Multimedia (Communication alications, Networks,tight of Fed Halal tobe identified as author of tis Work ha been asserted by him in accordance ‘the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, ‘nright ©2001 by Pearson Education, Ltd, sedition is published by arrangement with Pearson Education, Ltd. book s sold subject to the condition tha shall no, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, ‘out, or otterwise circulated without the publisher's prior writen consent in any form of binding or x oer than that in which itis published and without a similar condion including this condition being ‘sed onthe subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright eserved above, no ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored ino introduced int a erkeval sytem, or tanemitted in foam or by any means (clectronc, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior ‘en permission ofboth the copyright owner and the above-mentioned publisher ofthis book. 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Park, New Deli 110 017, Inia, ted in india by Saurbh Printers, shortcontents Prefice Acknowledgments chapter multimedia communications Ad eduction "712 Mulia information representation JAS Mulimedia neworks 714 Mulimmedia applications 15 Application and networking terminology 16 Summary chapter 2. multimedia information representation 221 Introduction 1/22 Digiaon principles Za Ten AB Audio conpresion “48 Video compresion et Summary 5 2s 2 Bn 25 4 53 n 7” 9 96 no us ry 138 138 139 146 ee 190 195 195 195 215 255 chapter5 standards for mattimedia communications 5. Introduction 5. Reference models 5.8 Standards relating to interpersonal 154 Standards relating to interactive applications ‘over the Internet. 5:5 Standard for entertainment applications 56 Summary chapter 6 digital communication basics 61 Introduction 62 Tranamison media, 63 Sources of signal impalement 644 Agmehronous wanamisson 65 Sychronous wansmision 66 Error detecon methods {67 Protocol basis 68 The HDLC protocol 6.9 Summary chapter circuit-switched networks 7 Inoducton 72 Transmission ateme 173 Switching stems 74 Signaling stems 73 Summary chapter 8 enterprise networks 81 tnoduction 82 LAN 3 Ethemney/EEESO2S 8.4 Token ring 261 261 262 268 200 275 283 309 309 313 sat 333 340 49 358 385 398 400 400 408 479 am a4 415 6 485‘eantets eed LAN rotocols te LAN interconnection Aogies ay the internet, grams entation and seassemby Trees snd RARP 1g algorithms support "PP ink ayer protocol ‘Pet imteroperabiliy sary © broadband ATM networks duction format and avitching principles charehltecures col architecture (LANs (MANS ‘caren ATM networks mary 11 entertainment networks ‘and high-speed modems duction te TV neworks Alte television networks restial televsion ners Inspeed PSTN access technologies mary 500 516 sa a3 49 559 6 68 sn 518 57 583 25, 620 637 655 660 668 60 os 679 69 703 m4 a ra a1 a2 139 ™ 78 785 chapter 12 transport protocols 7121 Introduction (A22 TCP/IP protocol suite ‘avs teP “124 Up (A2S RTP and RICP “126 Sunmary chapter 13 application support functions 13:1 Invodvetion 152 ASNI 133 Seeuriy 124 Data encryption 185 Nonrepudiation 135 Authentication 187 Public key cerification auhorides 138 Sommary chapter 14 Internet applications 141 Tawrodueton 142 Domain name sytem 143 Electronic ait M44 FIP M45 Tre 1146 Internet telephony 147 SNMP 148 Summary chapter 15 the We 181 Inodveton 152 URLeand HTTP 153 HTML 15a Audio and video 158 Java and JavaScript 156 Secarity 15.7 Web operation 15.8 Summary Appendix A ‘Appendix B Bibliography Index td Wide Web CRC implementation Forward eror control ‘a. fp contents 8 chapter 1 ry 352 aie est 67 ‘7 883 85 14 890, aot 15. 296 oT 908 925 sat a 16 chapter 2 an os. 22 23 24 ‘multimedia communications Introduction ‘Multimedia information representation ‘Multimedia networks 1.3.1 Telephone nevworks 132 Data networks 113.3 Broadcast television newworks 134 Integrated services digial nevworks 11355 Broadband multiservice networks ‘Multimedia applications 14.1 Interpertonal communications 1:42 Interactive applications over the Internet 143 Entertainment applications “Application and neworking terminclogy 15.1 Media ypes 15.2 Communication modes 1.53 Network ypes 154 Mulépoint conferencing, 1.55 Network QoS 1.56 Application QoS Summary Exercises ‘multimedia information representation Introduction Digitization principles 2.3.1 Analog signals 2.2.2 Encoder design 22.3 Decoder design Text 23.1 Unformatted text 23.2 Formatted text 2.3.3 Hypertext Images 2.4.1 Graphics 2.4. Dightzed documents 2 om 2 26 2 2 38 M 46 5 53 36 st 63 6 n 8 ” » 80 89 oo 8 9625 26 27 chapter 3 a 32 33 a chapter 4 ay 42 2.4.3 Digitized pictures Audio 25.1 PCM speech 25.2 CD-quality aio 25.3 Synthesized audio Video 26.1 Broadeast television 2.62 Digital video 263 PC video 2.8.4 Video content Summary Exercises text and image compression Tetroduetion Compression principles 32.1 Source encoders and destination decoders 32.2 Losses and losy compression 323 Enuropy encoding 324 Source encoding ‘Text compresion 331 State Huffman coding 33.2 Dynamic Huffman coding 333 Arithmetic coding 3.34 Lempel-Ziv coding 3.3.5 Lempel-ZivWelsh coding Image eomprenion 3.41 Craphies interchange format 3.42 Tagged image fle format 8.43 Digitized documents 8.4.4 Digitized pictures 3445 JPEG Sumary Exercises audio and feo compression Introduction ‘Audio compression 421 Differential pulse code modulation 422 Adaptive differential PCM 423 Adaptive predictive coding 100 ne ue us us us uo na 13 138 14 135 138 138 139 139 139 40 M3 146 16 182 156 158 159 162 163 164 166 1m mm . 190 19 195 195, 195 196 199 201 4a 44 chapter 5 5a 52 58 54 424 Linear predictive coding 425 Codecxcited LPC 42.6 Perceptual coding 42.7 MPEG audio coders 4.2.8 Dolby audio coders ‘Video compression 43:1 Video compression principles 432 H261 433 269 43.4 MPEG 435 MPEG1 436 MPEG2 437 MPECA Summary Exercises standards for multimedia communications Inwrodscon | Reference model 5.21 TCP/IP reference model 5.2.2 Protocol basics oe Standards relating to interpersonal comm 53.1 Circuitmode networks 5.32 Packerovitched networks 5.8 Elecuonic mail ser een Suajdards relating to interactive applications over the ls 5.4.1 Information browsing 342 Elecironic commerce 543 Intermediate mens SAA Java and JavaScript Standards for entertainment applications 5.5.1 Movie/videoonsiemand 555. Interactive slevision Summary Exercises igital communication basics Introduction ‘Transmission media 6.2.1 Tworwice open lines 82.2 Twisted airlines cons | 9 201 203, 24 207 212 215 216 25 29 237 238 242 246 255, 237 261 261 262 365 281 268 270 278 286 200 29 203 295 207 298 3, 207 309 309) 313, au aie63. 64 65 68 67 6s, 69 chapter 7 623 Coaxial cable 6.24 Optical fiber 6.25 Satellites 6.2.6 Terrestrial microwave 6.2.7 Radio 6.28 Signal propagation deby Sources of signal impairment 63.1 Auenvation 6.3.2 Limited bandwidth 63.3 Delay distortion 63.4 Noise Asynchronous transmission 64.1 Bitmnchronization 6.42 Character smichronization 6.43 Frame synchronization Synchronous transmission 65.1 Bit smchronization 65.2 Characteroriented 853 Bicoriented Error detection methods 6.6.1 Parity 6.6.2 Block sum check 6.6.8 Cyclic redundancy check Protocol basics 62.1 Error control 6.2.2 Idle RQ 6.23 Continous RQ 6.2.4 Flow control 6.7.5 Séquence numbers 6.76 Layered architecture 6.2.7 Protocol specification 8.78 User service primitives ‘The HDLC protocol Summary Exercises circuit-switched networks Introduction Transinision systems 7.2.1 Analog subscriber lines 72.2 PSIN modems 72.8 Digital subscriber fines 72.4 Plesiochronous digital hierarchy an an a sie set 35 396 23. 14 15 chapter 8 88. 89 810 chapter 9 on 92 93 725 Synchronous digital hierarchy Switching systems 732 Time switching TR2 Space switching, 7.33 Digital switching units Signaling systems TALL Access network signaling 742 Trunk network signaling Summary Exercises networks. Introduction LANs Exherniet/IEEE8023 Token ring Bridges 85.1 Transparent bridges 85.2 Source routing bridges FDpI igh speed LANS 87:1 Fast Ethernet 87.2 Switched Fast Ethernet 8.7.8 Gigabit Ethernet LAN protocols 88.1 Physical layer 88.2 MAC sublayer 883 LLC cublayer 884 Network Iner : -Mullisite LAN interconnection technologies 89.1 Intersive gateways 8.9.2 ISDN switched connections 89.3 Frame relay 8.9.4 High bitrate leased tines ‘Summary Exercises ‘the Internet Introduction IP datagraras Fragmentation and reassembly ry 40 “a 46 a8 “9 461 a0 a am 45 476 485, 500 sor si 516 a1 sa 539 sar sis a8 545 580 551 54 587 564 568 smContents 4 95. 96 97 98 99 910 aan oe ‘chapter 10 ya 104 103 104 addresses 841 Subnets AARP and RARP 95.1 ARP 952 BARP 9353 ARP/RARP message formats 0 tans Routing algorithms 961 Satie routing 962 Flooding 9163 Distance vector routing 964 Linkstateshortentpathiiet rowing 9.65 Hierarchical routing 9656 Clasessinterdomain routing 96.7 Tunneling 868. Broadcast routing 9.69. Mulicas routing 96.10 IGMP 96.1 Mebone loMP 9.3.1 ICMP message formas and wansmision QoS support 9B. Invegrated services 28.2 Differentiated sersices The PPP link layer protocol 16 910. Datagram format 9810.2 Address structure 2.10.3 Extension headers 9.104 Autotontiguration 1146 /1Pv4 interoperability 9:1. Dual peotocots 9.112 Dual sacks and eneling 9.113 Translators Summary Exercises broatband ATM networks Introduction, Call format and switching principles Switch architectures Protocol architecture 104.1 ATM adaptation layer 30.42 ATM layer a ros ATM LANs ss 105.1 Cal procesing me 106 KEMMANS o so THD Subnet archi 262 Protocol arhiectre = 1083 Queved arbitrate aces protocol a 10.6.4 Bandwidth balancing oe 10.65 Peioritized distributed queuing oon 10.6.6 Sot and segmem Sorsats al 10.6.7 SMDS oo 10.7 Wide area ATM networks oes 108 Sumeary Exerelien sos 600 = yedems oa chopter 11 entertainment networks and highspeed os 111 Insodction ea 112 Cable TV networks e 11.2.1 HFC networks Ca 11.3. Satellite television networks oe 11.3.1 Broadcast television principles So 11132 Digital television na 11.33 Interactive services “a 114 Terrestrias television newworks ls os LAT Broadcast television prineipl ois 1142 Dig television a 11.43 Interactive services ies ee ALS Highapeed PSTN access technolog! oe 115.1 ADSL ea 11.5.2 VDSL_ = 11.6 Summary a Exercises 662 chapter 12 _ transport protocols ] 12.1 Introduction te 122 TCP/IP protocol suite a 123 TCP on 1281 User services om 1282 Protec operation oe 12.3.3 Additional features bald < 1284 Protocol specification Contents B x9 65 Ww 705 07 no m ns 78 720 ™ mm m8 a a 732 736 159 761 766 m0 ™ m ms TH 78 79 1 728 181 co 01 2 704 705 500 as 833,124 125 126 chapter 13 11 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 chapter 14 4a M42 M3 upp 124.1 User services 12.42 Protocol operation RIP and RCP 1251 RIP application support functions Introduction ASN. 1821 Type definitions 132.2 Transfer syntax Security Data encryption 1841 Terminology 13.42 Basic techniques 13.43 The data eneryption standard 1344 IDEA 13.45 The RSA algorithm Nonrepuciation Authentication 136.1 Using a public key system 13.62 Using a private key stern Public key certification authorities Summary Exercises internet applications Introduction Domain name system 142.1 Name structure and administration 14.22 DNS resource records 142.3 DNS query messages 1424 Name servers 1425 Service requests Elecronie