Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.2
WORKSHOP PRACTICES
MAINTAINING TOOLS ---------------------------------------------------- 1
TOOL CATEGORIES ------------------------------------------------------ 1
CARE OF TOOLS ---------------------------------------------------------- 2
CONTROL OF TOOLS ---------------------------------------------------- 5
USE OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS ----------------------------------- 8
DIMENSIONS -------------------------------------------------------------- 11
TOLERANCES AND ALLOWANCES-------------------------------- 15
STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP --------------------------------- 18
CALIBRATION OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT ------------------- 19
CALIBRATION STANDARDS ----------------------------------------- 28
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MAINTAINING TOOLS
All the tools used for aircraft maintenance have to be of the Common Tools Tools that are required for performing specific
highest quality to ensure expert maintenance of aircraft to the tasks on specific aircraft and those tools that are too bulky or
level prescribed by the manufacturer. At the most fundamental considered too expensive to be included in a personal toolkit
level, woodshop tool maintenance simply means keeping your are included in this category.
tools operating as well as they did when you took them out of
the box. That's a minimum requirement for running a safe, Procedures should be in place to ensure that all tools in the
successful shop. But a good tool maintenance regimen can take inventory are available in serviceable condition. This can be
you even further. Taking a few extra steps in caring for work achieved by implementing a tool maintenance program that
surfaces, cutting edges, alignment mechanisms and moving encompasses the following.
parts can work wonders for the performance of your tools. Add
in a few affordable power tool upgrades and you can improve Care of tools procedures for storing, cleaning,
the performance of your woodworking machinery beyond like- lubrication of tools and equipment regularly or as per
new condition. Below, we'll show you how easy it can be to go usage.
beyond the basics in keeping the tools in your shop sharp, true,
clean, and running smooth Control of tools procedures to ensure tools remain
serviceable and available as per the requirements.
TOOL CATEGORIES
Calibration of tools Tools that are used for measuring
A maintenance organization usually has two basic categories of and checking should be checked and adjusted regularly
tools in use. for continued accuracy of the measurements. Calibration
of tools used for the determination of the serviceability of
Personal Tools Tools that are issued to the maintenance equipment or correct execution of a procedure is of
personnel permanently on individual basis depending on the absolute importance as the product quality of the
function they perform in the organization. These tools will form a organization is dependent on it.
personal toolkit comprised of tools that are of general nature
and required by a considerable number of persons frequently.
These tools are selected for their familiarity and personal
quality, their low cost and convenience.
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Most high quality tools are manufactured to the highest Personal tools should be cleaned periodically or immediately
standards and are designed to last a long time, provided that after working in areas where the tools have been exposed to
they are not abused and necessary servicing is carried out in corrosive materials.
due time.
General cleaning can be done with a stiff brush and a rag
Most of the tools are manufactured from alloy steels and are to remove dust/dirt. A cleaning fluid such as solvents may be
susceptible to corrosion. To reduce this susceptibility to used to remove grease, paints and such hard to remove
corrosion most tools are manufactured with a corrosion resistant material. After necessary cleaning has been carried out a
exterior finish and mechanisms that are sealed against suitable lubrication and/or re-protection material should be
moisture. Therefore the corrosion resistance is dependent on applied to prevent corrosion and to reduce wear.
the integrity of such protections provided.
Despite efforts to reduce corrosion and associated degradation, It is advisable to store measuring tools such as engineers
corrosion and wear still takes its toll unless cleaning and re- scales, feeler gauges, etc., that are part of personal toolkits in a
protection such as lubrication is carried out on regular basis. simple cover or case to offer them further protection from
damage and degradation.
Workshop fixtures and equipment supplied and installed by the
appropriate department are maintained and repaired by that Common tools
organization, and must not be interfered with by personnel,
except for general cleaning, re-painting externally, etc. Common Tools that are used frequently may also be
cleaned and protected the same way as personal tools, but
Other equipment and machinery must be systematically lubrication of internal mechanism should be carried out
cleaned, lubricated and adjusted by competent workshop by authorized personnel only.
personnel; the following points have a general application.
Common tools that form a toolkit for a specific function and
those tools that are not regularly used should be cleaned after
every use and in addition, according to a schedule if such tools
have not been used for some time. Lubrication and re-protection
of
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exposed areas should be carried out using recommended periodically, and the vice handle should be kept rust-free so
material so as to maintain protection against corrosion. that it may slide freely when in use.
Vices should be wiped over frequently with an oily rag. The Electric motors used for driving machine tools and portable
moving jaw should be withdrawn to the limit of its movement to apparatus must be kept clean and free from dust both internally
permit lubrication of the screw bearings and the thread, the jaw and externally. Regular attention by authorized personnel is
insert screws and the bolts securing the
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essential for the effective maintenance of electrical equipment,
and the work of these personnel is assisted if any defect, such
as overheating or excessive sparking, is reported immediately.
