current
. (Ia).and.unloaded.motor.needs.to.operate.is.negligible..For.the.
purpose.of.explanation.a.value.of.0.amps.is.used..

The.DC.drive.will.supply.only.the.voltage.required.to.operate.
the.motor.at.100%.speed..We.have.already.learned.the.amount
. of.voltage.is.controlled.by.the.gating.angle.(COS).of.the.
thyristors..In.this.example.450.VDC.is.sufficient..The.motor.
accelerates.until.CEMF.reaches.a.value.of.Va.-.IaRa..Remember.
that.Va.=.IaRa.
+.CEMF..In.this.example.IaRa.is.0,.therefore.CEMF.
will.be.approximately.450.VDC.
100% Speed, 100% Load. A.fully.loaded.motor.requires.100%.of.rated.armature.current.at.
100%.speed..Current.flowing.through.the.armature.circuit.will.
cause.a.voltage.drop.across.the.armature.resistance.(Ra)..Full.
voltage.(500.VDC).must.be.applied.to.a.fully.loaded.motor.to.
operate.at.100%.speed..To.accomplish.this,.thyristors.are.gated
. earlier.in.the.sine.wave.(36.37)..

The.DC.drive.will.supply.the.voltage.required.to.operate.the.
motor.at.100%.speed...The.motor.accelerates.until.CEMF.
reaches.a.value.of.Va.-.IaRa..Remember.that.Va.=.IaRa.+.
CEMF..In.this.example.armature.current.(Ia).is.100%.and.Ra.
will.drop.some.amount.of.voltage..If.we.assume.that.current.
and.resistance.is.such.that.Ra.drops.50.VDC,.CEMF.will.be.

450.VDC.
Applications
When.applying.a.DC.drive.and.motor.to.an.application.it. is necessary to know the horsepower,
torque, and speed. characteristics of the load. The.following.chart.shows.typical. characteristics
of.various.loads.

Loads.generally.fall.into.one.of.three.categories:

Category Description
The load is essentially the same throughout the
speed range. Hoisting gear and belt conveyors
Constant Torque are examples.
The load increases as speed increases. Pumps
Variable Torque and fans are examples.

Constant The load decreases as speed increases. Winders

and rotary cutting machines are examples.
Horsepower
Communication Control:
The term communication control unit was a generic term used in the 1980s to refer to a wide
variety of devices that controlled the transmission and reception of data in computer
networks. They ranged from complex units, such as front-end processors for mainframes, to
simple units such as concentrators, terminal servers, or multiplexers of various kinds for
transmission of data primarily over dedicated lines. The 1990s saw dramatic advances in data
communications and the appearance of new generations of communication devices to build
today's computer networks. They include various types of communication adapters, hubs,
bridges, routers, and switches. Consequently, the term communication control unit is being
replaced by two new generic terms: communication adapters, which interface computers and
workstations (q.v.) to the network, and network electronics, which serve to deliver data over
the network from source to destination.
3.6 Farward/Revesre Motor Stator:

59
 4. HMI (Human Machine Interface)
What is an HMI?
HMI stands for Human Machine Interface. This is the interface between the operator and the
controller.The HMI is the controller operating panel. The panel comprises a numeric keypad
and a LCD screen that displays text.The keypad is used to input data into the application,
such as Timer values.
The PLC's Display screen can show operator messages, variable information from the
program and system information
.HMI messages are created in the Display Editor.Variable information fields are created in
the Variable Editor.The Human Machine Interface (HMI) includes the electronics required to
signal and control the state of industrial automation equipment. These interface products can
range from a basic LED status indicator to a 20-inch TFT panel with touchscreen interface.
HMI applications require mechanical robustness and resistance to water, dust, moisture, a
wide range of temperatures, and, in some environments, secure communication. They should
provide Ingress Protection (IP) ratings up to IP65, IP67, and IP68. The unique capacitive
Atmel QTouch technology, Atmel SAM9 microprocessors, and Atmel
CryptoAuthentication devices enable designers to meet these requirements and more, with
an optimized BOM.