mail 14.3.1 Structure of email messages 14.8.2 Message content 143.3 Message wansfer 144 7 48 chapter 15, 151 152 153 4 155 156 187 FIP 14.41 Overview 14.42 File content representation 14.43 FIP operation 1444 Command and reply message format 1445 Example 1446 Anonymous FTP ‘TFIP 145.1 Protocol Internet telephony 1461 SP 1462 SDP 1463 GLP ‘SNMP 14.71 Structure of management information 14.72 Prowocol Summary Exercises ‘The World Wide Web Introduction URLsand HTTP 1521 URLs 1522 HTTP HTML 159.1 Text format directives 15.82 Lists 1533 Color 15.34 Images and lines 1535 Tables 153.6 Forms and OGI scripts 1537 Webmail 15.38 Frames ‘Audio and video 15.41 Streaming using a Web server 1542 Streaming servers and RTSP Java and JavaScript 155. Java 1552 JavaScript Security 156.1 SSL 1562 SET Web operation 5 925, 925 926 927 9 3st 931 932 935 937 939 ont 48 947 951 955, 956 987 960 966 967 970 73 7 78 985 98 987 990 995 997 1000 1000 1008, 1006ae REN” 15.21 Seach Engines 106 1e12 Porat _ ss preface Bowne us ‘endix A CRC implementation 1015 endixB Forward error control 1019 graphy 1030 Index 108 Objectives ‘Multimedia communications embraces a range of applications and network: ing infrastuctures, The term multimedia is used to indicate that the information/data relating to an application may be composed of a number of different types of media which are integrated together in some way. The different media types are tex, images, speech, audio and video and some example applications are video telephony (speech and video), multimedia electronic mail (tex, images and audi for example), interactive television (text, audio and video), electronic commerce (text, images, audio and video), Web TV (text, audio and video) and many others In practice, there are a number of different types of network that are used to provide the networking infrastructure, These include not only net ‘works that were designed from the outset to provide multimedia communication services ~ normally referred to as broadband multiservice networks ~ but also nensorks that were designed initially to provide just 2 single type of service and its asa result of advances in various technologies that these can now support a range of other (multimedia) services. For exam- ple, public (and private) switched telephone networks (PSTNs) were ‘designed initially to provide a basic telephony service but they are now used to support a range of more advanced multimedia applications involving all of the different media types. Similarly, computer networks such as the Interne, ‘which were designed inially to provide generat data communication serrces such as electronic mail and file transfers, can now support a much richer set ‘of multimedia applications, In terms ofthe different types of media, text and images are generated, and represented in a digital form, Speech, audio and video, kowever, are gen ‘erated in the form of continuously varying ~ normally referred to a8 analog ~ signal. Hence in order to integrate al of the different media types together, itis necessary to fist convert the various analog signals into a digital form. ‘The integrated digital information stream can then be stored within a com- puter and transmitted over a network in a unified way. In addition, unlike {ext and images which are created in the form of a single block of digital information, since speech, audio and vileo are continuously varying signals, digizaton process can produce lage volumes of information which car Yies on increasing with time. Hence in most multimedia applications, in MT TE ETE MRS TS SA NR ILSChabter mura cima 1.2 ‘The applications may involve either person-to-person communications or Persondosystem communications. In general, two people communicate with cach other through suitable terminal equipment (TE) while a person inter- acts with a system using either a multimedia personal computer (PC) or ‘workstation. Typically, dese are located either in the home of on a desktop nan office and the ystem isa server containing a collection of files or doct- ‘ments each comprising digitized text, images, audio, and video information either singly or integrated together in some wi. Alternatively, the server may contain a library of digitized movies/videos and the user interacts with the server by means ofa suitable selection device that is connected to the settop. box (STB) associated with a television, In practice, there are a numberof diferent types of network that are used to provide the networking infrastructure, These include not only networks {hat were designed from the outset to provide multimedia communication ser vies butalso networks that were designed initalyto provide just a single ype of service andit isasa result of advances in various technologies that these can "ow provide a range of other services. For example, public switched telephone ‘networks (PSTN) also known as general switched telephone networks (GSTNs) ~ were designed intially to provide a basic switched telephone ser vice but, as a result of advances in digital signal processing hardware and associated software, they now provide a range of more advanced services involving text, images, and video. Similarly, data networks that were designed Initially o support basic data applications such as electronic mail and file \wansfers, now support a much richer set of applications that involve images, audio, and video, In this chapter we shall present an overview of, firstly, how the different media types ae represented, secondly, the different types of network that are Used to provide multimedia communication services, and thirdly, a selection ofthe applications that these networks support. Finally, we describe the mean- ‘ng ofa range of terms tha are associated with multimedia communications. Multimedia information representation Appliationsinvoing ext and images comprise blocs of digi. data. tn de case of text for example a piel unt ira block of characters wir ec chara? ter presented bya fixed numberof binary dig (its) own a codeword. Similar dined image comprises ewodimensional Black of what are called pictre elements with each element represented bya fked number of bits Aso, since pial pplication ivohing text and images comprises short ‘eyes for sme afrmaton = efor example and le contents beng returned he dation ofthe overall ansaction seal shore Jn applicators involving audio and video, however, the audio and vidéo signals ry continuo ith time as the amplitade ofthe speech, abo or video signal Yares This ype of signal i known san alg signal and, yp cally the duration of applications that involve audio and/or ideo ean be 23 matimedla eters {25 relatively long. A typical tel one conversation, for example, can last for se * eral minutes while a movie (comprising audio and video) ean last for @ tuber of bour In applications tat ino usta ingle ype of mei the bas form of representation ofthe paral media pes ened Siar nape Sone tat nave eer tetandsnages or audhoandidco thr form is often wed since the wo media ypes in thee applications have the eae form of representation. However, it appicton tat involve he diferent tmeia ypes tegrated together in sme way, comes neces to pre sata four media pest digital frm Inte case of tet and age th is their standard form of representation. For audio and video, however, beast ther aie forms ct epresenation ae analog gal these mst be converted into a coresponing digital form before they can be negra wih de to other media pes ‘swe shal dexribe ir he next chapter, the dgization ofan dio signal produces egal sgl which, becaute the amplitude ofthe sig tales cominuoty ith nei ofa rlavey high bt rte This mesure in bits per second (ope) ad, in the cat of speech saga for example, a pia birt tps Noreover, becasesppicaionsinvling ae can be of long drain, his bic ate must be sstained over amex tong tine period The same applet the dghizaton of» ido signal excep tat tnuc highcr bit ates ane longer time duration are invobe. In genera, Romever swe shall xpand upon inthe next section, the commoncaon retorts that are wed t port appieton hat invole audio and ie Canmot suppor the very hgh bit estat are required for representing these media pes ina dgal form. Ava rl a techngue lon as com preston ise appied vo the dighied signals m order to reduce the Feraing bitrate to level which the various nebrorke ean support Gompresion iso applied to text and images in order to reduce the tne dei nemeen x req being made fr some information an the informa ton becoming aasle on ay the screen ofa computer We all esi ‘Secon ofthe compres agora tat are ued vil ext and ages in Ghapier and those wed vith audio and video in Chapter 4 Multimedia networks ‘There are five basic ypes of communication network that are used to provide ‘multimedia communication services: telephone networks, data nesworks, broadcast television nesworks, integrated services digital networks, ‘Ym broadband muldservice networks.1-1 Muttinsia communications 131 [As the names imply, the first three network types were initially designe ® to provide justa single type of service: telephony, data communications, and broadcast television respectively. The last two network types, however, were designed from the outset to provide multiple services. We shall describe the essential features of each wype of network separately and, inthe case ofthe first three network types, the technological developments that have enabled them to provide additional services Telephone networks Public sviched telephone neoworks have been in existence for many years fh hove gone through many changes daring thie ime, They were designed to provide a tac sutched telephone service which, with the advent ofthe ‘ther network ypes has become known a plain ad telephone service or POTS. The term “iced” ned eo indicate data sbseiber can make a call t any other telephone thats connected tothe ‘oral network. nial, Soch networks spanned jus single county but ater the telephone neworks of deren counties were interconnected so thst they now provide an inter ‘anal oitched service The main components of the netrork are shown ia Gigrammati form in Figure 11(). ‘swe canst, telephones loested i the home orin a small busines are connected direct their nearest local exchange/end offic, Those located sn'a medium ole olfce/site are connected to agate siching office frown as private branch exchange or PBX, The PBX provides (re) Switched sevice between any two telephones that are connected tit Io Addon, the PBX s connected to is nearest local (publi) exchange which ables the telephones that are connected tothe PBX also to make calls through a PSTN. More recent, cellar phone networks have been into- duced which provide a similar service to mobile sunecribers by means of handsets tate linked to the celular phone network inrastrvctre by Tati The svitches used ina celular phone network are known 2s moi ‘itching centers (MSCs) and these, ike a PBX, ae alto connected 10 & Srthing office in'a PSTN which enables both set of sublerbers to make fall to one another Final, international als are rote to nd shed by {aternationalgteway exchanges (IGE), ‘swe indented cari, speech sgoal s analog sig sie it wares continuously with time according to the amplitde ard Feuency variations ofthe sound reuting from the speech, A lerophone rset conver this Sito an analog electra ina, Besse of thi, telephone networks operate