OPP - Power Cable Seminar - (August 21, 2010) - FINAL

- The Resource Speaker-
OSCAR P. PASILAN
PROFESSIONAL ELECTRICAL ENGINEER - CONSULTANT
PRC. REG. NO.0573, FEB. 05, 1968
1964 Awardee of the University of San Jose-Recoletos (USJ-R) Alumni Association for copping FIFTH
PLACE, whole Philippines, Board Examinations for Assistant Electrical Engineers, given in Manila,
August 1963. Registered Assistant Electrical Engineer No. 1227, June 15, 1964. (Exam released Feb. 1964
but no given license until June 15, 1964 (under-aged)).
1968 Awardee of the USJ-R Alumni Association for copping SECOND PLACE, whole Philippines, Board
Examinations for Professional Electrical Engineers, given in Manila, August 1967. Registered Professional
Electrical Engineer No. 0573, February 5, 1968 at the age of 26 years old.
1968 Awardee of USJ-R Alumni Association for OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION AND
ACHIEVEMENTS IN THE FIELD OF ENGINEERING.
1993 National Awardee of the Institute of Integrated Electrical Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. as the
MOST OUTSTANDING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRACTITIONER IN THE FIELD OF
CONSULTANCY.
1994 Awardee of the USJ-R Engineering Alumni Association as EXCELLENT ALUMNUS IN THE
FIELD OF ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY.
LIFE MEMBER (No. 6P-0573-1450-89, July 3, 1989), Institute of Integrated Electrical Engineers of the
Philippines, Inc., (IIEE).
ELEVATED to the grade of SENIOR MEMBER (No. 37) by the Institute of Integrated Electrical Engineers
of the Philippines, Inc., (IIEE), Nov. 16, 1995.
MEMBER, (No. 40198325) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., (IEEE), USA from 1996
to 2004. (Not able to renew as I was out of town for 3 years. Membership under renewal)
MEMBER, POWER Engineering Society, Communications Society & Computer Society, IEEE, USA.
Accredited Resource Speaker of the IIEE Cebu and Mactan Chapters on Electric Power System Engineering
and Industrial Power Systems Design and Practices.
45 solid years of experience in heavy electrical engineering practice (to 2009).
SPECIALTY JOBS:
General Electrical Consultancy, Electrical Systems Design, Power System Study, Installation, Test and
Commissioning Works of the ff:
Light and Heavy Industrial Plants such as Base-Load Diesel and Coal-Fired (Conventional and Fluidized
Bed) Thermal Power Generating Plants, Emergency Power Generating Plants, Electroplating Plants, Copper
Smelter and Refinery Plants, Steel Mills, Copper and Gold Mining (Open Pit and Underground) / Concentrate
Processing Plants, Paper Mills, Industrial Gas Plants, Food Processing and Packaging Plant, Industrial Paints
Manufacturing Plants, Rubber and Plastic Moulding Plants, Coco Oil Mills, Electronic Parts Manufacturing
Plants, Foundry Plants, Lime Plants, Sugar Centrals, Fertilizer and Acid Plants, Oxygen/Acetylene Plants,
Nickel Plating & Cut Waste Water Treatment and Recycle Plants, Sand and Gravel Aggregate Plants, Feed
Mills, Plastic Manufacturing & Molding Plants, Furniture Manufacturing Plants, Camera Parts (Xenon Tube)
Manufacturing Plant, Sewerage Treatment Plants, Medium Voltage and High Voltage Electrical
Substations/Switchyards.
High-Rise Commercial Buildings and Beach Resort/Hotel Complex.
Electric Power Cable Seminar by: Engr. Oscar P. Pasilan, PEE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0) INTRODUCTION
2.0) CLASSIFICATION OF CABLES

2.1) Cable Characteristics
2.2) Insulator Material
2.3) Conductor Material
2.4) Current-Carrying Capacity
2.5) Insulation Resistance of Cables
3.0) THE 3 PRINCIPAL FACTORS IN THE SELECTION OF CABLE SIZE

3.1) Current-Carrying Capacity or Ampacity
3.2) Voltage Drop
3.3) Short-Circuit Current
4.0) CABLE CONSTRUCTION

4.1) Low Voltage Power Cables (600V Rating)
4.2) Medium and High Voltage Cables (2001 to 69KV Rating)
5.0) SHIELDING OF MEDIUM & HIGH VOLTAGE CABLES

5.1) Conductor Shield
5.2) Insulation Shield
5.3) Method of Shielding
5.4) Shield Material
6.0) GROUNDING OF METALLIC SHIELD OR SHEATH OF POWER

CABLE
6.1) Single-Point Grounding at End of Cable
6.2) Single-Point Grounding at near Mid-Point of Cable Run
6.3) Multi-Point Grounding
7.0) METALLIC SHIELD LOSSES

7.1) Effect of spacing between phases of a single circuit
7.2) Method of minimizing shield losses
7.3) Calculations for the shield voltage levels
8.0) IMPORTANCE OF JACKET STRESS DETERMINATION
9.0) PURPOSE AND TYPE OF CABLE TERMINATION

9.1) Purpose of Termination
9.2) Electrical Stresses in M.V. & H.V. Power Cables when these cables are
cut.
9.3) Voltage distribution in the insulation with cable shield removed.
9.4) Voltage distribution with stress control tube
10.0) POWER CABLE INSTALLATION

10.1) Cables in Underground Ducts
10.2) Direct-Buried Cables
10.3) Cables in Raceways
10.4) Conduit System Design
10.5) Conduit Installation
10.6) Cable Tray Recommendation
10.7) Cable Tray Installation
10.8) Grounding
11.0) WIREWAYS
12.0) SUPPLEMENTAL RECOMMENDATIONS Pertaining to Power Cable

Pulling Force Calculations Protection of Cables and Cable Supports in
Vertical Runs.
12.1) Cable Pulling Procedure
12.2) Cable Pulling Force Requirements.
12.3) Pulling Instructions
12.4) Bending Radius of Cable
12.5) Requirements for Paralleled Conductors
Example: Use that of the Westinghouse Reference Book
12.6) Protection of Cables
12.7) Cable Supports in Vertical Runs
13.0) MISCELLANEOUS STANDARD ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION

METHODS/PRACTICES FOR POWER CABLE SYSTEMS
INSTALLATION
ELECTRIC POWER CABLES FOR LOW VOLTAGE

AND MEDIUM VOLTAGE SYSTEM UP TO 69KV
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Electric power cables play an important role in the transmission and

distribution of electric power. They are used to interconnect all electrical
equipment in a power facility such as power plants, substations, industrial plants,
commercial buildings, etc. Low voltage power cable is used for power systems
operated at 2000V or less. Medium voltage power cable is used for systems
operated at 2001 to 69KV for indoor (up to 35KV) and underground applications.
Power cable is designed according to its electrical function in a circuit,

the types of installation and operating environment. The two basic cable
components are a metallic conductor to carry the current and an insulation
material that provides electrical isolation of the conductor from ground or other
conductors. Cables may also have a metallic shield, a semiconducting screen or
shield, and a overall covering of non-metallic material (for example, rubber or
plastic) called a jacket and/or a metallic armor, sheath or combinations. The
cable components will be discussed more elsewhere in this paper. Some basic
cable construction terminology is described below. (Refer to Fig.11.0)
1.) Single-conductor (1/C) cable consists of one insulated conductor with

or without a jacket, armor or shield.
2.) When two or three insulated conductors are twisted together without
an overall jacket or armor, the cables is called duplex or triplex,
respectively.
3.) When two or more insulated conductors are twisted together within an
overall jacket or armor, the cable is called a multi-conductor cable and
is abbreviated 2/C, 3/C, 4/C and so on.
The discussions in this paper will be centered on low-voltage and

medium-voltage power cables. Single-conductor cables are predominantly used
here in commercial and industrial power systems as 3-conductor and triplex
power cables in the bigger sizes (with heavier weight) are not convenient to
handle but the cable impedance is lower than single conductors of same size,
material and installation conditions.
Page No. 1
FIG. 1.1 (a,b, & c). 1/C, Triplex and Multiconductor.
Page No. 2
2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF CABLES
Cables are classified according to their insulation. The insulating material

of a cable is the most important single component, the purpose of which is to
prevent the flow of electricity from the energized conductors to ground or to an
adjacent conductor. This material can be divided into three main categories,
namely, thermosetting, thermoplastic and laminated. A laminated construction of
cable insulation is minimally used or none at all here in our locality. An example
of this cable is paper insulated with lead sheath as shielding metal and to prevent
entrance of water to the cable. Thermosetting & Thermoplastic insulation which
are the most commonly used materials will be discussed later in this seminar
paper.
2.1 Cable Characteristics
Many characteristics should be considered in judging an insulation,

including electrical, physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. The
following qualities should be considered in the evaluation of an insulation.
2.1.1) Physical Properties and Heat Aging