Measuring instruments and appliances Twist drills, when not in use, should be kept in a graded drill
stand. Reamers should be kept in partitioned boxes or laid in
Equipment of this nature are normally kept in the workshop or grooved trays cut to receive each type of reamer.
tool store locker, and is issued on short-term loan as required.
These items must be returned immediately after use; under no
circumstances should they be left lying about on workbenches
or stowed in personal toolboxes. In order to maintain the
accuracy measuring instrument need proper handling Measuring
instruments are usually issued with the storage box and
other than during the time at which measurements are
taken the instrument should be kept in the case.
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CONTROL OF TOOLS
3 Tools that require specialized storage conditions should
The number and variety of tools in an aircraft maintenance be identified and handled accordingly. Tools that require
organization can be in hundreds if not in thousands. Each calibration and or servicing should be categorized and a
tool may have to be maintained in a different way and be procedure setup to ensure such activities are carried out
made available to certain group of persons frequently. in due time without affecting the tool availability
requirements.
In such an environment proper procedures have to be
established to prevent the tool being misplaced or mishandled. 4 Maintaining an efficient issuing and tracking system to
Added to this certain tools require calibration and/or special ensure tools are issued to identify individuals by
servicing compounds the situation. responsible persons who are well versed with the tools
and procedures involved.
Following procedures are generally adapted by most
maintenance organizations to address such needs. Common tools of a maintenance organization can be located
and controlled in several ways.
1 A person or persons are tasked with identifying the tool
requirement of the organization and deciding tools that Tool Store or Tool crib This is a centrally located
should form the personal toolkit and tools that should be secure location for a large inventory of tools that are
categorized as common tools which should be arranged in a precise manner with identified positions for tools.
maintained at a suitable accessible location to the Such a location can also be equipped to handle tools with
required personnel. special storage requirements. Access into the location is
strictly controlled and tools are issued to required personnel
2 Ensure that personal toolkits are complete and or authorized persons after the required information had
maintained in an acceptable manner by carrying out been entered in a properly maintained issue register.
audits periodically. Also non-approved tools,
consumables and aircraft hardware should not be Tool containers or toolbox kits Tools that have a
contained along with personal toolkits. specific application such as all specific tools required for an
engine change on a specific aircraft may be located in a
container that may be purpose-designed for easy
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transportation and handling. These toolkits are also usually In organizations where a separate tool control is available,
controlled by the central tool store and may be located at the the task of acquiring tools on loan basis depending on
main tool store or at another secure location. the requirement, and also ensuring tool availability and
serviceability will be the responsibility of such a section.
Many of the wide variety of materials, used in workshops, Some materials are flammable and must, therefore, be stored
require some form of control in their handling. This control can outdoors. These include oils, greases, some adhesives, sealing
involve: and glazing compounds in addition to many paints, enamels
Safety: relating to such topics as the toxicity, corrosiveness and epoxy surface finishes, which are stored in metal cabinets
or other health risks associated with the use of certain and, usually, located (in the Northern hemisphere) on the North
materials side of a workshop or hangar. This ensures that the cabinet
remains in the shade of the building and does not get exposed
Management: referring to the storage, use and correct to the suns hot rays during the day. It is also important that only
handling of all materials whether they are solid, liquid, or, in the minimum amount of these materials is taken indoors for the
some instances, gaseous work which is being done.
Economy: involving such matters as to the using of the When handling materials that give off fumes, it may be
correct dosage or proportions when mixing compounds, necessary to have the area well ventilated and/or have the
using only as much material as required for a specific task operator wearing a mask or some form of remote breathing
and to the keeping in stock of only sufficient materials and apparatus. The finished work may also give off fumes for some
thus avoiding lifed items reaching their expiry dates before time afterwards, so care must be taken to keep it ventilated if
being used. necessary.
Abrasive papers, solder and brazing materials, wire wool, tyre Obviously all liquids must only be used for the purpose for
powder, oil spill powder and so on, all which
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are designed and never mixed together, unless the two
materials are designed to be mixed, such as with two part epoxy
adhesives and sealants.
Many liquids used in workshops and in the hangar have (as
mentioned earlier) a fixed life. This date is printed on the
container and must be checked before use, because many
materials are unsafe if used beyond their expiry date.
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The working with, and the use of, high pressure gas containers
and oxygen systems, was adequately discussed in the Safety
Precautions topic.
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DIMENSIONS
Information is communicated from one person to another Time (T) can be defined as a period or interval between
primarily through spoken and written word. Such communication two events. It is a component of the measuring system used to
requires the use of previously defined, basic characters, the sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the
complete set of which is commonly known as an alphabet. intervals between them, and to quantify the motions of objects.
