CHEM 15 Page 1

CHEM 15 Cathode Ray - a type of radiation emitted by the negative terminal or cathode to the positive
terminal or anode when electricity is passed through an evacuated tube.
CHAPTER 2 - travel in straight line and have properties independent of the cathode material.
- however in the presence of magnetic and/or electrical field, the ray is somewhat
ATOMIC STRUCTURE deflected.
- are negatively charged fundamental particles of matter found in all atoms
The Atomic Theory of Matter subsequently known as electrons (J.J. Thomson, 1897)
Democritus (400 BC): Matter is composed of very small indivisible particles named atomos. Using CRT, J.J. Thomson measured the ratio of electrons electrical charge and mass which is 1.76 x
108 C/g.
Daltons Atomic Theory (John Dalton, 1808):
1. Each chemical element is composed of extremely small, indestructible particles called atoms. Robert Millikan (1909), measured the charge of an electron in his Oil Drop Experiment which is
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same mass, size, and chemical 1.602 x 10-19 C (electronic charge).
properties.
3. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it * For convenience, the charges of atomic and subatomic particles are usually expressed as multiples of
does not result in their creation or destruction. the electronic charge rather than expressing it in terms of coulombs
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine. A given compound
always has the same relative number and kind of atoms. In any compound, the ratio of the Radioactivity (Antoine Henri Becquerel, 1896) the spontaneous emission of radiation.
numbers of atoms of any two of the elements present is either an integer or a simple fraction. Alpha () rays/particles are particles with charge of +2 and has the same mass as helium atoms.
Beta () rays/particles are negatively charged particles having the same properties as electrons.
Laws Supporting Daltons Atomic Theory Gamma () rays/particles is an electromagnetic radiation of extremely high penetrating power.
1. Law of Conservation of Mass
2. Law of Definite Proportions Atomic Models
3. Law of Multiple Proportions
Plum-Pudding model: The atom consisted of uniform positive sphere in which the electron is
Discovery of Ato mic Structure embedded.

Atom is the basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical combination. The atom, which was
supposed to be indivisible, shows signs of a more complex structure.
b
Law of Electrostatic Attraction: Particles of different charges attract while those with the same
charges repel.

The Electrons
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Nuclear Atom Model: Contrary to what Dalton said, the atoms of an element do not necessarily have the same
mass.
When alpha particles are bombarded to a very thin foil of gold, Ernest Rutherford (1910) observed the Isotopes are two or more atoms having the same atomic number but different mass number. This is
following: accounted for by the difference in the number of neutrons.

majority of the particle penetrated the foil without deflection.
some particles experienced slight deflections
few suffered serious deflections
while about 1 in every 20,000 did not pass through the foil at all rather it bounces back as if
firing a gun against a tissue paper and the shell coming back hitting you.
Ions are species formed when an atom either losses or gains electrons.
Cation positively-charged ions; electrons < protons
Anion negatively-charged ions; electron > protons
SP1. Complete the following table.

Features of Rutherfords Nuclear Model Symbol Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of Net
1. Most of the masses are centered in a very small region called the nucleus. The atom is mostly Number Number Electrons Protons Neutrons Charge
empty. There exists a positively-charged fundamental particle called protons in the nuclei of 40
Ca
20
atoms.
19 18 20
2. The magnitude of the positive charge is different for every atom and is approximately the
atomic weight of the element. Rutherford predicted that there exist electrically neutral 127 53 1-
fundamental particles in the nucleus that contribute to approximately the other half of the
weight of the element. This was proven by James Chadwick to exist and he called it the Electronic Structure of Atoms
neutron. - is a form of energy transmission through vacuum or a medium in which electric and magnetic
3. The atom as a whole is electrically neutral and the magnitude of positive charges in the fields are propagated.
nucleus equals the magnitude of the negative charges orbiting outside the nucleus. - carries energy through space and is therefore also known as
radiant energy.

Dimensions of Subatomic Particles Wave a disturbance that transmits energy through a medium.