inhatsaled a cet mode which means that, foreach ll separate cir tuts setup through the network ~ of the necesiry capacity ~ fr the Guration of the call The access cet that ink Ue telephone handsets fo a PSTN or PBX were designed, therefore, to carry the tworay analog sigals tssociated wth al Hence, although within a PSTN all the sitches and the {tansmision cies that interconnect them now operate in dig mode, 13 Mutimeda eters | 7 joccms Meckgonan ten/a PN ns an Gay, v ami Lissire oops et ~ rage stewie ‘eeshone roo — slog aces ew XE = be echonge/ond lice sth "= bi sec lepers a elaredaternh Fix pine tionsechonge EGSe © evap mle eiing coer Ge Bowartnd gsewoy echoes dor steers | alo ccs at Andon cca Hightawe —>]Chapter 1 ultieslaconmuriatons 13.2 to carry digital signal~a stream of binary Is and Ox ~ over the analog access circuits requires device known asa modem. The general scheme isshown in Figure 1.1(). Essentially, at the ending side, the modem converts the digital signal ‘output by the source cigital device into an analog signal that is compatible ‘with a normal speech signal. This is routed through the network in the sume way asa speech signal and, at the receiving side, the modem converts the analog signal back again into its digital form before relaying this othe dest- nation digital device. Modems also have the necessary circuits to set up and. terminate a call, Hence by using a pair of modems ~ one at each subseriber access point ~ a PSIN can also be used to provide a switched digital service. The early modems supported only avery low bit rate service of 30bps but a result of advances in digital signal processing cireuite, modems are now available that support bit rates of up to 56Rbps. As we shall expand upon in Chapter 4, this is sufficient to support, not only applications that comprise ‘ext and images integrated together, but also services that comprise speech, and low-resolution video, In addition, continuing advances in digital signal processing techniques ‘mean that modems are now available for use with the same access circuits ‘that provide a high bitrate channel which is in addition tothe speech chan nel used for telephony. Typically the bitrate of this second channel is such {dt it can support high-resolution audio and videa and hence they are used. to provide access to servers that support a range of entertainmentzelated. applications. The general scheme is shown in Figure 1.1(¢) and, a we shall, see in Chapter 4, such applications require bitrates in excess of 1.5 Mbps, ‘This illustrates the technological advances that have been made inthis area since the early modems were introduced in the early 1960s and, as we can deduce ffom this, a PSTN can now support not only speech applications but lso'a wide range of other multimedia communication applications Data networks Data networks were deigned to provide basic data Zommunication services such as eleéGaic tail (email) and general file ransfers. The user euip meni Yonfetted to thee networks, thefefore, iia computer such as a PC,a \woitsston, or an email/fle cetver. The two most widely deployed networks ‘of this ype are the X95 network andthe Internet. Because ofits operational mode, however, the X.25 network is restricted to relatively low bitrate data applications and hence is unsuitable for most multimedia applications. ‘The nent a up ofa vast collection of interconnected networs all of which operate using the me set of communication protooos, A communi cation protocol is an agreed set of rules that ate adhered to by all communicating parties for the exchange of information. The cules define noc only the sequence of messages that are exchanged between the communicating Parties but alo the syntox of these messages. Hence by using the same set of 1.2 A butettidn ofthe network types connected tothe Internet. 1.3 Multimedia networks | 29 ‘communication protocols, all the computers that are connected tothe Internet «can communicate freely with each other irrespective oftheir ype or manus: ‘turer. This also the origin of the term “open systems interconnection”. Figure es of inlerconnected network 1.2 shows selection ofthe different Das FC oan i Sever compar Gb brat bocion eh Des FC/wain Sacompus pi BS ack LAN = bel ona reat G/W= goxwoy IBDN = eg series dil ntverk‘swe can se, nthe ease of 2 usr at home or in smal busines acces th the Internets through an intermediate Internet service provider (ISP) net ‘work. Normally, since this type of ser wants access to the Internet intermittently, the user devices are connected to the ISP network either through a PSTN with modems or through an lacograted services tgital network (ISDN} ‘hich, as we shall explain in Section 1.3.4, provides aces ata higher bitrate. ‘Aternaely busines users obtain aces ether trough ate /eampat network ifthe business comprises only a single site of, if i comprises maliple ates, !hroogh an enterprisewide private network. The sre approach used by most colleges and unierstes. In the case ofa single sit/campus, the netrork i ‘nom asa (priate) lea area network or LAN. Foran enteprsevide network comprising muliple tes He sts are interconnected together wing an inker- site backbone network to provide a set of enterprise wide communication Services. In aon, providing the eambnicaton protocols Used by all he computes connected io the network ae the same as those defined for ie with the tre, then ll the users alo have acess othe range of series provided. ty the faternet The enterprise network's then known as an intranet since all internal services are provided using the same set of eommunicaon protools a8 those defined for the lnternet. The diferent types of neovork are ll connected to the Internet backbone network through an interworking ni called 2 gat ‘7a which, because its responsible for routing and relaying all sages to and from the connected network, i also Rov as rottr. All data neworks operate in what called packet mode, Eset, a padet isa container fora Block of data and, ats hadi dhe adres ofthe Jntended recipient computer which i wed to roe the packet through the network, Tht mode of operation was chosen since the forat ofthe data associated with data applications is normally i the form of dicrete blocks of text or binary data with varying time inervatebecween each block. More recently, however, mnulimedia PCs have become available that soppott a range of other applications. For example, with the addiion ofa microphone nd a par of speakers together with & sound card and asiodated software digitize the speech ~ PCr are now weed to support telephony and other speech-elated applications. Similarly, withthe addition of a video'caméra and asocsted hardvare and software a range of other appliajons aok video ean be supported. Also ince thei introdiction, higher tre an zission ciecvits ad rowing odes have become avalsble and eb] ‘expand upon in Chapters 3 and 4, more efficient algorthins to reprexent speech, audio, and vdeo ina digital form. Collective therelor; th means that packet mode networks ~ and the Internet in partculat~ now support ‘noc only generat data communication applications but aly. range-sE other rmulimedis communication applications Involving speech, ai, and video. Broadcast television networks Broadcast television neiworks were designed to support the diffusion of analog television (and radio) programs throughout wide geographical areas In the case ofa large town or tity the broadcast medium is normally a cable 1.3 Multimedia netoris | 30 sepvorkoometines tasvwion network wile for larger ares, 2 satite “ care atadoat newrk sted Since ther nvoducton, gt ev rr egtn ecme avn with ese nto nih togetier wh Seiten urn channel for nrectonpurpoe,proide ge of caer tere such games paying and home sopping. The gee wasn ble amaution meter nd 2 stellt trent Broa se srrk re dow in Figure 1) and (0 respecte . pcm ein Fare St) he vip toad heal i wri Sat ross not oy contol ofthe teenon hate cra fp secs to oer evs or exunple hen abe modem @ sty o Soni rata S18 = sep box wih ite aden 5: (8) cable networks; Figure 1.3 Broadcast television networks: (a) cal () satelite/terrestrial broadcast networks.Chapter 1 Multimedia communion: 13.4 is integrated into the STB this provides both a low bitrate channel and high bit ate channel from the subscriber back tothe cable head-end, Typically, the low bit rate channel is used to connect the subscriber to a PSTN and the high bit ate channel ta connect the subscriber tothe Internet. Hence in addition to providing basic broadcast radio and television services, cable distribution net ‘works azo provide acces to the range of multimedia communication services that are avilable with both a PSTN and the Internet. Similarly, as we can seein Figure 13(b), in the case of satellite and terrestrial broadcast neovorks, when a highspeed PSTN modem isintegrated into the STB this provides the subscriber vith an interaction channel so enhancing the range of services these networks "support. This is the origin ofthe term “interactive television”. Integrated services digital networks Integrated services dg neworks stated 0 be deployed in the ety 1960 dere cial designed to provide FSTW users wih te capably of Roving anal sce Thi was achieved ry hy converting he aces (rea tateonncet ter equipmen tothe network" tlephoge for exe Sie ino an adigial en aad secondly, by pronding wo separate imnican shanels over thee chet These Allow we ether hare two diferent ‘lephne cals in progres siallncou oro diferent ls tuck ars tepoe cl and a dtl, Wah an ISDN, eer, he aces Seis trove ss ight sbscribe lin (DSL) "The nlbrberclephone canbe ihe a digi phone or conenona analog one Inthe cao» gal phone te eeconk hat re needed oats analy vole sad Sal ep ignas int ig frm arene tated ito he plone hanact Wih analog phone, te une tons Siogued is he econ cmingon equipment co making the digi de Bi operation ofthe network wansparent othe subscriber phone. ‘awe hal duce nSeson 251 the dizaion oa clephone VCH fk Packet-mode ‘As we seein Figure 1,30, there are two ypes of packetmode network ounecionoriented (CO) aid connecdonkss (CL). The principe of pet = Gon of connecton-rinted aetwork i shown in Figure 1.20(8) and a P3 ae wcodt + WOH an se, it comprises an interconnected st of packstewiching exchanges : eee cn {PSts)."This ype of network is Known as packetovitched network and as witha Grcuiteytched network, each termi /compater tats connected to the peoyork has a unigue neworkode number addres asocaed with Wit a connection oriented network, asthe name implies, prior o sending Zn information, a connection i fs set up trough the network using the falesses of the source and destination terminals. However, in a pack Sriched newor, the conmecion/ereut Uats set opie only a arable portion ofthe bandwidth of each link and Bence the connection i known 3, eee {virta connection ox more usual, a vista cent (VC), Epon cere “To set up 2 VG, the source terminal/companer sends cll eit control packet oi local PSE which contains, in addition tothe adress ofthe Source and destination erminal/computer a short denier known a is tial crit identifier (VCI) Each PSE maintains a table that speciis the Chredatontig outgoing link that should be wed to reach each network adress and, on ec tecept ofthe call quest packet, the PSE. ss the destination address within the packet to determine the outgoing lin o be used The