Likewise, the scientific community has, in effect, established an
alphabet of its own. The elements, or most basic parts of this Temperature is physical property of a system that measures
communication system, are known as dimensions. degree of hotness or coldness of object, ambience, etc. The
temperature of a substance is a measure of the internal energy
Common dimensions of the molecules (i.e., energy caused by movement of its
molecules).
The following are a few common dimensions and their
definitions: Temperature is measured with thermometers that may be
calibrated to a variety of temperature scales. The Celsius scale
The length of an object is the distance between its ends, its is used for most temperature measuring purposes..Many
linear extent as measured from end to end.It is usually engineering fields also use the Kelvin and degrees Celsius
represented by the capital letter L. scales. Other engineering fields also rely upon the Rankine
scale and Fahrenheit scale
Mass (M) is the amount of matter in an object. Every object has
a mass that does not change as the object is moved from one
place to another.
After a few dimensions are defined, it should be obvious that Dimensions obtained by combining one or more fundamental
other dimensions can be obtained by combining one or more of dimensions are called derived dimensions.
them. This observation leads to the need to differentiate
between the original dimensions and the combined Area (L2) and volume (L3) are examples of derived
dimensions, and thus the terms fundamental and derived dimensions obtained by combining the same dimension
dimensions were born. (i.e., L).
m2kg1s3
Siemens S electrical conductance 1/
A2
m2kgs2
Weber Wb magnetic flux J/A
A1
Vs/m2 =
magnetic field strength, magnetic kgs2
tesla T Wb/m2 =
flux density A1
N/(Am)
m2kgs2
Henry H
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A2
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TOLERANCES AND ALLOWANCES The following terms are used generally when indicating
dimensions.
An impossible task to do in engineering manufacture is to make
a part to exact dimensions called for by a design document. Nominal size The dimension of an object when variations in
size are disregarded; the actual size of a part will be
Dimensions may seems to match if measured using a approximately the same as the nominal size but need not be
measuring instrument with less accuracy, but if the exactly the same; for example, a rod may be referred to as
measurements are taken using an instrument with higher inch, although the actual dimension on the drawing is 0.2495
accuracy, a dimensional discrepancy will exist between the inch, and in this case inch is the nominal size.
stipulated and manufactured.
Approximate or rough cut dimension by which a material is
When production to exact dimensions is not achievable during generally called or sold in trade, but which differs from the
manufacture, the next possible scenario is to achieve the actual dimension. In lumber trade, for example, a finished
closest possible dimensions to what is required. (dressed) 'two by four' piece is less than 2 inches thick and less
than 4 inches wide. Also called nominal size.
Method of dimensioning and tolerance wherein the tolerance is
taken as plus or minus from an explicitly stated dimension; the Basic Size The basic size is that size from which the limits of
dimension represents the size or location which is nearest the size are derived by the application of allowances and
critical condition (that is maximum material condition), and the tolerances.
tolerance is applied either in a plus or minus direction, but not in
both directions, in such a way that the permissible variation in Limits - The stated maximum and minimum allowable
size or location is away from the critical condition. dimensions when variation on the basic size is taken into
consideration. Here, the largest allowable dimension is called
the upper limit and the least allowable dimension is called the
lower limit.
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Tolerance The difference between the upper limit and the Allowance An allowance is a planned deviation between an
lower limit of a dimension. The amount that the size of a actual dimension and a nominal or theoretical dimension, or
machine part is allowed to vary above or below a basic between an intermediate-stage dimension and an intended final
dimension; for example, 3.650 0.003 centimeters indicates a dimension. The unifying abstract concept is that a certain
tolerance of 0.003 centimeter. amount of difference allows for some known factor of
compensation or interference. For example, an area of excess
Bilateral Tolerance When variation is allowable in both metal may be left because it is needed to complete subsequent
directions from the basic size. Here the actual dimensions of the machining.
object may be larger or smaller than the basic size by an
allowable margin.
Actual size can be larger than the basic size but the
minimum allowable size should be that of the basic size and not
less.
OR
Actual size can be smaller than the basic size but maximum
allowable size should be that of the basic size and not more.