4.1 Advantages of HMI:

High quality graphics for realistic representations of machinery and processes
This will give the operator and the management a very realistic view of the plant. The
operator can control plant without in one central location, this could be very useful when
there is a security concerns. The operator does not need to be close to the equipment to
control of monitor.
Alarms (Real Time / Historical)
Viewing alarms will help the operator to locate and react faster to any mulfunction of any
anomalies. Some of the alarms could be of preventive type, for example to create a warning
alarm on a hydraulic tank oil level before the oil level really reaches a critical point.
Historical Alarm logging is very usefull to track problems. It could be used to optimize
process. Which in turn would increase productivity and reduce lost time.
Trends (Real Time / Historical)
Trends are very usefull with PID's. You can view the curve used to reach a certain set point.
Study of certain values will result in optimizing your process, and it will certainly make if
much more efficient.
Recipe Manager
Simple and complex recipe could be controlled with HMI. This is very usefull and very
effective way to execute recipes.
Simulation
Some of the high quality HMI's will be so flexible that you can simulate a plant in your
office. This will help PLC program developers test their program without having a single
equipement or devices. This kind of simulation is used more and more to reduce startup time.

60
 Messaging
This is a very interresting functionality. You can message, page or fax someone when a
certain event happens. For example lets say the oil level in the hydraulic tank has reaching a
low level. Then low oil level will be triggered and it will page the person in charge to fill up
the tank.
Animate equipments and instrument based on operator standards.
They say one picture is better than 100 words. Now this is not only a picture it is an animated
one. This will really improve the whole view of the process. Any anomalies will be detected
much easier.
Reduce the cost of hardware.
An HMI can replace hundreds of Push buttons, selectors, Lights and so on. As a result less
consols and panels and definetly less cables all over the plant.
communication:
Today most HMI's can communicate with many different brands of PLC's. Here is a list of
most used communications.
Serial Port
Data Highway Plus (DH+)
Remote I/O
Ethernet (TCP/IP)
DDE - Dynamic Data Exchange (DDE)
etc ..

Disadvantages :
it is precise only for modelling and simulations
data can be damaged if elecrtronic component is damaged
troubleshooting is appllicable for one specific constraint at
a time
interfacing is expensive
seperate cost should be alotted for hmi during modelling .

4.2 Features and Benefits:

Supports high source and sink output IO capabilities up to 60mA for direct drive of LEDs.
High-speed PWM units enable LED dimming and screen back lighting.
Robust touch technology provides reduced wear and increased product lifetime. Due to its
superior field penetration, Atmel Touch technology will operate through 6mm thick, non-
conductive surfaces.
The excellent signal-to-noise ratio of the Atmel QMatrix touch technology makes the
design immune to water, moisture, or dust and enables operators to use gloves.
Capacitive touch eases design of full hermetic or sealed products, while power efficiency
minimizes heat dissipation.
Free Atmel QTouch software library on the Atmel microcontroller lets designers avoid the
cost of an additional component.

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 The Atmel touch spread spectrum frequency implementation helps designers meet electro-
magnetic emission requirements.
The Atmel industrial microprocessor product portfolio with integrated LCD, combined with
the Atmel QTouch technology, are the ideal candidates for your next control panel design.
The Atmel CryptoAuthentication family of hardware security devices provides cost effective
solutions for authenticated and encrypted communications between HMI and industrial
equipment.
HMI Devices
LED Indicators and Mechanical Switches are a leading HMI for industrial applications, and
Atmel AVR and AT91SAM microcontrollers offer a variety of benefits.
Capacitive Touch Technology for HMI helps protect industrial interface modules, while
increasing design flexibility and enhancing look and feel.
Industrial Control Panels with LCD Displays provide the operator an efficient, flexible way
to monitor and control increasingly complex automated processes.
Hardware Security Products protect firmware integrity from tampering to assure continuous
and reliable performance.