next fre ident fee (VCD for this ik is then selected and vo ene are made in routing tale The frst species the incoming ink’VCL and the coresponding owt going ink/VCl and the second, in order to route packets in the reverse directo, the inverse ofthese, a we showin the example in the Sigur. The call ropest packet is then forwarded on the selected outgoing link ard the Sine procedures ollowed at each PSEslng he route ul the despaion terminal compute i reached allecively, the VC hat areiused on the varius links for he cai an athe destination suming teal accepted al ele ‘it. The’ 02 ‘ug ole: VU/tnk) > VCs vend — voi fucket is requrned tothe source over the sme route/vrtal ire FRrormation tansfer phase ean ten start it, since a VCs now place, ly the VOI is needed in the packet heater insicad ofthe fll network-wide hres. Each PSE fst uses the incoming link/VCL wo determine the Out suing link/VCl rom the routing table. The exiting Vt inthe packet header Tent cre int replaced with that obtained fom the routing able andthe packets owe forwarded on the identified outgoing link. The same procedure is followed: mination odchest te return information in the reverse irecton and, when al information has bccn tanalerred exchanged, the VC is cleared and the appropriate VCIsare feleased by pasing a alr packet song the VC (b) connectionless,Chanter Multimedia communications In contrast, with connectionles network, the establishment of nection is ot required and the ovo communicating terminals/compu Can communicate and exchange information as and wen they wish. Io or to do this, however, a8 we show in Figure 1:20(D), each packet must carry fall source and destination addresses in its header in order for each Pf to route the packet onto the appropriate outgoing ink In a connectont network, therefore, the term router is normally used rather than pack Snitching exchange In both network types 8 each packet is received bya PSP/router on incoming link, tis stored in its entirety ina memory buffer. A check st made to determine if any transinission bit erors are present inthe pacl hheader~ thats the signal thats used to representa inary Os corrupted a fs inuerpreed by the receiver asa binary and vice erst ~and, ifan erry detected, the packet is simply discarded. The sevice offered by a pac britched network i std, therefore, to be a bestefort service. If no rors detected then the addresses/VCls carried in the packet header are read determine the outgoing link that shouldbe used and the packet i placed {queue read for forwarding on the elected outgoing link All packets are t ‘ited a the maximurn link bitrate. However, wih thismode of operation, i posible for a sequence of packets to be received on a numberof incom Fate al ofwhich need forvarding on the same outging ink. Hence a pal may experience an aditional delay while ii the ouput queve for ali vraiing to be transmitted Cleary, this delay will be variable since it depends the numberof packets that are currently present in the queue when an packet arrives for forwarding, This mode of operation is known as (pack Noreand forward and, as we can se, there isa packet store-andforward del in each PSE/router. The sum of the storeand-forward delays in PSE /router contributes to the overall transfer delay of the packet across network. The mean of this dela is known asthe mean packet transfer d tnd the variation about the mean the dlay variation ote. ‘An example of a packet-switched network that operates inthe conn tionless mode isthe Internet, which je shall describe in some detail Chapter 9. Two examples of networks that operate in the connect tented mode are the international X25 padkevsvitchingiebworkand A neworks. As we explained in SecHod 1.8.2, H2 X.25 network use pri iy for the wansfer of files containing text dhd binary dita betwegn lad “Computers. Because of the packet format that i used, the routing of pal is relatively slow with the effet tat the X25 network is unsuitable form tmullimedia applications. Ip comras, as we desried in Secipn 1.3.5, reworks have been designed from the outset © suppor all types of ml dia applications. This is achieved by using high bitrate interconnecting li Sd, once avrwal circuit has been setup, a very small fixedsized packet 53 bytes is used to transfer the information associated with the cal. E Small packet is known as a cell snd includes a short Sbyte header whi tables ells tobe suche atthe very high lnk bitrates that are use. I 1.9 Applicaton and metering termiology for this reaton that ATM necworks are also known as fast pack 3s Fast packet sitchin ‘works or sometimes cellswitching networks. We shall desente tie wen ‘Of ATM networks in Chapter 10 pera Multi ‘swe deeribedin Seton 1.4.1, malipoint conferencing fees inteipesonal applications including audio: and videorenferencng 1 sharing, and computer-supported cooperative working. Essentially h imvtve be exchange of information between thes oe a furs pace’ beemse of he diferent modes eae Sewresk per crutvitched and pachcrantched en a, ings implemented in ove of wo way convalzed snd oe ea Tis ceemeetd ea Wel yall ear aneger ee PSTN or an ISDN and, as we show in Figure 1.21 (a), with this mode z tcrminal/computer to be invaled in the confereneé nas Ren a eas nection to the server. Each terminal/computer then sends its ow = stream ~ comprising, say, audio, video, and data integrated together in g ways wer Sing ieesablahed connection eg er Toutes eter te media Sucamreeched froma ese oa ter or mix of the media seams recived from sever! term : computers back to all the other terminals/computers that Nes “Te dcenralzed mode i sed with packetaviched network hat portman communion Eras cel wera intraness, and the Internet. In this mode, as we show in Fi 1 ‘ win Figure 1210) culpa ofeach verminal/computcr i eccived bya he ener ese theconferene/mulean group. Hence conerae se used and Insicad it ix he reeponsibilty of each tercnralfec ne manage the information scams that reches ftom we ge ese trie nnn we yin shown Figure Ll (0 ands wwe cansee ts tnehene meee nali/computers that make up the conference are attached to diffe : sitet pes in dare dvd; ib confines ee pecketontched netk that oppor ulate ea ‘mode, a conference server is used and the o ve mpi euch ternal per iseno the sere either ve indidsl Creag eee centralized mode, it is the server that determines the output st a sent toeach terminal. ee {Asoc expand ln Seton 141 there re for ype of conferencing joint conferencing ‘= dar conferencing: this involves data only and examples include dats sharing and computeraupported coopertve woopESSE SE SE “ey 2 | on si cmon 15 pmtatnwdnenteo weit | to} With dat conferencing the information ow betnen he arious partes is rlaively nfvequent: Normal, Hrerefore, the conference server a general purpose computer with the conference fonction implemented in Sitar. ith te oer thee ype of conferencing, howe the itor Gon flows demand the use of special popore Unio, Inthe case of tdloconfesencing, the init alld an aud edge and piel nis supe port fom sn through to 43 conference paricpanis. With video and fnutedia conferencing, he unit called a mulpent contol ni (MCU) tnd bea of the vohune and rate ofthe infortaton being exchanged, normaly te centred mode of working ted wih both network ees “At MU consists of vo parte the fat ow a the slp cow teller (MC) prt and is concerned vith the exablnhment of contections tach ofthe convene paripans an wi he negoaon ofan aged se Of operational parameters ren teshuon,effesh rat and soon The Second part Known 5 the mpi proce (MP) and is concerned wth Peseta the dtaon ofthe information ste generated ring the conference es : “Tele incade such ncn 2 the ming o the ris mea seas Leet intoan ograted seam witeacoteaithing and continuous presence ‘When aking an audio bridge call scheduled for a particu date tim, and draion and everyone whois to ake pain the el signed 9 UserID and paswont Ac the appropriate ime al prspans call nad, afer they ate been vriied ten he conference, ey ean hear and speak tothe caer paicipaa In sna yen wing an MC, eal che tied afr an sudo ridge and, once the contents sats, och poreipant tan hee sce and Sore data wth the ctr porn Wi an MCU, how tye in sion tothe poiipantealing I own athe latin mode insome instances, the MU eal the parcpants~ he afout mode = which in general provides beter eur. In te vokeatated siching mode, the face of he parcipants die played in a window on the sercem ofthe prteipaserinal/ computer End ins second window the face ofthe (ems) patipant wh cu ees : tent talking, When anode print stars ofl the face of te new Q - ema omic or : speaker replaces the lage of the current remote payilpant. In the event of tho. (or more) panicipant satng alk mete he MCU nor Inlysnect the feaon who spent the lowe, Inthe conto presence tnede, hover he femote window is ded ito 9 munte of aller wi Gown each of which pay the ae of the st ve of partion who spoke cr nh are erent seating, With bch modes the Speceh fom al pace: ants normaly mined ine 8 single dem an hens each Patipa can Hvashea what irs by al the ther portipnt Crean or PINION ered 'W- audioconferencing: this involves ado (speech) only: , 1 videaconerencing: thie involves speech and video spichronivediand integrated together: |X multimedia conferencing: this involves speech, video, and data 15.5. Network QoS integrated together. F ‘The operational parameters associated with a communications channel through a network are known as the network Quality of Service (QoS) paranceters and collectively they determine the suitability of the channel“ Chapter Multimedia communications in relation to its use for a particular application. In practice, the QoS par meters associated with a circuitswitched network are different fron those associated with a packet-switched network and hence we shall discus cach separately Gircuit-switched network “The QoS parameters associated with a constant bitrate channel that is set uf through a ciruitswitched network include: wm thebit rate, the mean bit error rate, ‘© the transmission delay “The mean bit error rate (BER) of a channel isthe probability ofa bi being corrupted during its transmission across the channel in a defined time interval Hence, fora constant bitrate channel, this equates tothe probabi ff a bit being corrupted in a defined number of bits. A mean BER of 10°} therefore, means that, on average, for every 1000 bits cha are transmitted, these bit il be corrupted. In some applications, providing the occurrence off bit errors i relatively infrequent, their presence is acceptable while in other applications itis Imperative that no residual bit errors are present in the eecived information. For example, ifthe application involves speech, then an ‘ceasional bit error will go unnoticed but in an application involving the tran fer of, ay, financial information, it is essential thatthe received informatio contains no errors. Hence with such applications prior to transmission t Source information is normally died ito blocks the maximum sizeof whic js determined by the mean BER of the communications channel For example, if the mean BER is 10%, then the number of bits in a blo must be considerably less thar! 1000 otherwise, on average, every block wi ‘Contain an error and will be discarded. Normally, however, bit errors ocet fandomly and hence, even with a block size of say, 100 bits, blocks