Atomic Mass unit/amu is equal to 1.66054 x 10-24 g Wavelength, - distance between two identical points of the wave
Masses of Subatomic Particles: proton = 1.0073 u
neutron = 1.0087 u Frequency. - the number of troughs or crest that passes through a
electron = 5.486 x 10-4 u given point per unit of time.

Diameters of atoms and subatomic particles are expressed either in: Amplitude, A relates to the intensity of radiation.
o
Angstroms ( A ) = 1.0 x10-10 m * When light is passed through a transparent medium such as a prism, the white light is refracted or
Picometers (pm) = 1.0 x 10-12 m dispersed into an unbroken or continuous band or spectrum of colors. e.g. rainbow - ROYGBIV
A
Shorthand Notation for any Chemical Element: Z E
E=element symbol; A=mass number (protons + neutrons) Z= atomic/proton number

Generalization:
All atoms of an element have the same number of protons in the nucleus thus the same
atomic number, Z.
The specific number of protons is different for each element.
Because an atom is electrically neutral, the number of electrons is the same as the number of
protons.
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Quantum Theory of Radiation (Max Planck, 1900) Schrodinger Equation: describes an electron in an atom by a mathematical expression called a wave
Radiant energy is quantized, i.e. it has certain values only. Radiant energy consists of function, (psi).
individual bundles of energy called photons or quanta. The energy of a photon is given by: determines the following: the shape of the orbital the electron occupies
E = h the energy of the electron in the orbital
where = frequency of radiation, sec- the probability of finding the electron in some region
h = Plancks constant = 6.626 x 1034 J.sec/particles QUANTUM NUMBERS dimensionless numbers which completely describe the state of an
Radiation energy may be considered to consist of fluctuating electric and magnetic fields which travel electron.
through space in a wavelike motion. It may be described in two ways: 1. Principal Quantum Number, n
WAVES OF PHOTONS(possessing wave-like properties) - describes the distance between the nucleus and the shell ( shell is the level to which the
RADIANT ENERGY electrons belong); as n increases, on the average, the electron is found farther out of the nucleus.
STREAM OF PHOTONS (possessing particle-like properties) - describes the energy level of the shell; as n increases, the energy of the electron increases
and is therefore less tightly bound to the nucleus.
Photoelectric Effect (Einstein, 1905) A beam of electrons is produced when light strikes a clean - can have integral values; 1, 2, 3, .
metal surface. *Note: the number of electrons that can be accommodated in a given shell = 2n2
Observations:
When a photon strikes the metal, its energy is transferred to an electron in a metal. A certain 2. Azimuthal Quantum Number, l
minimum amount of energy, threshold energy, is required for an electron to overcome the - describes the energy level of the subshells ( the number of subshells in a shell is equal to n)
attractive forces that hold it within the metal. - defines the shape of the orbital
If the photon of the radiation has a less energy than the threshold energy, the electron cannot - has any integral value starting from 0 n-1
escape from the surface of the metal even if the light beam is intense. *N ote: Each subshell consists of a set of orbitals. All the orbitals in the same subshell have the same
If a photon has more energy than the minimum requirement to free an electron, the excess energy.
appears as the kinetic energy of the emitted eelectron. Within a given shell, the energies of electrons in the orbitals increase in the following order:
ns<np<nd<nf e.g 4s<4p<4d<4f
The Bohr Model of a Hydrogen Atom (Neils Bohr, 1913)
The electron of the atom can exist only in certain circular orbits around the nucleus in certain 3. Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
specific radii. - determines the spatial orientation of an orbital
The electron has a definite energy characteristic of the orbit in which it is moving. - has an integral value of l,0,,+l
When the electron of an atom is as close to the nucleus as possible, it is in a state of lowest
possible energy, called the ground state. 4. Spin Quantum Number,ms
When an electron falls back to the lower level, it emits a definite amount of energy in the form of - describes the direction of spin of an electron about its own axis: counterclockwise, s = -;
a quantum of light. clockwise, s = +

Bohrs Atomic Model *Note: Electrons with the same spin quantum numbers are said to have parallel spins whi le those
with different ms values are said to have opposite spins.