4.3 Human Machine Interface (HMI) Applications:

Customized small Panel-PC on sailing yacht:

Netherlands
Small compact Panel-PC with MIP10, 6.5" LCD, LED backlight, and sensitive touch screen
Powerful device with lowest power consumption as units are powered via Ethernet
Used as room controllers for operating lighting, air-conditioning, and shades, as well as
displaying yacht information, charts, and cameras.
Desktop Panel-PC:

USA
Thin Client aluminum Panel-PC with open cable chute on back
12" LCD with XGA resolution & touch screen
Fanless, noiseless PIP10-2
Some units equipped with an MPL integrated Ethernet Media converter - copper to fiber
optic
Longterm support and availability were key

Control PC for refueling truck:

India
Control PC with touch on airfield refuleing trucks
Complete IP65 protected 12" Panel-PC with integrated PIP7-11, WLAN interface and UPS
system
Ruggedness and long-term support

Stock Market Telephone Screen

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 Switzerland
Aluminum Panel PIP (PIP7 and 12inch display with touch)
Fanless & noiseless, functionality
Excellent readability with high viewing angles
uses only little space, flexibility (MPL & unit)

Data Entry System in Operating Room

Switzerland
Stainless steel Panel PIP (PIP9 with 19" display)
Fanless & noiseless with power full CPU
IP65 (Front, side, as well as back)
Low power design

Cheese Distribution in cooled sales van:

Switzerland
PIP5 with integrated LCD, Flash disk and dual PC Card Reader
Low Power, 8C, 70 -80% humidity, shock & vibration resistant

Bus Ticketing System

Public Transport fare collection

Accepts Magnetic Cards and Smart Cards
Linux Operating System
Special BIOS solution (Postscreen)
Specific carrier board designed and produced by MPL
SW support for all drivers by MPL

Special LVDS Interface for QVGA panel:

USA
Development of Driver Awareness System
Key points: compactness, ruggedness, and flexibility of the PIP, and capability for custom
developed LVDS interfaces
PIP and other required equipment was built in the trunk without any shock absorbers. The
panel is integrated in the dash board.

Interface design

Typical human-machine interface design consists of the following stages: interaction

, specification interface software specification and prototyping:

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 Common practices for interaction specification include user-centered design, persona,
activity-oriented design, scenario-based design, resiliency design.

Common practices for interface software specification include use cases, constrain
enforcement by interaction protocols (intended to avoid use errors).

Common practices for prototyping are based on interactive design based on libraries of
interface elements (controls, decoration, etc.).

4.5 Programming in HMI

a. When a push button is pressed then the output will goes on after 100 seconds.

b. When a start push button is pressed then the 1st output will goes on and then after 100
seconds then 2nd output will goes on but the 1st output will goes off.

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HOW TO CONNECT HMI WITH PC
The terminal of HMI can be connected with PC either by USB or Ethernet port.

You must have to enter the panel address of your HMI in your browser (Internet Explorer,
Mozilla firebox etc.)You can also transfer programmed by pen drive.

For USB

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The panel view component has a USB port to support communication with USB.

You must first install ALLEN BRADLEY Panel view USB remote NDIS network device driver
on your computer. The default address of Allen Bradley HMI is 169.254.2542.

For Ethernet

For Ethernet first install the drivers. The default address of single Allen Bradley

HMI is 169.254.2542. If you install more than one HMI in the circuit then the address

start from 169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255.

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AFTER CONNECTING
After connecting the HMI with PC. Fill the default IP address in the web browser software. Then
panel view component is shown as shown in fig.

PANEL VIEW component screen

HMI program screen

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 CONFIGURE DF1 COMUNICATION
This topic shows how to configure run time settings to enable DF1 point-to- point
communication between your Panel View Component terminal and a MicroLogix 1100
controller. The DF1 settings for the Panel View Component terminal match the default settings of
the MicroLogix controller.

Click the Communication tab to open the Communication view.

2. Select Serial under Protocol and DF1 from the pull-down list.

3 .Under Panel View Component Settings, verify the Station Address is 2

4. Under Controller Settings:

Accept the default name PLC-1. Select MicroLogix from the Controller Type field. c. Type 1 in
the Address field.

OPEN A NEW APPLICATION

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Applications are created with default file names that you can change when saving the
application. The default file name is PVcApplication1. The number automatically increments as
you create new applications.

Click the Create & Edit button in the Panel View Explorer Startup window

Review areas of screen. This is where you will spend most of your time.