Elongation and tensile strength are the main physical properties
associated with heat aging. Elongation measures the stretch the
insulation will withstand before breakage, while tensile strength is
the force required to cause breakage. Percentage change in these
two properties after heat aging are of much more significant than
their absolute values. The heat aging is usually conducted by an air
oven.
2.1.2) Insulation Resistance

This quality directly affects the leakage current of cable. Since the
leakage current is inversely proportional to the insulation
resistance, a high value of insulation resistance is desired.
2.1.3) Power Factor

The power factor of an insulation is the cosine of the angle between
the voltage across the insulation and the total current through it
when an A-C voltage is applied. It enters directly into the
calculation of dielectric loss and a low value is therefore desirable.
Power factor is also often used as a control test to determine the
uniformity of insulations, since it is very sensitive to changes in
purity or composition.
2.1.4) Dielectric Strength

Insulation must be able to withstand voltage stress experienced
during normal operation as well as voltage spikes and surges such
as switching and lighting surges. The measure of this ability is
referred to as dielectric strength.
Page No. 3
2.1.5) Dielectric Constant

The capacitance of any cable depends on the dielectric constant of
the insulating material. The dielectric constant of air is 1.0, while
the range for most cable insulations is 2 to 7. A cable insulated
with a material having a dielectric constant of 4.0, for example,
would have a capacitance 4.0 times higher than cable of the same
dimensions utilizing air as the dielectric. It is desirable to keep the
capacitance and therefore the dielectric constant, as low as possible
in order to minimize the charging current (which contributes to
dielectric losses and increases operating costs.) Dielectric constant
is often referred to as specific inductive capacity or simply SIC.
2.1.6) Track Resistance

Track resistance of an insulation is a measure of the ability of a
material to withstand surface electrical stressing without
degradation. This means that the cable surface resistance must be
high so that current will not flow on the surface. Current flowing
on the surface will effect tracking burns and destroy cables.
Good track resistance of insulation is important for long reliable

cable service since tracking of the insulation at terminations and on
the surface of non-shielded cables in conduit and ducts may result
in cable failure.
2.1.7) Resistance to Moisture

It is desirable that an insulation should be highly moisture-
resistant, since otherwise it is necessary to furnish it with a special
protective moisture-resistant finish which adds to the cost of the
cable and also to its stiffness and sometimes to its electrical losses.
Insulations vary widely in this respect. In general, only the solid
dielectric insulations can be regarded as moisture-resistant and
special precautions sometimes have to be taken even with these
insulations.
2.1.8) Resistance to Corona (partial discharge) and Ionization

Certain types of insulation deteriorate rapidly if exposed to corona
and ionization and therefore must be operated at lower voltage
stresses in service in order to minimize these influences. Where
such an insulation is used, proper precautions must be taken to keep
the voltage stresses to a reasonable value or to ensure, by proper
shielding or other means, that will control corona and ionization.
2.1.9) Mechanical Strength and Flexibility

Cables are wound on reels previous to installation. Furthermore,
during the process of installation, cables are frequently bent and
twisted to a considerable degree; and in service, too, they are
subjected to a certain amount of bending. Finally, in certain special
application the cable must be unreeled and rereeled frequently
Page No. 4
during its life. An example is a cable on reel supplying a traveling

drive unit such as a reversible stacking conveyor. All these things
make it essential that the cable should have a certain degree of
flexibility and that the insulation should be able to withstand the
necessary bending and twisting in installation or in service without
material damage. Insulation must also have good abrasion
resistance, cut-through strength and crushing strength to avoid
damage during installation and operation.
2.1.10) Temperature Rating

Insulation is given three different temperature ratings: operating
load, emergency overload and short-circuit. Emergency overload
temperature rating is for situations in which the load current is
higher than normal but is not expected to last more than 100 hours
per year with such 100 hours overload periods not exceeding five
or more than 500 hours in the life of the cable. The short-circuit
temperature limits is for fault current conditions normally lasting
no more than 150 cycles (2.5 secs). Operation of the cable
insulation within the assigned temperature ratings will help ensure
good reliability and a continued operation. Shown in Table 1 (Table
12-3 of IEEE Standard 141-1993) are the rated conductor
temperatures.
2.1.11) General Environmental Consideration

The environment around the cable should be taken into
consideration in the final choice of insulation. Such things as
ambient temperature, weather exposure, the presence of chemicals
and/or atomic radiation will influence this choice. The current
carrying capacity is affected by the temperature of the
surroundings. Also, extreme temperatures may have detrimental
physical effects on some cable insulations. A very high temperature
might cause an insulation to deform while a very low temperature
might result in brittleness and cracking.
Weathering considerations are also important. Certain insulations

might be affected by sunlight, humidity, rain, etc. The presence of
oils, acids, alkalis or other chemicals can greatly influence the
choice of insulation.
With advanced nuclear technology there is a growing interest in

radiation resistance of cable insulations.
Page No. 5
TABLE 2.1
Page No. 6
2.2 Insulation Materials

Common insulation materials are Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) which is the
major component of thermoplastic insulation, Natural Polyethylene (PE), Cross-
linked Polyethylene (XLPE) and Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR). The
discussions in this seminar will be centered on the cable insulations commonly
used in industrial and commercial installations here in our locality. Each of these
materials has unique characteristics which render it suitable for particular
application. Those cables are commonly used for ordinary industrial users and a
limited number of cables such as the above mentioned cable materials can be
used to fulfill practically all industrial applications. The voltage rating or class
of a cable is based on the phase to phase voltage of the system though the cable
is single, two or 3-phase. For example a 15KV rated cable (or a higher value)
must be specified or a system that operates at 7,200 V, 7,620V or 7,968 volts to
ground or a grounded wye system of 12,500V, 13,200V or 13,800V. Another
example is that a cable for operation at 14.4KV to ground must be rated at 25KV
or higher since 14.4KV x 1.732 is 24.94KV.
Underground power cables have 3 voltage classifications as follows:

1. Low voltage - limited to 2KV.
2. Medium voltage above 2KV to 46KV
3. High voltage above 46KV
The low voltage cables are unshielded. American practice considers 69KV
in the medium voltage category. Circuits operating above 69KV is in the high
voltage category. IEC (European Standard) categorizes voltages up to 1000V as
low voltage; 1001V to 35,000V are in the medium voltage category and above
35,000 volts up to 230KV as high voltage already.
2.3 Conductor Materials

Common among all classes of cables is the conductor. The cross-sectional
area of the conductors chosen should be of the optimum size to carry the
specified load current or short-circuit short term current without overheating and
should be with the required limits for voltage drop. Most conductor materials
used are copper and aluminum. The metal purity is very important (99.95%).
Historically copper has been used predominantly for conductors of insulated
cables due primarily to its desirable electrical and mechanical properties. The
use of aluminum is based mainly on its favorable conductivity to weight ratio
(highest among the electrical conductor materials) Aluminum has a specific
gravity of 2.7 and 61.0% electrical conductivity while copper has a specific
gravity of 8.90 and 100% electrical conductivity. The use of aluminum has a
distinct advantage in weight and may result in a lower initial cost. However due
to the lower electrical conductivity of aluminum, a large size or greater number
of cables is required to supply a given load. This could easily result in larger size
or greater number of conduits or supporting racks which would increase the
installation cost.
Page No. 7
The principal difficulty encountered with aluminum conductors is that of

making and maintaining satisfactory terminal connection. Aluminum exhibits the
following three characteristics which gives rise to this difficulty:
2.3.1) The first characteristic of aluminum is that the surfaces of

aluminum exposed to air immediately form an oxide coating which
has a high resistance. This coating is what gives aluminum wire its
excellent anti-corrosion property. This oxide coating insulates the
strand of a cable from one another and tends to insulate the
conductor from the connector on the end of it. Even if the oxide
coating is scraped off, it immediately re-forms before connection
can be made. This high resistance at the connection point results in
excessive temperature rise. One method of overcoming this
problem has been to dip the aluminum conductor in a special
compound before clamping the terminal to it. This compound is
grease containing small particles of zinc. When the terminal is
clamped to the conductor, the zinc particle penetrate the oxide
coating to make a good electrical contact also the grease excludes
air which prevent the re-formation of the oxide.
2.3.2) The second characteristic of aluminum is that it is soft and

exhibits a cold flow characteristic. For example, a normal
terminal or connector can be properly applied to the end of an
aluminum conductor. After a period of time, the contact pressure
will have decreased and the resistance of the connection will have
increased. This is the result of the cold flow characteristics or
tendency for aluminum to be squeezed out of the connection. This
problem has been satisfactory solved by the use of spring-loaded
connectors and special long barrel types of connector which
clamped to a considerable longer portion of the conductor, thus
minimizing the cold flow characteristic.
2.3.3) The third characteristic of aluminum is that it is damaged by