n l Subshell ml Number of Orbitals

Dual Nature of Matter (Louis de Broglie) Designation in the subshell
The electron can be imagined as both particle (it has mass) and a wave (it moves rapidly) 1 0 1s 0 1
and either of these two nature can become predominant at a given time. 2 0 2s 0 1
Particle (with particle properties) 1 2p -1, 0, +1 3
electron 0 3s 0 1
Wave (with wavelike properties) 3 1 3p -1, 0, +1 3
2 3d -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 5
= h/(m) true for all matter whether macroscopic or microscopic 0 4s 0 1
1 4p -1, 0, +1 3
Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle : It is impossible to determine accurately both the exact 4 2 4d -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 5
position and momentum of a particle simultaneously. 3 4f -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3 7
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Electronic Configuration of an Atom

- the arrangement of electrons in the orbital of an atom.
- described by a. a number that designates the number of principal shell
b. a letter that designates the subshell (orbital)
c. a superscript that designates the number of electrons in that particular
subshell (orbital)
e.g. 2p4 indicates 4 electrons in the p subshell of the 2nd shell.
3d8 indicates 8 electrons in the d subshell of the 3rd shell.

GUIDELINES:
a. Aufbau (building-up) Principle
Electrons in an atom occupy first the lowest possible energy levels and/or orbitals. Order: 1s
2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p

b. Paulis Exclusion Principle

No two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers, i.e., the
maximum number of electron in an orbital is limited to two.

*for 1s orbital: one electron: n=1, l=0, ml=0, ms=+

one electron: n=1, l=0, ml=0, ms=-

c. Hunds Rule
Every orbital in a subshell (degenerate orbitals) is occupied (filled) with one electron first
before any one orbital is doubly-filled, and all electrons in singly-occupied orbitals have the same spin.

*Isoelectronic atoms or ions of different elements that have the same electronic configuration.
*An orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons of opposite spins.
*Valence electrons outer shell electrons
*Diamagnetism slightly affected by magnetic field (spins are paired)
*Paramagnetism greatly affected by magnetic field (atoms with unpaired electrons)

PERIODICITY
- the trends in the behavior of the elements.
- arises from the periodic patterns in the electron configuration of the element.
Periodic Laws: When the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic masses, certain sets of
properties recur periodically. (Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer, 1869)

The properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers. (Henry Mooseley,
1913)

*The rearrangement of the periodic table was based on the X-ray spectra of elements obtained by
Mooseley.
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3. Hydrogen
- a colorless, diatomic gas and the first element in the periodic table
The Periodic Table - does not belong to any family
- an arrangement of the atoms in increasing order of their atomic numbers that collects atoms with - has a 1s1 electronic configuration
similar properties in vertical columns.
4. Group 6A, Chalcogens
FAMILY OR GROUP elements in a column - chalk former; the increase in metallic character down the group is clearly evident.
PERIOD/SERIES elements in a row.
5. Group 7A (Halogens)
*Note. It is the loss, gain, or sharing of valence electrons that determines the reactivity of elements. - listed in the order of increasing atomic weight, melting and boiling points
Hence, the valence electrons of an atom determine its chemical property.
- fluorine and chlorine are gases (pale yellow and greenish yellow respectively); bromine is a volatile
TYPES OF ELEMENTS liquid (reddish brown); iodine is a volatile solid (deep violet)
A. Based on Properties - order of increasing activity:Iodine<bromine<chlorine<fluorine
1. Metals - have lustrous, silvery, appearance - their H compounds are all acids
- good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable and ductile - all combine readily with metals to from salts
- high melting point, lose electrons
- elements in the left side and in the center of the periodic table. 6. Group 8A, Noble Gases
2. Nonmetals - all colorless and exhibit little or no reactivity
- nonconductors, nonmalleable, nonductile and have no metallic luster - they seldom form stable compounds with other elements
- elements on the right side of the periodic table.
B. Based on Their Electronic Configuration PERIODIC PROPERTIES/TRENDS
1. Representative/Main Group Elements elements in which the last electron added enters an s or p
orbital in the outermost shell but in which this shell in incomplete. 1. ATOMIC SIZE/ATOMIC RADIUS derived from the distance between atoms when bonded together.
- found in Groups 1A-7A
2. Transition Elements elements that have filled or partially-filled inner d subshell TRENDS: - w ithin each group (column) atomic radius increases from top to bottom
- found in Groups 1B 8B (increasing n or number of shells)
3. Inner Transition Elements elements that have filled or partially-filled inner f subshell; lanthanoids - within each period (row) atomic radius decrease from left to right (increasing
and actinoids atomic number and number of electrons, thus increasing effective nuclear charge,
4. Noble/Inert Gases have filled valence subshell; elements in Group 8A; very stable since closed shell Zeff)
(ns2np6)
2. IONIC SIZE
Cations are generally smaller than the metals from which they were formed.
PROPERTIES OF SOME GROUPS OF ELEMENTS Anions are generally larger than the nonmetal from which they were formed.