may stil “Conti an error but the probably of this occurring is considerably less. i seer if he BER piobability is Pan the nusnber of bis ina block ‘ied alsuming random effors, the probability of 4 block containing a bi ertor, Py is gen By: a7" ry which approximates to NX Pif Nx Pis less than 1 ‘in practice, most networks ~ both circuitshitched and packevewitched provide an unreliable service which is also known asa besttry or beste Reyvice. This means that any blocks containing bit errors will be discarded tiiher within the network ~ packetawitched networks ~ or in the network {interface at the destination ~ both packetawitched and cicuitswitched ne svorks. Hence if the application dictates that only errorree blocks are 15 npteiranbttemionr | acceptable, it is necessary forthe sending terminal /compoter.o vide 2 ation into blogs ofa defined maximum sxe and forthe dest aan acct ae block is msg. When this ocus th destination x vo eG the source send ance copy of te ising block. The sr sera hen sid tobe a reliable service. Cleary, hs wil itroduce ad Cer rnsion procedure should be invoked relatively inten ene sacs nama lock sive Tis, however, leads to high overheads rei eget contin the aiionl information thas sociated wih can esha procedure, Noval therefore the choice of lock te ae pchoeen the increased dela resulting from a lage block carer aamanisions andthe los of transmission bandwidth rent ‘te high overheads of using a smaller block se ron rton delay sociated with a channel is determined not by nbsreu thats ured but also delays that occur inthe tersinal/+ Pier neon nerfs non a code dela, pls the propegaon: Pat al sigels they ps from the source othe desnation actos cao ernie determined bythe physica separation ofthe to com weeettsarices and the velocity of propagation of signal aco on ssn medium, In fee space, for example the Eater i equal eee ety (9x 10! ms whe tis ation ofthis in physical me ‘jpn vale being 210 ms Stace the propagation delay in each case is independent oft rate wfahe communieations channel and assuming de codee delay re cist same whether the bitrates 1s, Mbps or 1Chps Packet-switched network “The Qos parameters associated with a packetswitched network include 1m the maxiqum packet size, 1m the mean packet transfer rate,Example 1.2 86 | ener) uted cmon 1 the mean packet error rate, w= the mean packet transfer delay, the worst-case jitter, the transmission delay Ina packetitched neoork, although the rate at which pekis vranaered acon the neerrk i intuenced song by the Wi ate of imcreonnecing links, beeaie ofthe apa sopean formar dls i cach PSR, rou, the actual 1c o ance of Ethics tere the Hark also variable, Hence the mean packet transfer rale is a thedsuie of ‘he ei homer of pacies at ore enue se ee serworh pr lp aad Coupled wi the paket se eng we, defetmines he equalen mean foo the anne ‘The mean pact ror ato PERisthe probly of ected pad conainag one ot more bers sth te eer ab the lth ee fatcauocued wih screuictched network wich we dered in the pre Cus secon, Hence iis elated to both the maxima packet sean te trortave BER of he tanamison insta inerconnedt the PSE fut hme up te network 1.5 Agliationand networking teinoloay | 65 ‘We defined the meaning of the term "wean packet transfer delay” in Section 1.5.3 when we described the operation of packet mode networks. Is, the summation of the mean storeand-forward delay that a packet experi- fences in each PSE/router that it encounters along a route and the term sitter” is the worstease variation in this delay. As we ust explained, the trans- Inission delay isthe same whether the network operates in a packet mode or a {Greuit mode and includes the coder delay in each of the two communicating, ‘computes and the signal propagation delay. Application QoS “The network QoS parameters define what the particular network being used provides rather than what the application requires. The application itself, Fowever, also has QoS parameters astociated with it. Tn an application invol~ ing images, for example, the parameters may include a minimum image resolution and size, while in an application involving video, the digitization format and refresh rate may be defined. The application QoS parameters that relate to the network include: the required bitrate oF mean packet transfer rate, the maximum startup delay the maximum ené-toend delay, the maximum delay varition/jiter, roundtrip delay. For aplicaons involving the santero conwant Bitrate stream, the important parameters af te equied bit at/imean packet transfer rae, treendto-ead del and, equaly important, the delay valaton/jcr since Misco cesprbleasin the deinaon decoder i the rate of ara of Ue tnsets sai. For interact aplcaons, however, he startup delay tefnes the amount of time that elapecsbeteen an application making & junta srt tesion and he confirmation being reed rom the appr “Shomat hedesintion a serve for example = (hats prepase to accept She seat Hene ths aude in addto o the me require to establish jcmbnk contin si equi deiay introduced in both the dource and the Jeyingion computes while negoating Wat the sesion an ke pce, Ate lw eae n Scion 15, de roundtrip delay is impor tan ince, for humane computer imeracton to be successful, the delay Fitscens eques for some information teing made and the start ofthe information being seceved displayed shoud bea short as posible an, ide fisould be es hana ew second. ‘Altea sce from the above for aplctons hat insoe the ane ofa consant it te steam, a etettoniehed rework woul apeart be mos Spproprate ince, fad, the eal setup dey is often not important and srercly the channel provides a constant bit ate service ofa hnown rae.Chapter 2 Multinesi communications conversely, for interactive applications, a connectonless packet switched net trork would appear to be most appropriate since with this there is no nework Tall setup delay and any variations inthe packet transfer delay re not important. ‘an example application that lustrates the benefits of a packetswitched net work over a crcutawitched network isthe transfer of a lage file of data from Tener computer connected tothe Internet to cient PC/ workstation ina home ‘As we showed earlier in Figures 1.2 and 1.18, access to the Internet from home ‘an be by means of a PSTN (with a modem), an ISDN connection, or a cable tnodern, In the ease ofa PSTN and an ISDN, these operate in a cicuitswitched Thode and provide a constant bitrate channel of in the order of 288 kbps (PSTN thin modem) and 64/128kbps (ISDN). In contrast, cable modems operate in a acket mode and, as we shall se later in Sein 11.2.1, the modems in each of the homes in a cable region time-share the use ofa single high bitrate chan tel/cirait A pica bitrate ofthe ehazed channel is 27 Mbps and the number of ‘Concurrent users ofthe channel may be several hundred. Hence, astuming 270 Concurrent users, each user would get mean data rate of 10OKBpS With this ype of application, however, the main parameter of intrest is not the mean data/bit rate but the time to transmit the complete file. With a PSTN and an ISDN, this is directly related to the channel bitrate and the size (ofthe file. With a cable modem, however although they timeshare the se of the 27 Mbps channel, when they gain access oi, the file transfer takes place atthe full rate, Hence assuming the filesize is 100 Mbit, the minimam time to teansmit the file using the different Inernet access modes: PSTN and 28.8 kbps modem: 57.8 minutes ISDN at 64 kbps: 26 minutes ISDN at 128 kbps: 13 minutes ip table modem at27 Mbps: 8.7 seconds In the case of cable modem, f otter uansfer requests occur during the time ie files being transmitted, then the completion time of each taster Teques wil increase as they shar he use ofthe channel, Nevertheless, with {he gpe of application, the probably of multiple users requesting a transfer Jn ahe short wow of ine relate ow iy vis Hasan, Heer, his es fe that the alernatvd net “wit yps tant be ied: For iteradte applic for example, the fall a i= anda PSTN for lea calls is many applications, Giléactepiable Simi, for constant bit ‘EZ apptcadons, providing the equivalent mean bitrate provided by the net Mork greater than the input bitrate and the maximum jer is less than a Tefned sue, then a packetsvitched network can be used. To overcome the Cftect of ter a technique known a buffering is used, the general principles fof which are shown in Figure 1.22 ‘As we showin the figure, the effect of iter s overcome by retaining a defined numberof packet in a memory baller at the destination before pla cat ofthe information bitstream is started. The memory buffer operates 15 Apotcaan and networking terminolny | 69 enson tt mio bts Moon eri inputsioow ton daly mat \ geri ean ataoion dely Feo nr postr ore: day Tosonon doy» Reon srecnslowor oy 1 Lipfning doy of seston Po omer wo # Ct natooupu doy semen fred doy south on « Fran, fs FO) tr ceeeeet TMM ol el oid 4 Ba ce oa Dora ol solos capa do Figure 1.22 Transmission of a constant bit rate stream over a packet- Switched network: (a) timing schematic; (b) FIFO buffer operation. sina ftin, fest (FIFO) discipline and the mimber of packets retained rg ete before output stars i determined by the worstcase iter and sae ticste ofthe laformation steam. However 2s we sow in pat (a of the te an using a packetewitched network or this pe of aplication, 20 aa pal delay rincured atte source a the information bistream is com. aaa eret packets, This is known asthe pasketization delay and adds othe dae re relay ofthe channel. Hence inorder to minimize the overall arr apt dl the packet Sze aed for an applic s made as mall saree bat of micient sre to overcome he et ofthe worst es a ee apli the proces of determining wheter a pareular network aaa go tenement ofan application, a numberof standard appice ets cies have been defined Asoited with each service cast 2acm ‘hapter 1 Multinesia communications summary [72 Summary In this chapter we have discussed: fm the different ypes of media that are used in multimedia applications, fn the different types of communication networks that ae used to support these applications, a selection ofthe different types of application. Media types “The different types of media that are ased in multimedia applications are summarized in Figure 1.28. In some applications only a single type of medium is involved while in others multiple media types are used. As we dlesribed in Section 1.2, the basic form of representation of both text and {mages consists ofa block of binary codewords. ach codeword consists of a fixed number of binary digits and represents, for example, a single character (ext) oF a ingle picture element (image). In contrast, the basic form of Nalinede oppiatons edo pes abo tho ee ee ewer ee cmt, ye mei We Nee “pecs. of Qo parameters and a network an citer met hie of pa : i ters or not leg, for networks that sapport a number of iflerentsevie ese cteenmcon the Inte for example in ode to case he QS praeters aoc : 4 1 wih ech casare met the pce eling wear csr ae gen ellere ecg ori. is then pose onthe packs reiting each cs ied ence rh example ce Cpe nt ne i 1 vit applica mln eine steams ate ets Nghe po dia cnesion ai nd io enprsion iy than the packets relating to appt bas ema Typical i lating to applications such as ema. Typically, packet Cope ichope a ‘containing realtime sreams such ss audio and video are abo