galvanic action when connected to other kind of metal and moisture
is present. Such conditions occur when copper connectors are used
with aluminum cable. This is called galvanic corrosion. In
aluminum to copper connection, a large aluminum volume
compared to copper is important as well as the placement of the
aluminum above the copper with a joint compound is the minimum
protection. Painting with zinc chromate primer or thoroughly
sealing with a mastic tape is even more desirable. Connector
manufacturers have found that tin-plated copper alloy connectors
eliminate the galvanic action. Shown is Table 2 for the
electromotive force series of metal in volts at 25C.
Page No. 8
TABLE 2.1
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE SERIES OF METALS IN VOLTS AT 25C
METAL POTENTIAL
Barium -2.90
BASE END (ACTIVE) OR
Calcium -2.87 ANODIC END
Sodium -2.71
Magnesium -2.37
Aluminum -1.66
Zinc -0.76
Iron -0.44
Nickel -0.25
Tin -0.13
Hydrogen 0.00
Bismuth +0.23
Copper +0.34
Silver +0.79
Mercury +0.79 NOBLE END (PASSIVE)
Gold +1.68 OR CATHODIC END
NOTE: Any Base end (active) or anodic metal is in contact with Noble
end (passive) or cathodic metal, in the presence of moisture, galvanic corrosion
will occur. The anodic metal will corrode. An example is aluminum and copper.
Aluminum will corrode.
Page No. 9
PEC specifies aluminum alloy series AA-8000 electrical grade, for

XHHW, THW, THHW, THWN and THHN insulation. This has purity of 99.00 +
with an electrical conductivity of 61% of that of copper. Type 1350 Aluminum
alloy, medium-hard drawn, is typical for medium voltage power cables. The
alloy has a purity of 99.5% and the electrical conductivity is about 61%. Full
hard drawn aluminum alloy is most often used in overhead lines due to its higher
breaking strength.
2.4 Current Carrying Capacity
The current carrying capacity or ampacity of a cable is defined as

the maximum current it can carry continuously without the temperature at
any point in its insulation exceeding the limit prescribe for it according to
its thermal class. The current capacity of all the cable types shall be
referred to the data of the latest edition of PEC, NEC 2008 or IEEE
Standard 835.
2.5 Insulation Resistance of Cables
An important aspect of a power cable is its insulation resistance

which is the resistance to the flow of direct current through an insulating
material (dielectric). There are two possible paths for current to flow
when measuring insulation resistance:
2.5.1) Through the body of the insulation (Volume insulation resistance)

2.5.2) Over the surface of the insulation system (surface resistivity)
Volume insulation resistance of a cable is the direct current resistance

offered by the cable insulation to an impressed D.C. voltage to produce a radial
flow of leakage current through the insulation material.
On surface resistivity, there is a current flowing over the surface of the

insulation when voltage is applied on the conductor. This current adds to the
current flowing through the volume insulation resistance which reduces apparent
volume insulation resistance unless measures are taken to eliminate that current
when measurements are being made. This measure could be a guard circuit
which will eliminate the surface leakage current from the volume resistivity
measurements.
Page No. 10
The volume insulation resistance at 60F is given by the following

formula:
K log 10 D /d
RI = Megohms-1000 ft.
L
Where:
R I = insulation resistance at 60F
K = Insulation Resistance constant
D = outside Diameter of the cable insulation, Inches.
d = conductor Diameter, Inches.
L = length of cable, Feet.
The equation above is based on K values at 60F. Also please note that the
insulation resistance is for 1000 ft, not per 1000 ft.
The following data for the values of K in Meg-ohms1000ft. for common

types of low voltage and medium voltage insulation materials are taken from
ICEA (Insulated Cable Engineers Association of USA).
THW (75C PVC) ------------------------ 2,000

TW (60C PVC) -------------------------- 500
XHHW (600V XLPE) ------------------- 10,000
RHW --------------------------------------- 4,000
EPR (600V) ------------------------------- 10,000
XLPE & EPR (Medium Voltage) ------- 20,000
Example:
Assuming a type THW 500MCM copper power cable which has an

insulation resistance constant of K = 2,000 and a length of 500ft. Find the
insulation resistance.
1000K log 10 D /d
Insulation Resistance = RI =
L
Substituting values:
25.03
(1,000)(2,000)log 10 20.65
RI =
500
R I = 4000 log 10 (1.21156)
Page No. 11
Therefore: R I = 333.38 Megohms or say 333.0 Megohms
Please note that the cable insulation resistance will decrease as the cable length
increases as there will be more parallel paths of leakage currents. Also the
leakage current is inversely proportional to the insulation resistance. Thus a high
value of insulation is desired.
In order to measure the insulation resistance of a cable, the insulation must be

either enclosed in a grounded metallic shield or immersed in water.
For temperatures other than 60F, a temperature correction factor will have to be
applied by multiplying the insulation resistance in megohms as calculated as per
equation stated previously by the temperature correction factor. The temperature
correction factor Tc can be found by using following equation:
Tc = 10 0.4343 a (t-60)
Values of a for some insulation materials are as follows:

Natural Polyethylene (Thermoplastic) 0.0
Silicone Rubber ---------- 0.03
XLPE and EPR (LV Thermosetting) 0.0
For low voltage cables (600V) insulation resistance measurement, megohmeter

voltage must be 500V to 1000V.
Page No. 12
3.0 THE 3 PRINCIPAL FACTORS IN THE SELECTION OF CABLE SIZE.
The determination of conductor size is principally based on three

considerations:
3.1 Current-Carrying Capacity or Ampacity (The term ampacity was

suggested in 1951 by W. Del Mar of Phelps Dodge Wire & Co. of USA
and adapted by NEC and PEC).
The first consideration is the ampacity of cable which is affected by
many things. Basically, the final consideration is the permissible operating
temperature of the insulation. The higher the operating temperature of the
insulation, the higher the current-carrying capacity of the cable. The temperature
at which a particular cable will operate is affected by the ability of the
surrounding material to conduct the heat away. Therefore, the current capacity is
materially affected by the ambient temperature as well as by the installation
conditions,
For example, assuming 40C ambient temperature a 3-conductor 4/0

AWG, 15KV cable in an overhead rack in open air will carry 325 Amps. The
same cable installed in a magnetic conduit encased in concrete will only carry
289 Amps. Running a non-metallic cable through a magnetic conduit will
increase the apparent resistance of the cable and will result in a lower ampacity
due to additional resistance losses. Similarly, when cables are run closely
together, the presence of other cables, in effect, increased the ambient
temperature due to mutual heating which decreases the ability of the cables to
dissipate its heat. PEC and NEC have correction factors for the ampacity of
cables (with aluminum or copper conductor) for different installation conditions
3.2 Voltage Drop

The second consideration is to check the voltage drop in the cable.PEC requires
maximum total steady state voltage drop on both feeders and branch circuits to the
farthest outlet not to exceed 5% and will provide reasonable efficiency of operation. PEC
defined feeder as all circuit conductors between the service equipment the source of a
separately derived system, or other power supply source and the final branch circuit over
current device.
Conductors for feeders must be sized to prevent a voltage drop exceeding 3

percent at the farthest outlet of power, heating and lighting loads or combination of such
loads. Below is a drawing for branch circuits and feeders.
Page No. 13
FIG. 3.1
Panel
Board
Services Equipment
or source of
Final Branch circuit
separately derived Feeders
Feeders over current protection
system
Panel
Board
Feeders and Branch Circuits
On alternating current circuits where the cable is installed as single conductor in

free air, or as single conductor in individual ducts or buried directly in the ground, the
voltage drop depends upon the spacing, arrangement, etc. of the conductors. There are
some published, simplified voltage drops, tables, curves and charts but the variations in
cable installation works are so numerous that is impractical to prepare a simplified
voltage drop tables, curves and graphs. Engg calculation will have to be undertaken.
The most commonly used approximate cable voltage drop formula is as follows:
V = IR cos + IX sin
Where:
V = Voltage drop in the circuit, line to neutral.
I = Current flowing in the conductor.
R = Line resistance for one conductor, in ohms.
X = Line reactance for one conductor, in ohms.
= Angle whose cosine is the load power factor.
Cos = Load power factor, in decimals.
Sin = Load reactive factor, in decimals.
The voltage drop V obtained for the formula is the voltage drop in one conductor,
one way commonly called the line-to-neutral voltage drop. The reason for using the line-
to-neutral voltage is to permit the line-to-line voltage to be completed by multiplying by
the ff. constants:
Page No. 14
Table 3.1
Voltage System Multiply By:
Single - phase 2
3 - phase 1.732
In using the voltage drop formula, the line current is generally the maximum or
assumed load current carrying capacity of the conductor.
3.2.1 The resistance R is the AC resistance of the particular conductor used and the type
of raceway in which it is installed as obtained from manufacturers catalog. It
depends on the ff:
1.) Size of the conductor