1. Group 1A, Alkali Metals 3. IONIZATION ENERGY minimum energy required to remove an electron from the ground state of
- with typical valence of 1 corresponding to their s1 electronic structure. the isolated atom.
- light metals, soft and lustrous but so reactive that they have to be kept from air or moisture (most
reactive metals) FIRST IONIZATION ENERGY (I1) - energy needed to remove the first (outermost) electron); I 1 < I2 < I3
- their hydroxides have an intensive basic or alkaline action, hence members of this family are *Small atoms are expected to have high IE because their valence electrons are nearer and more
referred to as alkali metals. strongly attracted to the nucleus.
TRENDS: - within each group, IE with increasing atomic number due to the in size ( n)
2. Group 2A, Alkaline Earth Metals - within each period, IE with increasing atomic number due to increase in Zeff
- also active metals but generally less than the alkali metals
- has 2 valence electrons 4. ELECTRON AFFINITY energy change associated to the addition of an e - to a gaseous atom/ion (an
- all form chlorides that are water-soluble and carbonates that are water-insoluble exothermic process)
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* Large atoms are expected to have low EA because their valence electrons are farther from the
nucleus.
*Small atoms have high EA because added electron will be closest to the nucleus.
PROBLEM SET
TRENDS: - more negative (higher affinity) going across a period (left to right) 1. Symbol Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of Net
Comple Number Number Electrons Protons Neutrons Charge
5. ELECTRONEGATIVITY is the ability of a bonded atom to attract electrons to itself te the 23
*In general, EN I ncreases across a period and decreases down a group followin 11 Na
g table. 11 10 12
6. METALLICITY 80 35 1-
*In general, the metallic character decreases across a period and increases down a group.

REACTIVITY
1. Metals from basic oxides
metal oxides + water metal hydroxide
Na2O + H2O 2 NaOH CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
metal oxide + acid salt + water
MgO + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2O NiO + H2SO4 NiSO4 + H2O
2. Write the electronic configuration for each of the following atoms or ions. Determine the quantum
2. Nonmetals form acidic oxides number describing the last electron. Identify the number of unpaired electrons and indicate whether
nonmetal oxide + water acid paramagnetic or diamagnetic. State the number of valence electrons.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 P4O10 + 6H2O 4 H3PO4
nonmetal oxide + base salt + water a. O b. Fe3+ c. Cd d. Am e. Ge2-
CO2 + 2NaOH Na2CO3 + H2O SO3 + 2KOH K2SO4 + H2O
nonmetal + metal salt 3. Arrange the following in increasing order of property.
2Al + 3Br2 2AlBr3
a. atomic radius Co Co2+ Co3+
b.electron affinity F Cl Br
d. electronegativity O As P
e. metallic property Zn Br Ge
h. nonmetallic property Be B Mg
i. paramagnetism Fe3+ Na Zn2+
j. d electrons Cr3+ V Mn4+
k. electron affinity Br Se Cl
l. ionization energy Al Cl P

4. Give the set of quantum numbers that describe an electron in the 3p subshell.