more sensitiv t ' i delay and jter than the packets containing texainfesmaton. Hence during : Periods of network congestion, the packets containing realtime steams are pan exec neato tom! (wansmitted first. Packets containing video are more sensitive to packet loss than packets containing audio and hence are giv z P audio and hence are given a higher prior B55 Alternative types of media used in multimedia applications.summary | 73 Chapter Multnesia communications representation of both audio and meat video signals isin the form of a analog signal whose amplitude and frequency vares continuously with tind Hence in applications that involve audio and video integrated with tex pecestote Vio and/or images, itis necessary frst to convert the audio and video signals int i tire phony digital form. We shall describe the digital form of representation ofall fu ‘media ypes in more detail in the next chapter. In practice, che bandwidth associated withthe basic form of represent tion of the different media types is greater than the bandwidth of thd ees ‘communication newworks that ate used to support multimedia applications Spechend vidio eons Worn ey ence in most applications, a technique known as compression is applied iq Say Cooma the source information prior to it being transferred over the network. Wal shall describe a selection of the different compression algorithms that ar used with text and images in Chapter 3 and a selection of those used with audio and video in Chapter 4, Enero 1g Midevoronard, ‘neoove ord sho The fs Cable nates pecs he cess tothe a Network types (chon vo/noe ‘The different ypes of communication networks that are used to support mul caches timedia applications are simmaried in Figure 124 anda selection ofthe : applications that each network type supports are shown in Figure 1.25, c Seton eral oss ava moat Mined conn mvs Anca igh oo Neat idol nove hace cnet bocset eon rotor ISON Do, rooskos wintecn ——_Nonowbard Becadhond eT a bs velo ‘son ison ss sean a wile eke alae EE a Seeoneerng inrcmecion N me Cle Slice trator SDN an besten ros ATMA "ATM MANS: Leta | sevrk Aispenondl ord Highspeed ne i et opts ee ‘Mulimedia communiatin networks and their service. N= pile sited bichon retard AN nano reas apc bow horas 'SPNe~ inna tres prove rete IN Thnegeed vn digi hk ‘¢1.24 Multimedia communication networks. RE ET TE LTE,ter 1 Mutimeda communications In the case of telephone networks, thee were designed intially to vide a svitched telephone cervice both nationally/internationaly (a PS land ata single site (a PBX). Also, with the advent ofthe fist modems, provided a low bit rate switched data servic. Later, as a result of avances i fnodem technology and related compression algorithms, the transfer of digd tized documents (facsimile) was supported. These developments hav continued and the PSTN now supports a wide range of applications th involve all Four media types either singly or integrated together in some Way. ‘Similarly, with data networks - and in particular the Internet, Althou Aesigned initially to sipport applications that involve only text and imag the advances in compression algorithms means that the Internet now Sup ‘ports a similar range of multimedia applications. The applications associat Iwth broadcast television networks have been enhanced by the same advanced in modem technology and compression algorithms. "The last two network types = narrowband and broadband ISDN ~ wer both designed from the outset to provide an enhanced set of services t thos provided by a PSIN. A narrowband ISDN, for example, has range of digit Aceess alternatives which, collectively, support a wide range of multimedi Applications. Broadband ISDN as designed fom the start to support multi media applications that involve all four media types. In practice, however, because ofthe wider set of (multimedia) applications tha the other networks can now support, broadband ISDN is not as yet widely deployed, "Nevertheless, the basic transmission and switching technology associated with it known as the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and cell switching respectively has been used in highspeed LANs and for high-speed network] ‘We shall discuss in some detail the operation of these various network] ‘ypegin Chapters 7-11 and the communication protocols and other applic tioreelated ies that are associated with them in Chapters 12-14 Multimedia applications We have chosen to place all multimedia applications into one of three} categories: 1 interpersonal communications, 1% interactive applications over the Internet, 1 enieftainient applications, There are a number of applications in each category each of which involves various media types. A selection of the applications, ogether with the npe of media involved, are summarized in Table 1, Nove that each wpe ‘of application can be supported by a number of different network types, For ‘example, video telephony is supported by a PSTN, the Internet, and both narrowband and broadband ISDN, a pitenitign tats wed Hrcged pede ind ge Yost, ing o the term bits per second fo dgiized audio and video. What's ing ofthe term “compression” and EF compresion wed? Section 13, 13 “4 With the aid of diagram, explin the meaning tof the flowing terme relating to wiched tle ‘hone network @ POTS, (i loclechange/end office, (i PB (Go simobitevtcing center, (9) interational gatevay exchange. Explain why pal of modems is required to transmit agi signal vera PSTN. With the filo a diagram, show the Focaion ofthe oo tnodems when two digital devices commun‘Chapter Multimedia communications cate over a PSTN and the pes of signal ~ ‘Salo or digital ~that are wed over each part ‘fie neces cet, Show inthe form of a diagram how 2 high= speed modem provides a range of addtional Services to base telephony and data services ‘Satea piel acces bitrate thats used, With the aid of a diagram, describe how the following gai acces the Internet () duserathome or ina small busines, (i) adstibuted community of users around ‘tinge ste or campus, (Gi) 2 Gibued st of ers al atatched tothe Sune enterprivwide pate network. Why isthe later sometimes ced an intranet? plain why snost data networks operate in a packet mode, Hence explain why services [ivolring audio and video are supported Sate the aim ofall broadeast television net ork "With the aid of diagrams, explain how add tional services are provided with (i) acibl disziboton network and (Gi) suellte/terresrial broadcast neoor. iy ait dlngris, explain the meaning of ‘the folowing terms teloing to ISDN: (6) lg subseriber ine (i) aserat acces, (6) aggrextion, (i) pray eae acess, () Pxés (0 Beplin ui ieaing of tty “roadband™ in relation toa BISDN and sly the deploy- ment of suc ebIGES hs been aye 11, Explain the meaning of te following terms ela a ISDN: deel, wy ‘ATM, ii) cll oching, ection 14 12 In elation to speecvonly interpersonal com ‘munizations inwsving Both public (PSTN/ SDN) and pre (PBX) meters, wth the id fof a diagram exlain how voicemail and tele Conferencing ate supported. Inciode in your Sescription the role af 2 voiceeall server and fn au bige. 13) With the ad ofa diagram, expan the fnetion ofa tlepoay gatewsy in elation to Internet telephony, Hence sate the origin ofthe term ‘Soice oer IP (Vo) LM Describe the principal operation of fax machine and why modems are required. What isthe meaning of he term "PC fax"? 1.15. Show in the form ofa dlagram the networks Gnd esata ters of equipment that are used to send an email mesrage from a PC user at home to (i) aPCatachgd aste/) start and end bokiiaee (cBotext), present in the fo browse interactively% Chapter? Multimedia information represertaton 2.4 24.1 form ofa bulleted list (lst«/HL>), include an image (), and s0 on, Other media types such as sound and video clips. also be included, giving rise o the term hypermedia. Indeed, the ter hypermedia” and “hypertext” are often used interchangeably when refers to pages created in HTML. ‘The specification of a hyperlink is made by specifying both the URL. where the required page is located, together with the textual name of th Tink. For example, the specification of a hyperlink to a page containin "Further details would have the form computer's ply eeen cn be considered being made wp of er py gids ptr elements — tls ~ each o swodimensional ma rs ascated wih For example, VGA ideo hic ao ps is a common type of display and, as we show in Figute ales ar aur of E00 horizontal px by 480 vere Ps 220), of sper pe whch alloncach tel © MANE oo Gitencom bjt ~inlaig a asec tone te a re ery setae eh me a iol of pai of ade i ese ah in Figur 200) freeform objects ~ are made up ofa ergs of net na what may appear asa curved Hine; i rap of string of pixels which, pixels on the screen, @ Fol pation I x Yo ipl emlen dl ie fot 250 inet cls bhi pe = o 4 @ ode ps Clot pe (a) example sereen format; (b) som re 2.10 Graphics principles: ; a ect ecompes (2 st of changing position attribute simple object examples; (c) effec () solid objects.Chit 2 Multimedia information representation Each abject hat a number of attributes associated with it. These iw'shape ~ line, a circle, a square, and so on ~ its size in terms of the positions of ts border coordinates, the color of the border its shadow, a ‘on, In this way, editing an object involves simply changing selected att sisociated with the object. For example, as we show in Figure 2.10(0), move a square to a different location on the sercen by simply changing border coordinates and leaving the remaining auributes unchanged. ‘An object shape is said to be either open or closed. Inthe case of an object, the start of the frst line and the end of the last line that make up, object’ border are not connected = that is, they do not start and end on same pixel whilst with a closed object they are connected. In the cae o closed objec; the pixels enclosed by its border can all be assigned the sam color ~ known as the eolor fill ~ to create solid objects as shown in Figus 2.10(d). This operation is alto known as rendering, In this way all objects dravm on the screen by the user simply specifying the name of the object its aruibntes — including its color ill and shadow effec if required ~ and fof more basic lowerevel commands are then used to determine both th pixel locations that are involved and the color that should be assigned ‘each pitel. ‘As we can deduce from the above, the representation of a complet graphic is analogous tothe structure of program writen ina high-level gramming language. For instance, a program consists of a main bod together with a number of procedures/functions, each of which has ase parameters asociated with it and performs a specific function. In the sum ‘way, a graphic consists ofthe set of commands (each with atributes) that necessary t6 draw the different objects that make up the graphic. Also, in same way thatthe procedures/fnedions in a program can be a mix of tho created by the writer of the program and those available as library pro ares/functions, so the objects associated with.a graphic can be either tho ‘created by the author or those selected from the set of standard objects the clipart gallery. And in the same way that a procedure/function in a ‘gram mayin turn, calla number of lower level functions, so the cosa sociated with objects ure the loverevel commands to display the objects “the screen. Finally, ip