2.) Type of conductor ( copper or aluminum)
3.) The temperature of the conductor
4.) Whether the conductor is installed in magnetic (steel) or non-magnetic
(aluminum or non-metallic raceway).
The resistance opposes the flow of current and causes heating of the conductor.
3.2.2 The reactance X is also obtained from manufacturers catalog. It depends on the ff:
1.) The size and material of the conductor
2.) Whether the raceway is magnetic or non-magnetic.
3.) Spacing of the conductor of the circuit. The spacing is fixed for multi-
conductor cables but may vary with single-conductor cables so that an average
value is required. Reactance occurs because the alternating current flowing in
the conductor causes a magnetic field to build up and collapse around each
conductor in synchronism with the alternating current. This magnetic field as
it builds up and fall rapidly, cuts across the conductors of the circuit, causing a
voltage to be induced in each in the same way that a current flowing in the
transformer induces a voltage in the secondary of the transformer.
Page No. 15
The following tables for impedances for different installation conditions are
from IEEE STD. 141-1993, Tables 3.2 to 3.10.
Table 3.2
Page No. 16
Table 3.3
Inductive Reactance XA is based on the basic formula:
f 1
XA = 0.2794 log10 ohms/conductor/mile
60 GMR
Where: GMR = Conductor Geometric Mean Radius in ft.

Frequency = Hertz
Page No. 17
Table 3.4
Inductive Reactance XB is based on the basic formula:
f
XB = 0.2794 log10 B = ohms/conductor/mile
60
Where: B = Equivalent distance between conductors

Frequency = Hertz
Page No. 18
Table 3.5
Page No. 19
Table 3.6
Page No. 20
Table 3.7
Page No. 21
Table 3.8
Page No. 22
Table 3.9
Page No. 23
Table 3.10
Page No. 24
3.3 Short-Circuit Current

The third consideration is the sizing of cables based on its short-circuit
current capability. The cable is normally selected based on ampacity and voltage
drop. Then the size is checked for its ability to carry fault current. Failure to
check the conductor size for short-circuit heating could result in permanent
damage to the cable insulation due to disintegration of the insulation material
which will be accompanied by smoke and generation of combustible favors.
These vapors will, if sufficiently heated, ignite, and could start a fire. Also, less
seriously, the insulation or sheath of the cable may be expanded to produce voids
leading to subsequent failure due to excessive voltage or stress in the voids. This
becomes especially important in cables rated 5KV and higher.
Another concern is the construction of the cable is such that its

mechanical strength is high and it can handle short-circuit currents without any
mechanical difficulty.
During normal operation the magnitude of current at a given cable may

carry is limited by the continuous temperature rating of the insulation. It is
recognized, however that under fault conditions there will be an abrupt elevation
in conductor temperature which will subject the insulation to a more severe
thermal stress for a short period of time.
It is very important to check the thermal stress limit in terms of current

and time for various cable sizes so as to have protection equipment that will
prevent severe permanent damage to cable insulation during an interval of fault
current flow.
Under short-circuit conditions the ultimate conductor temperature depends

on the following:
1. The magnitude of fault current.
2. Cross-sectional area of the conductor.
3. The duration of fault current flow.
4. The conductor temperature before the short-circuit occurs.
On the basis that all the energy produced during fault current flow is
effective in raising the conductor temperature (since the time period is very
short, this is a valid assumption for engineering purposes) the conductor heating
is governed by the following equation.
Page No. 25
As per American practice (ANSI/IEEE):
For copper
2
Isc T 2 + 234
t = 0.0297 log 10
A T 1 + 234
For Aluminum
2
Isc T 2 + 228
t = 0.0125 log 10
A T 1 + 228
Isc = Short-circuit current or Amps.
A = Conductor Area in Circular Mils.
t = Time of short-circuit in secs.
T1 = Initial conductor temperature in degrees Celsius.
T2 = Final conductor temperature in degree Celsius.
It is important to note that the abnormal temperature persists much longer than the
duration of fault current flow. For example, a flow of 30,000 Amps in 500 MCM cable
will elevate the copper temperature from 75C to 200C in approximately 1 second. With
the current then reduced to zero as much as 3000 secs or 0.8333 hrs could be required for
the copper to return to normal operating temperature. The cooling time will vary with the
cable geometry (wall thickness, diameter, etc). This thermal lag in cooling is of special
importance in cases where circuits are protected by automatic reclosers and where
immediate manual reclosing is practiced.
In the two above equations for sizing of cables based on short-circuit current,
generally, the initial conductor temperature T1 is not accurately known since it depends
upon the loading of the cable and ambient conditions. To be conservative it is usually
assumed to be equal to the maximum continuous operating temperature of the insulation.
The duration of the short-circuit is usually assumed to be 1 second.
Hereunder is the data for the maximum continuous temperature rating and
maximum short-circuit temperature rating of cables (low voltage and medium voltage).
Page No. 26
As per IEC Standard:
The conductor heating formula will be as follows:
2
Isc
t = K2
A
where: Isc = Short-circuit current or Amps.
A = Conductor Area in mm2
t = Time of short-circuit in secs. The time of short circuit will be 1-sec.
Values of K are shown in the data below:
TABLE 3.1
PVC-INSULATED (Thermoplastic) Cable K values
Conductor Temperature K
Rise C Copper Conductor Aluminum Conductor
70-130 96.4 62
70-150 109.8 70.6
XLPE INSULATED CABLES Cable K values
K
Conductor Temperature
Rise C Copper Conductor Aluminum Conductor
90-250 143 87
Page No. 27
Short-Circuit Current Capacity of Cables (PVC & XLPE) are also shown in graphs,
Fig. (a) and Fig. (b). based on the IEC standards.
FIG. 3.2
Fig. (a) Duration of short circuit (s)
(Cable sizes in mm2)
PVC-INSULATED COPPER CONDUCTOR

CABLE SHORT CIRCUIT RATINGS
Page No. 28
FIG. 3.3
Fig. (b) Duration of short circuit (s)
(Cable sizes in mm2)
XLPE-INSULATED COPPER CONDUCTOR

CABLE SHORT CIRCUIT RATINGS
Page No. 29
Table 3.11
Temperature Limits of Cables
Maximum Continuous Maximum Short-Circuit

Type of Insulation Temperature Rating
Temperature Rating
MV XLPE 90C 250C
MV EPR 90C 250C
TW 60C 150C
THW 75C 150C
THHN/THWN 90C 150C
RHW 75C 200C
RHW-2 90C 200C
XHHW 75C 250C
XHHW-2 90C 250C
PE - Polyethylene (natural
or conventional) 75C 150C
Page No. 30
4.0 CABLE CONSTRUCTION
4.1 Low Voltage Power Cables (600V Rating)
Commonly used low voltage power cables are generally rated at 600V,
regardless of the voltage used whether 120V, 208V, 240V, 277V, 480V or 600V.
The selection of 600V power cables is oriented more towards physical
rather than electrical services requirements. Resistance to force, such as crush,
impact and abrasion become a predominant consideration, although good
electrical properties for wet location are also needed. Cables are classified by the
insulations operating temperature and insulation thickness. A list of the more
commonly used cables is provided below.
4.1.1 Thermoplastic Types
Cables with thermoplastic insulating material is a synthetic compound

composed of plasticizers stabilizers, fillers and Polyvinyl Chloride Resin
(PVC). The thermoplastic material is one that will soften repeatedly when
heated and hardened by cooling, that is, they can be molded and remolded
any number of times. The extrusion process for these materials requires
that they be heated sufficiently to cause them to flow, but no significant
reaction takes place so that they will soften when reheated. The insulation
is mechanically tough oil, moisture and heat resistant and flame retardant
cables. Under this cable type are the following as listed in PEC or NEC:
1.) TW The maximum operating temperature is 60C in wet or dry

location. This type has no jacket.
2.) THW The maximum operating temperature is 75C in wet or dry
location. This type has also no jacket.
3.) THWN The maximum operating temperature is 75C for use in wet
or dry location. This type has a nylon jacket.
4.) THHN The maximum operating temperature is 90C for use in dry
location. This type has a nylon jacket.
5.) Polyethylene (PE) is another thermoplastic material which had found
usage in cable application. However its low meeting point
(110C) has limited its acceptance in power cable
applications where overload and short-circuit conditions
often dictates the use of materials having better normal
properties. Another limitation of polyethylene is its poor
flame resistance. PE is replaced by XLPE (Cross-Linked
Polyehtylene)
Page No. 31
4.1.2 Thermosetting Types
A Thermosetting material is one that requires heat to vulcanize or cross-

link it. The vulcanization cause a permanent chemical reaction so that the
material will have very little tendency to soften if heated again. Cross-
linked Polyethylene (XLPE) and Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR) are in
this type.
4.1.2.1 Cross-Linked Polyethylene (XLPE)
The 600V compounds of XLPE are usually filled with carbon black or
mineral fillers to further improve the relatively good toughness of
conventional or natural polyethylene. The combination of crosslinking
through vulcanization plus fillers produces superior mechanical
properties. Vulcanization eliminates the main drawback of a low melting
point of 105C for conventional or natural polyethylene. Also, usage of
natural polyethylene has greatly been limited to circuits where overload
and short circuit conditions are not critical.
The 600V construction consists of copper or aluminum conductor with
single extrusion of insulation in the specified thickness. The insulation is
abrasion, moisture and heat resistant black XLPE. The natural
polyethylene insulation for power cables had been replaced by the XLPE
material.
The insulation type has a strong effect on cable rating. From a thermal
point of view, a good insulation material should have low thermal
resistivity and should result in low dielectric losses.
In this classification are the following:
1. Type XHHW for 75C maximum operating temperature in wet and