Different toolbars:-

1. Navigation tabs Provides access to the different functional areas of an application

2. Application toolbar provides common tools that are available to all views of the application.
Drag your mouse over each tool.

3. Cursor controls Hides or shows the Controls or Properties panel to increase the workspace
area.

4. Screen list Contains a list of screens in the application including the alarm banner and
diagnostics banner.

5. Screen workspace Contains objects that you drag to the screen from the object palette.

6. Object palette Contains panels of objects that you can drag to the screen workspace. Click the
cursor on a tab to open or close a panel of objects. The palette can occupy 25, 50 or 75% of the
Controls panel. Right-click on the object palette heading to resize it. The object palette and
screen list are resized accordingly.

7. Screen toolbar Contains tools that operate on selected objects in the screen workspace. Also
contains a tool for turning the screen grid on or off.

8. Properties panel Contains panels of properties to configure the appearance, navigation,

common properties, or connection tags of a selected object. Panels vary for each object. Click the
cursor on a tab to open or close a panel you can also change the screen properties by clicking a
blank area of a screen. Screen properties include name, description, grid spacing, and the screen
background color9 Status bar Provides information about the terminal type, current actions, and
Validation Report link after a validation is performed.

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CREATE THE TAG
1. Click the Tags tab to open the tag editor.

2. Verify that the External tab is selected. Adds a tag. Tag Fields Shows more tag fields.

Create External Tags

Each tag occupies a separate row in the Tags view. The fields in each row define the attributes of
a tag. Tags are created with a default tag name, TAG0001, where the number increments with
each new tag. As tags are added, they are populated with defaults from the previous tag.

1. Click the Add Tag button to add a tag.

2. Type Motor Start in the Tag Name field.

3. Select Boolean in the Data Type field.

4. Optionally, enter the tag description.

5. Click in the Controller field and select PLC-1. This is the controller name defined on the
Communication tab.

6. Optionally, enter the tag description.

7. Repeat steps 1 through 6to add the other five tags. Some fields populate with data from the
previous tag. When done, the Tags view must look like this.

8. Click the Save icon on the application toolbar to save the application.

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CONSIDER THE EXAMPLE
Motor Speed Screen
The Motor Speed screen lets you:

Enter a new motor speed.

Increase or decrease the motor speed in increments.

Monitor the motor speed.

Navigate to the Motor Status screen

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 1. SCADA (SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION)
5.1 INTRODUCTION

SCADA stands for Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition. It generally refers to an
industrial control system: a computer system monitoring and controlling a process. The
process can be industrial, infrastructure or facility based as described below:

Industrial processes include those of manufacturing, production, power generation,

fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.

Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and
distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power
transmission and distribution, wind farms, civil defense siren systems, and large
communication systems,ility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones,
including buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and control heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning systems (HVAC), access, and energy consumption.

5.2 Common system components

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A SCADA system usually consists of the following subsystems:

A humanmachine interface or HMI is the apparatus or device which presents process

data to a human operator, and through this, the human operator monitors and controls the
process.

A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the process and sending
commands (control) to the process.

Remote terminal units (RTUs) connecting to sensors in the process, converting sensor
signals to digital data and sending digital data to the supervisory system.

Programmable logic controller (PLCs) used as field devices because they are more
economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUs.

Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to the remote terminal

units.

Systems concepts

The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems which monitor and control entire sites, or
complexes of systems spread out over large areas ( anything from an industrial plant to a nation).
Most control actions are performed automatically by RTUs or by PLCs. Host control functions

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 Figure 4.1 SCADA schematic overview

are usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory level intervention. For

example, a PLC may control the flow of cooling water through part of an industrial
process, but the SCADA system may allow operators to change the set points for the
flow, and enable alarm conditions, such as loss of flow and high temperature, to be
displayed and recorded. The feedback control loop passes through the RTU or PLC,
while the SCADA system monitors the overall performance of the loop.

Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes meter readings and equipment
status reports that are communicated to SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and
formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI can make supervisory
decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to an Historian,
often built on a commodity Database Management System, to allow trending and other analytical
auditing.