the sime ay that the main body of a programy is ed ‘cerned with invoking the vatious procedures/functions in the ‘ord necessary to implementa particular computational tas, so the main bod ‘a graphic representation is concerned wit invoking the differeit object col mandi in the correct sequence to create the desired graphic taking ink account any overlapping objets ‘We can conclade that there are two forms of representation of a cong 2 puter graphic: a high-level version (similar to the source code’ ofa high (program) and the actual pselimage of the graphic (similar to the bytestri Corresponding to the lowlevel machine code of the program and kno ‘more generally as the bitmap format). A graphic ean be transferred over riebvork in either form, In general, however, the highTevel language fort 2.4 tases | 9. _much more compact and requires less memory to-store the image and less bandwidth for its transmission. In order to use the high-level language form, however, the destination must of course be able to interpret the various high: level commands. So instead the bitmap form is often used and, to help with this, there are a numberof standardized forms of representation such as GIF (graphical interchange format) and TIFF (tagged image file format). There are also software packages such as SRGP (simple raster graphics package) which convert the high-level language form into a pixeHimage form. We shall discuss a selection of these in the next chapter. ized documents [An example ofa digitized document is that produced by the scanner associ- fated with a facsimile (fax) machine, the principles of which are shown in Figure 2.11 "The scanner associated with a fax machine operates by scanning éach complete page from lft o right to produce a sequence of scan lines that start @ = nd Ziel? Seong nad Prt » Spied ose Sein ier Pale pce deert —, Rachdon = Mx N Peleren 8 peor Te iden = 185/77 aren 200/00 fc Figure 2.11 Facsimile machine (b) digitization format, ciples: (a) schematic;‘100° | Crapter 2 atutineia information representation atthe top of the-page and end atthe botiom. The vertical resolution of scanning procedure is either 3.85 or 7.7 lines per millimeter which i eq lent to approximately 100 or 200 lines per inch. As each line js scanned, ‘output of the scanner is digitzed to'a resolution of approximately 8 pictur clements known as pels with fax machines ~ per millimeter. ‘Fax machines us just single binary igi to represent each pel, 0 for white pel and a1 for a black pel. Hence the digital representation of scanned page is as shown in Figure.2.11(b) which, fora typical page, p duces a stream of about two milion bits. The printer part ofa fx mad then reproduces the original image by printing out the received stream of bits toa similar resolution, In general, he use of a single binary digit per ‘means that fax machines are best suited to scanning bitonal (black-an wile) images such 2s printed documents comprising mainly tex Digitized pictures Jn the cate of scanners which are used for digitizing continuous-one mo ‘chromatic images ~ such asa printed picture or scene ~ normaly, more than a single bits used to digitize each picture element. For example, good qual} ity blackand-white pietures can be obtained by using 8 bits per picture clement. This yields 256 different levels of gray per element ~ varying ‘beeen white and black - which gives a substantaly improved picture qua ity ove a facsimile image when reproduced, In the case of color images, in order to understand the digitization format used, itis necessary ist to obtain an understanding ofthe principles of how colori produced and how the pic ture tabes used in computer monitors (on which the images are eventual displayed) operate. Color principles Tkhas been known for many years thatthe human eye sees ust a sngie col ‘when a particular set of three pritiary colors are mixed and displayed sm taneously. Infact a whole spectrin of colors known a a color gamit ~ ‘be produced by ising diferent proportions ofthe three prinary colors re (®)rgreen (G),dnd blue (B). This principle is shown in Figure 2.12 togeqh with some examples oFeplors that can be produced ‘The mixing technique used in part (a) is known as additive color ‘hich, since black is produced when all Uhre primary colors are zero, is par ticularly useful for producing a color image on a black surface a8 isthe in display applications. Its ako posible to perform the complementary tractive color mixing operation to produce’ a similar range of colors. This shown in part(b) of the figure and, 28 we ean see, with subiractive ‘white is produced when the three chosen primary colors cyan (C), magenta (Mp, and yellow (¥) are all zero. Hence this choice of colors is particular {ieful for proditcng a Color image on a white surface as isthe casein pri ing applications ‘lear ‘GREEN (MEX I\ \ fac) / \ Figure 2.12 Color derivation principles: (a) additive color mix (b) subtractive color mixing ‘The same principle is used in the picture tubes associated with vision sets with the three primary colotsR, G, and B. Also, in most ‘monitors since, in general, those used with personal computers Us picture tubes 25 are used in television seis. Hence, in érder to be « ‘with the computer monitors on which digital pictures are norma the digitization process used yields color image that can be d played on the sereen of either a television set oF a computer mo {general principles asociated with the process are shown in Figure Raster-sean principles ‘The picuure tbes used in mos television sets operate using what | a rastersean, This involves a finely-focussed electron beam ~ t boeing scanned over the complete screen, Each complete scan number of discrete horizontal lines the first of which starts atlBI ‘Riu iin iden bston Television compe monitor * 6 sxe wo cor man «mt ch exhconeaigensl ete | freak pap whi : a x Scicunat det Coe a” Soralinee Cady siete » Sonn 1 2 = a i ast ce H Noted oct 1 550M nd 625 PAUCCR/SECANE roe hee 0 ts pr ard NISL 1 Soe sca PAY/COR/SECANN we 8.68/26 8 = phosphor ninds Figure 2:13 Teltsnesmpitr intr rns ( schema Co averacan pnp (pte! ovat on each san nes omer ofthe sreen and the ist of which end a the thi point the beam is defected back again tothe ap lf corner and the scanning operon repeats in the same way. Ths ype of scanning sealed progrentive scanning ands shown in diagrammatic form in Figure £19(0)- Each complete set of horizontal scan lines is called frame and, as we can see, each frame is made-up of Nindividual sean lines where Ns ether Sop (North and South America and most of Asia) oF 625 (Europe and 2 amber of other countries). The inside of the-display sereen of the picture ibe i coated with aightsensitive phosphor that. emits ight when enengized by the electron beam. The amount of ight emitted ~its brightness ~is deter wlined by the power in the electron beam.at that instant. During each Tarkcontal (ine) and vertical (frame) retrace period the electron beam is tuuned off and, to ereate an image on the screen, the level of power in the ‘beam is changed as each line is scanned. Th the case of black-and-white picture tubes just a single electron beam is ud with a whitesenstive phosphor. Color tubes use three separate, lose qocated beams and a two-dimensional marx of pixels. Each pixel comprises @ wer of three related colorsensitive phosphors, one exch for the red, green, sha blue signals. The set of three phosphors associated with each pixel is ited a phouphor triad and a typical arrangement ofthe triads on each sean {ine is at shown in Figure 2.13(¢), As we can deduce fcom this, although i theory each pisel represents an idealized rectangular are which is indepen- lent ofits neighboring pixels, in practice each pixel has the shape of & Spot which merges with ie neighbors. A typical spot sie is 0.025 inches {b.635 mm) and, when viewed from a suficent distance, a continuous color Image isseen. Television picture tubes were designed, of course, to display moving sagen The gerstence of the lght/color produced by the phosphor, there fore is designed to decay very quickly and hence it is necessary to ‘Continuously refresh the screen. In the case of a moving image, the ight sg- sls associated with each frame change o reflect the motion that bas taken place during the time required to sean the preceding frame, while for 2 petal image, the same set of ight signals are used for each frame. The Frame refresh rate must be high enough to ensure the eye is not aware the display is continuously being refreshed. A low refresh rate leads to what is alld flicker which is caused by the previous image fadirg ftom the eye retina before the following Fe is dsplajed. To avoid this, a tefresh rate of re Teast 30 ties per Secone|prequlied: brpractice, the frame refresh rate ised is determined by the frequency ofthe mains electricity supply which is tither 6D Fiz in North and/South America and most of Asia and 50H in Earope and a number of oer countries. “est current pictute tubes operate in an aralog mode, that i, the ampli tude of each ofthe three color signals is contimucusly varying as each line is scanned. In the case of digital television ~and digitaed pictures stored within the memory of a computer ~ the color signal are in a digital form and com puke aring of pnels with a fixed numberof pels per ican line, Hence in Prder to display a stored image, the pixels that make up each ine are read from ‘remory in mesynchronism with the scanning races and converted into a reertnuously varying analog form by means ofa digitalto-analog converter———————— a | comer 2 mrt penton Since in pact the area ofthe computes memory iat lds eS pels that make up ie image the pixel image ~ mist be accesed con Ustas each ine canned, normal aseparste oc of memory own tne fideo RAM ~ RAM being the acronym for random access memory ~ fused to store the pixel image. In this way, vitae the vdeo RAM whenever either selected pixels or the total i “Changes An example architecture showing the various steps involved in Figure 2.14 “Typically, the graphics progr the image interactively (using. for output tothe display Pixel depth “The numberof its per pixel is known as the pixel depth and determines range of different colors that can be produced. sx olor yielding 4096 different colors ~ and 24 bits~8 bits pe per primary Hos compe Pasreane inoge "wo a re 2.14 Raster-scan display architecture. atn is used to create the high-Tevel version fer the keyboard or a mouse) and the play controller part of the program interprets sequences of dsp Paay mands and converts them into displayed objects by writing the appr Ste pine ales ito the vdeo RAM The ater also known, theres ane frame /display/refresh buffer. Normaly the video controller isa har ware subsystem that reads the pixel ‘jmesjnehronism with the scanning process and, foreach sc of piel val aarvmeyts these into the equivalent set of red, green, and blue analog signa 1 values stored in the video RAM i 2.4 tmagis | 105 £16 million (2%) colors. In practice, how or edge iminate between sch 2 range of caors 8h 3019 Se ce clected subse of thi range i wed, The Slee colors in sy dnen stored ina able ad ach piel au i ie ‘asan addres: the mun the tale wich contains the correspongng TS ‘olor to aoc Dies known 26 he color fookp table or CLT: FAT example nS, ne tits and the CLUT contains 24 itemise ill provide = ica it lilerent colors selected rom a plete of 16 MOON Ca subset soa, de amount of mestory required 9 sore an MABE AP > reduced significantly primary color yielding in exces of 7 fever, the ey the graphics program needs only Aspect ratio Both the numberof pixels per 5 Tame vary, te sta numbers 3 Fes pect rao ofthe display sereen. 