90C in dry locations only.
2. Type XHHW-2 for 90C maximum operating temperature in wet and

dry locations.
4.1.2.2 Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR)
Ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) cables have a cross-linked molecular

structure like XLPE and are produced by a similar process. Both EPR and
XLPE have the same durable and thermal characteristics but EPR has a
higher degree of elasticity which is maintained over a wide temperature
range. Between six and 12 ingredients are used in the production of EPR
which necessitates great care to maintain purity and avoid contamination
during production process. For this reason EPR insulation tends to be
more expensive than XLPE.
Page No. 32
Rubber-like insulation such as ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) and

styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) compounds require outer jacket for
mechanical protection such as PVC and neoprene. Recent advancement
in EPR insulation has improved physical properties that do not require
any other jacket for mechanical protection.
In this classification are the following:
1.) Type RHW for 75C maximum operating temperature in wet or dry
location.
2.) Type RHW-2 for 90C maximum operating temperature in wet or dry
location.
3.) Type RHH for 90C maximum operating temperature in dry locations
only.
All the preceding cables are suitable for installation in conduit, duct or
other raceway and when specifically approved for the purpose may be installed
in cable tray (1/0 AWG and larger) or direct buried, provided NEC or PEC
requirements are satisfied. The common conductor material used are copper or
aluminum.
4.2 Medium Voltage and High Voltage Power Cables
As listed in PEC & NEC, medium voltage cables are designated type MV
and have solid extruded dielectric insulation rated 2001V to 35,000 volts. Single
conductor and multiconductor cable are available with minimal voltage rating of
5KV, 8KV, 15KV, 25KV and 35KV. Also available are solid dielectric 46KV,
69KV and 138KV transmission cables but these are not listed by PEC & NEC.
The succeeding discussions will be centered on cross-linked polyethylene
(XLPE) and Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR) cables.
Medium voltage and high voltage power cables in addition to being

insulated are shielded to confine and evenly distributes the electric field within
the insulation. It is accomplished by means of conductor and insulation shields.
Shielding of power cables will be discussed thoroughly in the succeeding parts of
this paper. The use of shielded cables is dictated by the following conditions:
1.) Personnel safety. The advantage is obtained only if the shield is grounded.
If not grounded, the hazard of shock may be increased.
2.) Single conductors in wet locations.
3.) Direct earth buried.
4.) Where the cable surface may collect unusual amounts of conducting
material such as salt, soot, conductive pulling compounds, etc.
Page No. 33
4.2.1 Cable Components and its Functions
Commonly used types of cables are the XLPE and EPR.
The components and its functions of a medium and high voltage cable are as
follows (Refer to Fig.A-1):
Conductor
(Copper or
Aluminum)
Conductor
Semi-conducting
Extruded Shield
(or Screen)
Insulation
Insulation
Semi-conducting
Extruded Shield
(or Screen)
Non-magnetic Overall
Metallic Protective
Shielding tape Jacket
Fig. 4.1
Typical Shielded Power Cable Design
4.2.1.1 The Central Conductor.
The purpose of which is to conduct power to serve the load.

The metals of choice are either copper or aluminum as discussed in
the early part of the paper. The central conductor may be composed
of a single element (solid) or composed of multiple elements
(stranded)
Page No. 34
4.2.1.2 The Conductor Shield.
A semi-conducting layer placed over the conductor to

provide a smooth conducting cylinder around the conductor.
Typical of todays cables, this layer is a semi conducting plastic
polymer with carbon filler, extruded directly over the conductor.
This layer represents a very smooth surface which, because of
direct contact with the conductor is elevated to the applied voltage
on the conductor. The function of this cable component will be
discussed further in this paper.
4.2.1.3 The Insulation.
A high dielectric material to isolate the conductor. The two

basic types used today is cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) or
Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR). Both types have maximum
operating temperature of 90C and maximum short-circuit
temperature of 250C. XLPE and EPR are classified as
thermosetting materials which do not soften to any greater degree
below their decomposition temperature and therefore are not
capable of being remoulded. Actually the insulation, conductor,
semiconducting shield (or screen) and insulation semiconducting
shield (or screen) comprise the extruded insulation system. This
process is almost always carried out in a single-pass through a
tandem of two or three extruders. The polymer melt must be at a
temperature high enough to cause them to flow but low enough not
to activate yet the organic peroxide cross-linking agent.
FIG. 4.2 FIG. 4.3
For XLPE cable, the process of cross-linking or

vulcanization consists of forming chemical bonds between the long
chain molecules of plain polyethylene to give a ladder effect
which restricts slippage between molecules and produces good
thermal stability. Cross linking or vulcanization also means that the
different long molecules of plain or natural polyethylene are linked
together. See Figs. 4.2 & 4.3
Page No. 35
The process of cross-linking can be achieved by high energy

radiation or by chemical methods. Chemical cross-linking is the
traditional method but radiation cross-linking is increasing in
popularity for wires and small cables where insulation thicknesses
are not excessive. The chemical method of cross-linking is the most
common method. To cross-link the polymer like plain polyethylene,
the peroxide compound into it must be raised to its activation
temperature for a given time by passing the core through a tube
filled with some heat transfer fluid. This fluid will be held at a
pressure sufficient to prevent bubbles formation. The most efficient
heat transfer fluid is silicone oil. Further details of the cross-
linking process is out of scope in this seminar.
4.2.1.4 The Insulation Shield.
This consists of the following components as follows:
1.0 A semi conducting layer to provide a smooth cylinder around the

outside surface of the insulation. Typical shield compound is a
polymer with carbon filler that is extruded directly over the
insulation. This layer for medium voltage applications is not fully
bonded to the insulation (strippable) to allow relatively easy
removal for the installation of cable accessories such as cable
termination. Transmission cables have this layer fully bonded to the
insulation, which requires shaving tools to remove.
At the medium and high voltage associated with shielded cable

applications, a voltage gradient would exist across any air gap
between the insulation and metallic shield. The voltage gradient
may be sufficient to ionize the air, causing small electric arc burns
on the insulation and eventually cause the cable to fail. The
semiconducting screen allows application of a conducting material
over the insulation to eliminate air gaps between insulation and
ground plane.
2.0 The Metallic Shield layer, which may be composed of wires, tapes,
or corrugated tubes. This shield is connected to ground which keeps
the insulation shield at ground potential and provides a return path
for fault current. Medium voltage cable can utilize the metallic
shield as the neutral return conductor if sized accordingly. Typical
Shield sizing criteria:
a.) Equal in capacity to the central conductor for single-phase

application.
b.) One-third the capacity for 3-phase applications.
c.) Fault duty for 3-phase feeders and transmission application.
Page No. 36
4.2.1.5 Overall Jacket.
This is a plastic layer applied over the metallic shield for

physical protection. This polymer layer maybe extruded as a loose
tube or directly over the metallic shield (encapsulated). Although
both provide physical protection, the encapsulated jacket removes
the space present in a loose tube design which may allow
longitudinal water migration. The typical compound use for jacket
is linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) because of its
ruggedness and relatively low water vapor transmission rate.
Jackets can be specified insulating (most common) or semi
conducting (when jointly buried and randomly laid with
communication cables).
4.2.1.6 Percent Insulation Levels of Power Cables
Referring to the discussion in the initial pages of this paper re-voltage

rating of the cable insulation, its selection is made on the basis of the phase,
phase voltage of the system in which the cable is to be applied whether the
system is grounded or ungrounded, and the time in which a ground fault on the
system is cleared by protective equipment. It is possible to operate cables on
ungrounded system for long period of time with one grounded due to fault. This
result in line-to-line voltage stress across the insulation of two ungrounded
conductors. Therefore such cable must have a greater insulation thickness than
cable on grounded system where it is impossible to impose full line-to-line
potential on the other two unfaulted phase of an extended period of time.
The following are the cable insulation levels:
1.0 100% level.
Cables in this category may be applied where the system is provided with
relay protection such that ground fault will be cleared as rapidly as possible, but
in any case within one minute. While these cables are applicable to the great
majority of cable systems that are on grounded system, they may also be used on
other system for which the application of cables is acceptable provided the above
clearing requirement are met in completely de-energizing the faulted section.
2.0 133% level.
This insulation level corresponds to that formerly designated for