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STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP
Whilst the standards of workmanship, during the hand-working There are a variety of machines that can generate a smooth
of metals and other materials, is controlled by the craftsperson, surface on a piece of metal, the selection between them being
once machinery is used in the manufacturing process, then the decided by the quality of finish. A lathe can produce an
standards of finish and workmanship depend upon the exceptionally smooth surface on a bar or some other rotated
allowances set by the designer and on the type of machinery shape. If a large area is required to have a smooth finish, then
being used. perhaps, after initial casting or forging, the choice may be of
employing either a grinding machine or a milling machine, to
With hand tools, there are standards of finish, but these depend provide the desired result.
upon the skill of the craftsperson and, again, on the tools being
used. For example, when filing metal, different grades of files In summary, the quality of the finished article is dependent both
are used, to obtain a comparatively smooth surface finish while on the skill of the craftsperson and the equipment available to
other methods, such as abrasive papers, pastes and polishes, complete the task. It does not matter whether the tools in use
are then used, to provide the final finish. are files and emery cloth or an expensive milling machine; the
standard of workmanship of the craftsperson can make a great
When sawing, the same procedures apply in that blades with deal of difference to the finished article.
finer teeth will give a better finish to the sawn edges, which may
then be further smoothed, using an appropriate selection of
files.
When drilling a hole, the conventional twist drill will only produce
a finish of a certain standard. If a finer finish, to the inside of the
hole, is required, then a reamer would be used, to smooth the
material inside the hole, so that, if a tight fitting pin is to be fitted
through the hole, there will be better surface contact.
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Knowledge of the possible error level in measurements is Instruments can be sub-divided into separate classes according
essential, and a necessary pre-requisite for this is a proper to several criteria. These sub-classifications are useful in
understanding of the operational characteristics of instruments broadly establishing several attributes of particular instruments
and an examination of the way in which instrument performance such as accuracy, cost, and general applicability to different
is specified. A convenient way to achieve this knowledge is to applications.
classify instruments into different types and then to study the
characteristics of each of these various instrument sub-groups. Active/ passive instruments
Instruments consist of one or more separate components, which Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to
together serve to give an output reading, which is some function whether the instrument output is entirely produced by the
of a measured physical quantity. The primary component in an quantity being measured or whether the quantity being
instrument is a transducer, which translates the measured measured simply modulates the magnitude of some external
physical quantity into another form. Further possible power source. This might be more easily understood if it were
components within the instrument are an amplifier, an amplifier- illustrated by an example.
analyzer and an output display system. The term 'instrument'
is used somewhat loose, throughout this text, as is fairly An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-measuring
device. The pressure of the fluid is translated into movement of
common practice, to describe any or all of these components.
a pointer against a scale. The energy expended in moving the
pointer is derived entirely from the change in pressure
measured; there are no other energy inputs to the system.
Fig. 2.3
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An important distinction between different instruments is made
according to whether they are suitable only for monitoring
functions or whether their output is in a form that can be directly
introduced as an input into an automatic control system.
Instruments, which only give an audio or visual indication of the
magnitude of the physical quantity measured, such as a liquid-
in-glass thermometer, are only suitable for monitoring purposes.
This class normally includes all null-type instruments and mostly
passive transducers.
Fig. 2.4
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Static calibration 2. Decide which of the inputs will be significant in the
application for which the instrument is to be calibrated.
All inputs (desired, interfering and modifying) except one are
kept at some constant values. Then the input under study is 3. Procure apparatus that will allow you to vary all the
varied over some range of constant values. The input-output significant inputs over the ranges considered necessary.
relationship is valid under the stated constant conditions of all Procure standards to measure each input.
the other inputs.
Measurement method: ideal situation all other inputs are 4. By holding some inputs constant, varying others, and
held constant recording the output(s), develops the desired static
input-output relations.
Measurement process: physical realization of the
measurement method The various static characteristics are defined in the following
paragraphs.
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In United Kingdom, the appropriate procedures for attaining As specified in BS 5750,
quality assurance are defined in document BS 5750 (Parts 0-4). The supplier shall provide, control, calibrate and maintain
This was first published by British Standards Institution in 1979, inspection, measuring and test equipment suitable to
since then it has been adopted in a wide range of industries. demonstrate the performance of the product to the specified
This first version has been modified in collaboration with the requirements. Equipment shall be used in a manner, which
International Standards Organization in the light of user ensures that measurement uncertainty is known.
A revised version was published in 1987 by both the British STANDARD PROCEDURE
standards Institution and the International Standards
Organization as two separate but identically worded documents. BS 5750 lays down procedures to be followed when selecting,
ISO versions are numbered ISO 9000ISO 9004. At the end of using, calibrating, controlling and maintaining measurement
1987, the procedures were also adopted by the European standards and measuring equipment. A summary of the
requirements is given below:
Committee for Standardization and published as identically
worded documents numbered EN 29000-EN 29004.3. Prior to 1 The supplier shall establish and maintain an effective
1987, a separate document, B8 5781, existed that detailed the system for the control and calibration of measurement
necessary measurement and calibration procedures associated standards and measuring equipment.
with quality assurance systems, but this became obsolete when
these procedures were subsumed within BS 5750 in 1987. 2 All personnel performing calibration functions shall have
adequate training.
a statement of the cumulative effects of
uncertainties in calibration data;
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