7 the srcen height. The aspect ratio of aoe tees =n which PC monitors are based Screen television: tubes. levy ete standard for oor terion tas Deen dein vy a nena Teeson Stans Commits TSC) we Ey by the Naan ds exit PAL (UK), CCTR (Germany), 290 EY te et aed ete, the NTOC snr oh HS a Te (France. fe ee Buropean standards ll we G25 sean ines 1922) frame wie nes payed on the sree ce SEAT A case hoe ther formation. race teens Be OTE Se or pec hich sequal the ver resenuin in we Wut an TBC monitor aa 7 ith eee ee Fe ol docon on aren whi Ba 84/9 CEE "isn rd paying ange (9 lH et for xa gad 9/3) pes ine wh an NTSC. moni 2 tana Oc prne wi aropean mot. This Pros 4/9 pute are lacs an iso i AAS Sa Pig soe eames SP a ree ones sed on television picture Fee ie amt of memory eure sore corso? spuige are snown in‘Table 21 Eee Hp the able the memory requements sn Emagen be bgh andy between SOT Hii sn Ser FGA vdeo graphics army) ren Wh AE Pe splayed atl 290 Mes for a SVG Sepet VOR) 50? S.C 24 8s Per PA on elev pte nies and Bene a5 0) weet ra on exapl # 180102424 2 ae a ren per second eo procs a hare 26 anned Tine and the number of fines pr wt being determined by what is known hss the ratio of the screen width Tyurrent television tubes is 4/3 vi Sand 16/9 with the wid ples are 12 bits~ 4 bifees 5257005} ‘eon ioe igure 2.15 Screen resolutions: (di > treed cy cal nd oer X= 640768 ple pe) Cnt at ter or bat dipoed .=——4 v= 480/976! tization spatial resolution. Digital cameras and sci: : A typical aerangement that swig to eaptue an tore a digital image pro duced by a scanner oil cera either a aillimage caeracr a video camera ~is shown in Figire 2.16, the figure iti assumed thatthe eap- Cured image is transferred to the computer directly asi is produced Alternatively inthe case of egal cameras, a tof digitized images can be stored wih the camera telfand then downloade into the compuser a Inter tme ‘An image is captured within the camera/scanner using a solidstate Aeviee called an image sensor, Thisisaalicon chip whieh, n digital cameras, consists of a wodimensional grid of ligheaenstve cells called photoes ‘When the camera shuterieacated,eath photos stores the level of inten Sity of the ight that llson it A widelpused image sensor ia charge-coupled‘er Multiesia Information representation device (CCD). This comprises an aray of photosites on its surfice and oper fates by converting the evel of light intensity that falls on each photosite into fan equivalent electrical charge. The level of charge ~ and hence light inten- Sty stored at each phorosite position is chen read out and converted into a digital value using an ADC. A similar technique is used in scanners except the frage sensor comprises just a single rw of photostes. These are exposed in timesequence with the scanning operation and each row of stored charges are read outand digitized before the next scan oceurs For color images, the color associated with each photosite ~ and hence pixel postion ~is obtained in a number of ways. These include the three methods shown in Figure 2.16(b). Digi alimage cone In this method, the surface ofeach photosit is coated with either a red, green, or blue filter so that ite charge is determined only by the level of, ed, green, or blue light that fall on it The coatings are arranged in a $353 grid structure as shown in the figure. The color associated with tach photoste/pixt is then determined by the output of the photoste ARG, or B- together with each ofits 8 immediate neighbors. The levels ofthe two otker colors in each pixel are den estimated by 25 interpolation procedure involving all nine value. This method is used ‘with most consumer-quality cameras, (ii) This method involves the use of three separate exposures ofa single image sensor. the fist through ated filter, the second a green filter, and the third a blue filter, The color associated with each pixel position is then determined by the charge obtained with each ofthe three filters ~ RG, and B, Since three separate exposures are required for each image, this approach cannot be used with video cameras It is used primarily ‘with high-resolution stillimage cameras in locations such as photographic studios where the camera can be attached to a wipod. Wis..0 dort Fier (ii) This method uses three separate image sensors, one with all the speci pphotosites costed with ared fle, the second coated with a green filter, find the third coated with a blue filter. A single exposure is used with the ai Sngoming ith pit into three beams each of which exposes a separate aes ‘ae tensor. This method is used in professonalquality high-resolution sill ald moving image cameras ince, in general, they are more costly ‘owing tothe use of three separate sensors and associated signal processing circuits 26,8 | cote Fl copes 16 Color image capture: (a) schematic; (b) RGB signal generation a ‘Once each image/frame has been captured and stored on the image sensor(s), the charge stored at ech photosite location is read and digitized. Using a COD, the set of charges on the matrix of photosites are read a single row at atime. First the st of charges on the first row of photosites are trans- ferred to what iscalled the readout register. Each of the photostes in a ow is ‘coupled to the corresponding photostes in the two adjoining rows and, as avh row is transferred tothe readout register, the set of charges on exch of Mernatives. sn 1 Ee NET SRE EP TREE,12 Mabinedia information representation the other rows in the matrix more downto the next row of photoste poll tions, Once in the readout register, dhe charge on each photoite postin i shifted out, amplified and dighized using an ADC. This procedure thed repeats until the set of charges on all oma ave been read out and digitized, Fora lowsesolution image of 640 480 pixel and a pixel depth of 24 bis = 8 bits each forthe R, G, and B sigeals — doe amount of memory required wo store each image is 92¢ 600 bytes. tf this is oop directly to the computes, then the bitinap can be foadee sigh into the frame buffer ead to be die played. It ist be stored within the camera, however then multiple images ofthis site need to be stored prior co chexe being owsput to a computer. The set of images are stored in an integraced cizcait memory that is ether on a removable card or fixed within che camer. lth Bis eat, the card is simply removed and inserted into the POMCIA slot af @ computer and in the secon «ase the contents ofthe memory are downloaded 1o the computer by means fof cable link Once within the compueer, software can be used to inset the Aigital image(s) into a documment, send ic by emi, and so on. Alernatvely, Photo-diting software can be used wa manipudate a stored image, for exams le, 0 change its 2¢ of color There are a number of file formats used & stare a set of images. Cae of tbe most popular isa version of the tagged image file Forma (TIFF) ealled TIFF for electronic photography (TIFE/EP). This allows mony different pes f image data to be stoved in the image Ge inchuding date (ach at tbe doce and time and various camera settings) associated with eactiage. Audio Essentially we ae concerned with wo pes of audio signal: spech signal ax ‘sed toa varies of interpersonal applications ineloing telephony acl voce {elephony. and musicquaiy audio a used in applicsdans auch ae CDon deraand and broadest television. In geal, audio ean be produced cohey ‘aturlly by means of microphone oF electronically using ome forma af pe these: I de cae of a sthesiver, thea created in agi form coe keine can be sesdily tosed within the cbMBUler memory. A'microphose, bower generates» inetryng analy lal sid inorder to store ecg uals in the memory ofa computer an 16 transit them over 4 digi "etworh hey must rs be converted at digtal fort using amauta spa enieoder. Abo, since onspeakers operate sing an analog signal, on cutout ofall digo suo signals he sre of dgidaed values taht be comercd Sack again into is atog form using an audio signal decoder, We discasted che genera) principles behind the design of a signal ences and decoder earlier in the chapter in Section 2.2 ant here ve simply apply chese principles to explain the digiuation of buth speeeh seat Imusic produced bys microphone. We shal then discus the formas ofp, sited audio in a separate section oe See ee race, bot ie sampling ae wt and the mame of Bit er sanpe refines hn he aber Ite ae of ph emp the bandh of he netorl cacd in nanyInerpertonal applica shen much les than the Band ne source goa ue cating ie sping ath vert perp Sah ss, es Pg een oe wb de he on of enya Feubed vo sore a parila’ paige of misc. A praca example fe been rmeces ese heck oe oom pretedrman veresmation 2.5.2 PCM speech ‘As we described in Chapter 1, most interpersonal applications involving speech use for communication purposes a public switched telephone net work (PSTN). Because this has been in existence for many years the ‘operating parameters asciated wit it were defined some ime ago nial 2 PSTN operated with anafog signals throughout, the source speech signal being transmitted and switched (routed) unchanged in is original analog form. Progressvey, however, the older analog transmision circus were replaced by digital circuits. This was catied out over a tmber of yeas and beeause ofthe need to interwork beoreen the earlier analog and newer digg tal equipments during the wansition peti, the design of the digital equipment was based onthe operating parameters of the earier analog net work. The bandwidth ofa spech circuit inthis network was limited to 2007 through to 84Rlts. Also although the Nyquist cates 63H, ce poor qual. ity of the bandiimiting Sites used meant tata sumpling rate of SkHz was required to avoid aliasing. In order to minimize the resulting bitrate, 7 Bits per sample were selected for ese North Aaerea and fapan and 8 Bits per ‘ample in Europe (both inching a ig bit which, intr, yields bitrates of 56hbps and 64Rbps respective: More moter systems have moved to using 8 bts per sample ia. each case, giving a mach improved performance over carly Tit ystems. The digitization procedure is known a8 pulse code modv- Intion of PCM andthe international standard relating to thsi defined in FUCET Recommendation 6.711 Figure 217 (a) shows the circuits that make ‘upaPCM encoder and decoder. 'As we can se, both the encoder and decoder, in addition tothe circus shown earlier in Fig. 22(@) and 2.5(2), consist of two additional ctcuits: a compressor (encoder) and an expander (Gecoder), The role of these cr tits can best be described by reconsidering the quantiation operation described earlier, This used equal ~ algo known as linear - quantization intervals which means that, respective ofthe magnitude ofthe input sigal the tame level of quantisatop apie ix produced. The effet ofthis is Shalthe. foie level isthe same for'both low aiplitude (quiet) signals and Tigh atpliside (lod) dgnale, The ear, hoWever i more sensitive to noke cay quiet signal then fe on load sights Hence to reduce te effect of

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