ungrounded systems. Cables in this category may be applied in situations where
the clearing time requirements of the 100% category cannot be met and yet there
is adequate assurance that the faulted section will be de-energized in a time not
exceeding one hour. Also they may be used when additional insulation strength
over the 100% level category is desirable.
Page No. 37
3.0 173% level.
Cables in this category should be applied on systems where the time

required to de-energize a section is indefinite. Their use is recommended also for
resonant grounded system. Cable manufacturers will have to be consulted for
insulation thickness of their manufactured cables.
The percent insulation level does not necessarily mean the thickness ratio
over the 100% thickness. For example 133% insulation does not necessarily have
33% more thickness over 100% level thickness. PEC shows the thickness to be
less then 133%.
Ratings of low voltage cables as well as the medium voltage cable

previously discussed in that they are also based on phase-to-phase operation. The
practical point here is that a cable that operates at says 480 volts from phase-to-
ground on a grounded wye system requires an insulation thickness applicable to
480V x 1,732 volts phase-to-phase. This of course, means that a 1,000 volts level
of insulation thickness should be selected. There are no categories for low
voltage cables that address the 100, 133 and 173 percent levels. One of the main
reasons for the thickness of insulation walls for these low voltage cables in the
applicable standards is that mechanical requirements of these cables dictate the
insulation thickness. As a practical matter all these cables are over-insulated for
the actual voltages involved.
4.2.1.7 Treeing of Cables
Because of an aging effect known as TREEING on the basis of its

visual appearance, caused by moisture in the presence of an electric
field, a modified version of XLPE, designated Tree retardant (TRXLPE)
has replaced the use of XLPE for medium voltage application. TRXLPE
is a very low loss dielectric that is reasonably flexible and has a
maximum operating temperature limit of 90C or 105C depending on
type. Under a microscope, a tree pattern in the insulation, complete with
trunk and branches can be observed . There are two categories of trees
that have been observed in Polyehtylene (PE) and Cross-Linked
Polyethylene (XLPE) cables:
1.) Electrical
2.) Electrochemical
Page No. 38
The electrical tree formation requires an A.C. voltage larger than

corona inception voltage and partial discharge. Partial discharge or
corona can occur as a result of cable manufacturing defects and cable
designs. Moisture is not required. Electrochemical trees, sometimes
called water trees require an A.C. voltage stress and water. The
insulation of some extruded dielectric cables operating under A.C.
voltage stress in damp or wet conditions will ultimately exhibit
electrochemical stress. Their rate of growth will vary with insulation
material, cable construction and quality of manufacturing. Cable will
fail due to treeing.
Cable failure due to TREEING
Insulation Shield
Insulation
Water Trees
Conductor
Shield
Conductor
FIG. A-3
Treeing in M.V. & H.V. Power Cable
Page No. 39
5.0 SHIELDING OF MEDIUM AND HIGH VOLTAGE POWER CABLES
Shielding of an electric power cables is the practice confining the

dielectric field of the cable to the insulation of the conductor or conductors. It is
accomplished by means of conductor and insulation shields, and will be
described as follows:
5.1 A conductor shield is employed to prevent excessive voltage stress

on voids due to irregularities of the conductor surface between
conductor and insulation. To be effective, the shield must adhere to
or remain in intimate contact with the insulation under all conditions.
The close bonding of the conductor shield to the inner surfaces of the
insulation presents a smooth surface thus minimizing void
formulation and thereby reduce the voltage stress concentration.
Ionization or electrical breakdown of the air in the voids due to
intense voltage stress will cause small electric arcs or corona. These
small electric arcs burn the insulation and eventually cause failure of
the cable.
5.2 An insulation shield has several purposes:
1.) To confine the entire dielectric field to the inside of the insulation
material. This will result in a symmetrical radial distribution of voltage
stress within the insulation thereby minimizing the possibility of
surface discharges due to tangential field stress.
2.) To protect the cables from induced or direct over-voltages such as in
connecting to overhead lines. Shields do this by making the surge
impedance uniform along the length of the cable and by helping to
reduce surge potentials.
3.) To limit generation of radio interference.
4.) To reduce the hazard of shock. This advantage is obtained only if the
shield is grounded. If not grounded, the hazard of shock may be
increased.
5.3 Method of Shielding and Voltage Distribution
The use of shielding involves consideration of installation and operating

condition. Definite rules cannot be established on practical basis for all cases but
the following features should be considered as a working basis for use of
shielding.
Shielding of cable is accomplished by wrapping a thin band of conducting

tape (usually copper) spirally around the insulation to form a continuous shield
along the entire length of the cables. This conducting tape is held at ground
potential by connection to the building ground. The ground may also be a
metallic conduit, a damp non-metallic conduit or a metallic binding tape or ring
Page No. 40
on an aerial cable. The equipotential surfaces are concentric cylinders between

the conductor and the shield (metallic conducting tape). The voltage distribution
follows a simple logarithmic variation and the electrostatic field (or electric
field) is confined entirely with the insulation. These lines of force (electrostatic
or electric fields) are uniform and radial. These lines of force cross the
equipotential surfaces at right angles eliminating the tangential and longitudinal
stresses within the insulation or on its surface. See Fig. 5.1
0% E
Equipotential Lines
25%
50%
75%
Insulation
100% E
Grounded
CONDUCTOR
Shield
Lines of Force
(Electrostatic or
electric field)
Shield Line
FIG. 5.1
Voltage Distribution within insulation of shielded cable
In a non-shielded cable, there is no metallic covering or shield. Without

such covering or shield, the electrostatic (or electric) field will be partly in the
insulation and partly in whatever lies between the insulation and ground. The
equipotential lines are still cylindrical but not concentric with the conductor and
cross the cable surfaces at many different potentials or voltages. Refer to Fig.
5.2.
As the voltage applied on the cable goes higher, the voltage gradient
becomes large and causes surface tracking and destructive discharges to ground.
Page No. 41
Percent Voltage
25
50
Insulation
75
100
CONDUCTOR
Ground
Plane
FIG. 5.2
Electric field and voltage distribution around
non-shielded cable on ground plane
(assuming uniform dielectric)
Page No. 42
INSULATION
Air
CONDUCTOR
Surface
Normal
Ground
Plane
FIG. 5.3
Electric field near contact of non-shielded
cable and ground plane.
FIG. 5.3a
Voltage distribution in shielded cables
in ground plane
Page No. 43
FIG. 5.3b
Voltage Distribution in Non-Shielded Cables
on Ground Plane
In actual installations, the cable may not be in contact with the ground
along its entire length. This aggravates the condition further by producing
longitudinal voltage gradients (or stresses) in addition to the circumferential
voltage gradients (or stresses).
Even if a cable is not in contact with ground and is applied to a system

with sufficiently high voltage, the potential or voltage gradient immediately
outside of the insulation may be large enough to cause corona or ionization of air
(breakdown of air and becoming a conductor.) Damage to non-shielded cable
may result when the surface of the cable is moist, or covered with sooth, soapy
grease or other conducting film so that the charging current is carried by the film
to some spot where it can discharge to ground. The resultant intensity of
discharge may be sufficient to cause burning of the insulation or jacket.
Shielding of the cable not only voids the formation of corona and
eliminates surface tracking and effect increased safety to human life by
maintaining a zero potential (or voltage) surface around the cable. Thus, under
normal conditions there is no shock hazard to personnel who comes in contact
with the cable.
Page No. 44
The conditions under which cables should be shielded depend on the type
of insulation and shield material. In general, shielding should be considered for
systems operating above 2000 volts. Cables rated over 2000V, a conductor shield
is required by industry standards such as PEC or NEC.
5.4. Shield Material

Two distinct types of materials are employed in constructing cable
shields: The non-metallic and metallic shields.
5.4.1. Non-metallic shields may consist of either semi-conducting compounds
or material that have a high dielectric constant and are known as stress
control material. Both serve the same function of stress reduction.
5.4.2. The conductor shielding materials were originally made of semi-
conducting tapes that were helically wrapped over the conductor. This is
done, especially on large conductors, in order to hold the strand together
firmly during the application of the extruded semi-conducting material
that is now required for medium voltage cables. Experience with cable
that only had semi conducting tape was not satisfactory, so the industry
changed their requirements to call for an extruded layer over the
conductor. Present day extruded layers are not only clean (from
undesirable impurities) but are very smooth and round. This has greatly
reduced the formation of Water Trees (Refer to Fig. A-3) that could
originate from irregular surfaces. By extruding the two layers (conductor
shield and insulation) at same time, the conductor shield and insulation
are cured at the same time. This provides the inseparable bond that
minimizes the chances of the formation of a void at the critical area
between the conductor shield and insulation surface adjacent to the
conductor.
For compatibility reasons, the extruded shielding layer is usually

made from same or a similar polymer as the insulation material. Special
carbon black is used to make the layer over the conductor semi
conducting material to provide the necessary conductivity. Industry
standards (ICEA and NEMA) require that the conductor semi-conducting
material have a maximum resistivity of 1,000 meter-ohms. Those
standards also require that this material pass a longtime stability test for
resistivity at the emergency (over load) operating temperature level to
insure that the layer remains conductive and hence provides a long cable
life.
A water-impervious material can be incorporated as part of the

conductor shield to prevent radial moisture transmission. This layer
consists of a thin layer of aluminum or lead sandwiched between semi-
conducting materials.
Page No. 45
5.4.3. Insulation Shielding
The insulation shield for a medium voltage cable is made up of two

components:
1.) A semi conducting or stress relief layer.