SCADA systems typically implement a distributed database, commonly referred to as a tag

database, which contains data elements called tags or points. A point represents a single input or
output value monitored or controlled by the system. Points can be either "hard" or "soft". A hard
point represents an actual input or output within the system, while a soft point results from logic
and math operations applied to other points. (Most implementations conceptually remove the
distinction by making every property a "soft" point expression, which may, in the simplest case,
equal a single hard point.) Points are normally stored as value-timestamp pairs: a value, and the

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timestamp when it was recorded or calculated. A series of value-timestamp pairs gives the
history of that point. It is also common to store additional metadata with tags, such as the path to
a field device or PLC register, design time comments, and alarm information.

Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)

The RTU connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from
the equipment to digital values such as the open/closed status from a switch or a valve, or
measurements such as pressure, flow, voltage or current. By converting and sending these
electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control equipment, such as opening or closing a
switch or a valve, or setting the speed of a pump.

Supervisory Station

The term "Supervisory Station" refers to the servers and software responsible for communicating
with the field equipment (RTUs, PLCs, etc), and then to the HMI software running on
workstations in the control room, or elsewhere. In smaller SCADA systems, the master station
may be composed of a single PC. In larger SCADA systems, the master station may include
multiple servers, distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the
integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a dual-redundant or hot-
standby formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a server failure.

Initially, more "open" platforms such as Linux were not as widely used due to the highly
dynamic development environment and because a SCADA customer that was able to afford the
field hardware and devices to be controlled could usually also purchase UNIX or OpenVMS
licenses. Today, all major operating systems are used for both master station servers and HMI
workstations

5.3 SCADA Architecture

SCADA systems have evolved through 3 generations as follows:

1. First generation: "Monolithic"

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In the first generation, computing was done by mainframe computers. Networks did not exist at
the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with no
connectivity to other systems. Wide Area Networks were later designed by RTU vendors to
communicate with the RTU. The communication protocols used were often proprietary at that
time. The first-generation SCADA system was redundant since a back-up mainframe system was
connected at the bus level and was used in the event of failure of the primary mainframe system.
Some first generation SCADA systems were developed as "turn key" operations that ran on
minicomputers like the PDP-11 series made by the Digital Equiptment Corporation (DEC).

These systems were read only in the sense that they could display information from the existing
analog based control systems to individual operator workstations but they usually didn't attempt
to send control signals to remote stations due to anaolog based telemetry issues and control
center management concerns with allowing direct control from computer workstations. They
would also perform alarming and logging functions and calculate hourly and daily system
commodity accounting functions.

2. Second generation: "Distributed"

The processing was distributed across multiple stations which were connected through a LAN
and they shared information in real time. Each station was responsible for a particular task thus
making the size and cost of each station less than the one used in First Generation. The network
protocols used were still mostly proprietary, which led to significant security problems for any
SCADA system that received attention from a hacker. Since the protocols were proprietary, very
few people beyond the developers and hackers knew enough to determine how secure a SCADA
installation was. Since both parties had vested interests in keeping security issues quiet, the
security of a SCADA installation was often badly overestimated, if it was considered at all.

3. Third generation: "Networked"

Due to the usage of standard protocols and the fact that many networked SCADA systems are
accessible from the Internet, the systems are potentially vulnerable to remote attack. On the other
hand, the usage of standard protocols and security techniques means that standard security

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improvements are applicable to the SCADA systems, assuming they receive timely maintenance
and updates

Security issues

The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions together with
the increased number of connections between SCADA systems and office networks and the
Internet has made them more vulnerable to attackssee references. Consequently, the security of
some SCADA-based systems has come into question as they are seen as potentially vulnerable to
cyber attacks.

In particular, security researchers are concerned about:

The lack of concern about security and authentication in the design, deployment and
operation of some existing SCADA networks

The belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are disconnected from the
Internet.

5.4 Programming in SCADA :

a. When a push button is pressed then the output will glow and by pressing 2 nd push button
that output will goes off.

77
b. When a push button is pressed then the output will goes on after 100 seconds and it will
goes off by pressing stop push button.

78