2.) A metallic layer of tape or tapes, drain wires, concentric neutral
wires, braid, sheath or metal tube. This metallic shield must be
non-magnetic.
The two components mentioned above must function as a unit for a

cable to achieve a long service life:
The semi conducting or stress layer used with extruded cables

(example: XLPE and EPR) is a polymer material. This is an extruded layer
and is called this extruded insulation shield or screen. Its properties and
compatibility requirement are similar to the conductor shield previously
described except that standard requires that the volume resistivity of this
external layer be limited to 500meters-ohms.
The non-metallic layer is directly over the insulation and the

voltage stress at that interface is lower than at the conductor shield
interface. This layer is not fully bonded (strippable) to the insulation for
voltage up to 35KV. Above 35KV, this layer is fully bonded to the
insulation, which requires shaving tools to remove.
The metallic portion of the insulation shield or screen is necessary to

provide a low resistance path for charging current to flow to the ground. It is
important to realize that the extruded semi-conducting shield material will not
survive a sustained current flow of more that a few milliamperes. Those
materials are capable of handling the small amounts of charging current but
cannot tolerate unbalanced or fault current.
The metallic component of the insulation shield system must be able to

accommodate these higher current. On the other hand, an excessive amount of
metal in the shield of a single-conductor cable is costly due to following:
a) The additional metal over the amount that is actually required increase
the initial cost of the cable.
b) The greater the metal component of the insulation shield, the higher
the shield losses that result from the flow of current in the central
conductor. The higher the shield losses will increase the heat in the
cable thus the capacity of the cable will decrease. These conditions
will be discussed thoroughly on the section entitled Grounding of
Cable Shields.
Page No. 46
Shielding of low voltage cables is generally required where inductive

interference can be a problem. In numerous communication, instrumentation and
control application, small electrical signals may be transmitted on the cable
conductor and amplified at the receiving end. Unwanted signals (noise) due to
inductive interference can be as large as the desired signal. Thus can result in
false signals or audible noise that can affect voice communications.
Page No. 47
6.0 GROUNDING OF POWER CABLE SHIELD OR SHEATH
This discussion provides an overview of the reasons why cable shields or

sheaths are grounded and the methods of grounding of cable shields or sheaths.
The terms shield and sheath are being used interchangeably since they have the
same function, problem and solutions for the purpose of this chapter. The two are
defined as follows:
1.) Sheath refers to a water impervious, tubular metallic component of a cable

that is applied over the insulation. Examples are a lead sheath and a
corrugated copper or aluminum sheath. A semi-conducting layer may be
used under the metal to form a very smooth surface.
2.) Shield refers to the conducting component of a cable that must be

grounded to confine the dielectric field to the insulation. Shields are
generally composed of a metallic portion and a conducting (or semi-
conducting) extruded layer. The metallic portion can be either tape, wires
or a tube.
Generally, sheaths are used on paper insulated M.V. and H.V. cables
while shields are commonly used in M.V. and H.V. XLPE and EPR. Since we are
concentrating on the commonly used XLPE and EPR cables, the term shields will
be used in this discussion.
As discussed earlier in the section on shielding, for personal safety the
metallic shield must be grounded due to induced voltage which will be discussed
later. However, grounding of the cable shields must take into consideration the
shield losses which may effect reduction of cable ampacity.
The shield of the power cables can be solidly-grounded at one location
only, called Single-Point Grounding (open-circuited operation) or can be
grounded at both ends called multi-point grounding (short-circuited operation).
PEC & NEC have ampacity tables based on single-point grounding which will
not effect circulating current, thus, there will be no additional heating on the
cable. Besides, as of this time, studies are still on-going in USA & EUROPE on
the ampacity of cables based on a multi-point grounding of shields due to
conflicting methods by engineers and researchers. PEC & NEC advised that if
the shields are grounded at more than one point, ampacities shall be adjusted to
take into consideration the heating due to circulating currents in the shield. No
correction factors are given by PEC & NEC.
A cable may be considered a transformer. When alternating current flows
in the central conductor of a cable, that current produces electromagnetic flux in
the metallic shield, if present, or in any parallel conductor. This becomes one-
turn transformer when the metallic shield is grounded, two or more times since a
circuit is formed and current flows.
A single-conductor shielded power cable will be considered first. See Fig.
6.1 below:
Page No. 48
6.1 Single-Point Grounding of Metallic Shield at End of Cable

(Open-Circuited Operation)
Metallic Shield
IC
FIG. 6.1
Single-Point Grounding of Metallic Shield at end of Cable
If the metallic shield is only grounded one time and a circuit is not
completed, the magnetic flux due to the flow of current in the central
conductor produces a voltage in the shield. The amount of voltage induced
in the shield is proportional to the current in the central conductor and
increases with the cable spacing and distance of the free end from the
ground connection.
The common practice is to keep this induced voltage below 25V,
although 50V is used by some utilities. Shown on Table 6.1 is the typical
allowable shield length from one ground point.
Table 6.1
Page No. 49
Voltage
Distance
FIG. 6.2
Induced voltage of Single-Point Grounding
of Metallic Shield at end of Cable
Actually there are eddy current induced in the shield. It is a known

fact that whenever an alternating magnetic flux penetrates a piece of
conducting material, eddy currents will be produced therein. These
currents circulate in the shield. However, eddy currents are not of
significant amount as the metallic shield are non-magnetic such as copper
or aluminum which has a much higher magnetic reluctance than the
ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt,etc. Generally, eddy
currents can be neglected.
In the connection diagram of Single Point Grounding of the metallic
shield (See Fig. 6.1), there is no close circuit and therefore no, induced
circulating current in the shield. This set-up avoids the considerable
heating of the metallic shield due to the circulating current flowing along
the metallic shield and returning through the ground (See Fig. 6.5 for
multi-point grounding). The losses in the shield due to the circulating
current could effect a reduction of cable ampacity.
In view of the voltage to the ground at the free end of the shield,
particular care must be taken to insulate and provide surge protection at
the free end of the shield to avoid danger from the induced voltages.
6.2 Single-point grounding can also be done near mid-point of cable

run (open circuit operation). See Fig. 6.3.
Metallic Shield
IC
Vshi = 0 Vshi = 0
FIG. 6.3
Single-Point Grounding of Metallic Shield near Mid-Point of Cable
Page No. 50
Voltage Voltage

0 Distance Distance 0
FIG. 6.4
Induced Voltage of Single-Point Grounding
of Metallic Shield Near Mid-Point.
Fig. 6.4 shows the shield being grounded at near mid-point and the ends
are ungrounded. In this case, the total allowable length of the cable will be
doubled for the same allowable induced voltage. Refer to Table 6.1.
6.3 Multipoint Grounding

Metallic Shield
Vshi = 0 Vshi = 0
I circulating
FIG. 6.5
Multi-Point Grounding of Metallic Shield
Page No. 51
If the metallic shield is grounded two or more times or otherwise

completes a circuit, the magnetic flux produces a current flow in the shield. The
amount of current in the shield is inversely proportional to the resistance of the
shield, that is, the current in the shield increases as the amount of metal in the
shield increases. The voltage to ground of the shield stays at zero. See Fig. 6.6
below.
Voltage
0
Distance
FIG. 6.6
One other important concept regarding multi-point grounds is that the

distance between the grounds has no effect on the magnitude of the circulating
current in the shield. If the grounds are one foot apart or 1000 feet apart, the
current is the same depending on the current in the central conductor and the
resistance in the shield. The circulating current is independent of the cable length
between shield grounds because increasing the distance between grounds
increases the induced voltage in the same proportion that it increases the
impedance of the shield.
For both single-point and multi-point grounding, accidental removal of the

shield ground can cause cable failure and present hazards to personnel. Some
utilities ground both ends of the shield for increased reliability even though this
may require larger cable size in some case.
Page No. 52
7.0 METALLIC SHIELD LOSSES
A very important factor that affects much the ampacity of the cable is the
metallic shield losses. As briefly discussed earlier, when current flows in a
conductor, there is a magnetic field associated with that current flow. If the
current varies in magnitude with time, such as with 60Hz alternating current, the
magnetic field expands and contracts with the current magnitude. In the event
that a second conductor is within the magnetic field of the current-carrying
conductor, a voltage that varies with the field will be introduced in that
conductor.
If that conductor is part of a circuit, the induced voltage will result in

current flow. This situation occurs during operation of metallic shielded
conductors. Current flow in the phase conductors induces a voltage in the
metallic shields of all the phase cables within the magnetic field.
If the shields are solidly grounded at more than one point, circulating
currents will flow in the shields. The magnitude of the circulating currents
depend on the mutual inductance to the other cables, the current in the
conductors and the resistance of the shield. The effect of circulating current is to
heat the shield and thereby reduced the effective ampacity of the cable. If the
shield loss is excessive (more than 5% of the conductor loss), the cable ampacity
should be derated. From past experiences, reduction in ampacity are 7 to 12% for
3/0 AWG and from 46 to 49% for 2,000,000 cir. Mils.
In multi-phase circuits, the voltage induced in any shield is the result of

the vectorial addition and subtraction of all flux linking the shield. Since the net
current in a balanced 3-phase circuit is equal to zero when the shields are
equidistant from all 3 phases, the net voltage is zero. This is actually not the
case, so in actuality there is some net flux that will induce a shield voltage
flow or current flow. Shield I 2 R losses in multiple-grounded shield in Triplex
and 3/C cables have a small effect on the cable ampacity and are accounted for in
the ampacity standards. Any 1/C power cable will have significant shield loss as
the spacing increases between cables.
To facilitate calculating the mutual reactance and shield resistance

metallic shield losses, etc., the following formula may be used. These formulas
neglect proximity effect, but are accurate enough for practical purposes:
Xm = 2 f (0.1404 log 10 S/r m ) micro-ohms/ft.
a = 2 f (0.1404 log 10 2) micro-ohms/ft.
b = 2 f (0.1404 log 10 5) micro-ohms/ft.
Page No. 53
Where:
Xm = Mutual inductance of shield and conductor (micro-ohms/ft.)
a,b = Mutual inductance correction factors for various cable
arrangement (micro-ohms/ft.)
Rs = Resistance of shield (micro-ohms/ft.)
t = Thickness of metal tapes used for shielding (inches)
f = Frequency (hertz)
s = Spacing between center of cables (inches)
rm = Mean radius of shield (inches)
Ic = conductor current (amperes)
For 60Hz:
Xm = 2 (60) (0.1404 log 10 S/r m ) micro-ohms/ft.

= 52.93 (log 10 S/r m ) micro-ohms/ft.
a = 2 (60) (0.1404 log 10 2) micro-ohms/ft.

= 15.93 micro-ohms/ft.
b = 2 (60) (0.1404 log 10 5) micro-ohms/ft.

= 36.99 micro-ohms/ft.
= Apparent relatively of shield in ohms/cir.mil/ft. (-cir.mil/ft) at

operating temperature (assumed 50C). This includes allowance for the spiraling
of the tapes or wires.
Typical values of :
Overlapped tinned copper tape - 30-cir.mil/ft.

Overlapped monel tape - 2500-cir.mil/ft.
Overlapped ambrac tape - 350-cir.mil/ft.
Lead Sheath - 150-cir.mil/ft.
Aluminum Sheath - 20-cir.mil/ft.
7.1. Effect of Spacing Between Phases of a Single Circuit
In a 3-phase of shielded, single-conductor cables, as the spacing between

conductors increases, the cancellation of flux from other phases is reduced. The
shield on each cable approaches the total flux linkage created by the phase
conductor of that cable. Refer to Fig. 7.1.
Page No. 54
A B C
S S
Fig. 7.1
As the spacing, S, increases, the effect of Phase B and C is reduced and

the metallic shield losses in A phase are almost entirely dependent on the A
phase magnetic flux.
7.2 Methods of Minimizing Shield Losses
There are two general ways that the amount of shield losses can be
minimized:
1.) Single-point grounding (open-circuit shield)

2.) Reduce the quantity of metal in the shield.
The single-point grounding or open circuit shield will not result in

circulating shield current but the voltage induced in the shield increases from
zero at the point of grounding to a maximum at the open end that is remote from
the ground. The magnitude of the induced voltage is primarily dependent on the
amount of current in the central or phase conductor. It follows that there are two
current levels that must be considered as follows:
1.) Maximum normal current

2.) Maximum fault current in designing such a system. The amount
of voltage that can be tolerated depends on safety concerns and
jacket designs.
Another approach is the use of a shield having higher resistance than

copper. Since the shield circuit is basically a one-to-one transformer, an increase
of resistance of the shield gives a reduction in the amount of current that will
flow in the metallic shield. Bronze and other copper alloys have been used for
the metallic shield as these have resistivities higher than copper. M.V. and H.V.
cables are manufactured with shield material and its thickness in accordance with
industry standards.
As pointed out earlier, PEC and NEC have data on the ampacities of
conductors based on one point grounding only on 1/C cables (PEC 2000 Tables
3.10.1.69, 3.10.70, 3.10.1.81 & 3.10.1.82). If the 1/C cables on these tables will
be on multi-point grounding, the ampacity will be adjusted due to the additional
cable heating due to shield loss.
Page No. 55
Other ampacity tables provided by PEC & NEC on triplex and 3/C cables
did not mention multi-point grounding. This is assumed to have a minimum
shield losses as the net magnetic flux on the said cables is minimal, thus the
induced shield voltage causing shield losses to be minimal also.
7.3 Calculations for the Shield Voltage Levels
When single-conductor shielded power cables are installed in

separate ducts or otherwise separated from each other a few inches,
current flowing in the central conductor will induce a voltage in the
metallic shield. It is assumed that cables are carrying balanced currents.
B
S S
A C
S
Fig. 7.2
Equilateral Triangle Configuration
A B C
S S
Fig. 7.3
Flat Configuration without Transposition
B C
S
Fig. 7.4
Right Angle or Rectangular Configuration without Transposition
Page No. 56
7.3.1) For the equilateral triangle configuration (see Fig. 7.2), the metallic
shield is grounded only at one end and the other points insulated from
ground.
The magnitude of the induced voltage is given by:
V shi = I c X m
where:
V shi = Shield voltage in volts to neutral per foot of cable.

Ic = Current in central conductor in amperes.
Xm = Mutual reactance between conductor and shield, Micro-
ohm/ft.
X m is calculated from the formula:
X m = 52.93 log 10 micro-ohms/ft
where:
S = cable spacing in inches
r m = mean radius of the shield. This is the distance from the center
of the conductor to the mid-point of the shield.
For the more commonly encountered cable arrangements such as a 3-phase

circuit, other factors must be brought into the equations. Also, phases A
and C have same induced voltage while phase B has a different induced
voltage value. This assumes equal current in all the 3 phases and a phase
rotation of A, B and C.
7.3.2) The flat configuration of cables without transposition (See Fig. 7.3) is
commonly used for cables in a trench but this could be a duct bank
arrangement as well.
The induced shield voltage in A & C phases are calculated as

follows:
I
V shi = c 3Y 2 + (Xm a) 2
2
where:
V shi = shield induced voltage on A & C phases in micro-volts to
neutral per foot.
I c = current in each phase central
Y = Xm + a
where X m = 52.93 log 10 in micro-ohms /ft for 60 Hz operation.
Page No. 57
a = Constant = 15.93 Micro-ohms/ft for 60 Hz operation.

S = Cable spacing in inches.
rm = mean radius of the shield in inches. This is the distance from the
center of the central conductor to the mid-point of the shield.
The induced shield voltage in B phase is the same as for the equilateral
triangle configuration which is as follow:
Vshi = Ic (Xm) in microvolts/foot
where:
Ic = amperes in the central conductor
Xm = 52.93 log10 microvolts to neutral per foot
S = Cable spacing in inches.

r m = mean radius of the shield in inches. This is the distance from
the center of the central conductor to the mid-point of the
shield.
7.3.3) For the right-angle or rectangular configuration without

transposition (See Fig. 7.4) is a probable configuration for large single-
conductor cables in a duct bank.
The induced shield voltages in A & C phases are determined as follows:
Ic a
V shi = 3Y 2 + (Xm - 2 ) 2
2
where:
V shi = shield voltage in A & C phase in Micro volts to neutral per
foot
I c = current in each phase central conductor (balanced 3-phase)
a
Y = Xm +
2
where X m = 52.93 log 10 micro-ohms/foot for 60 Hz operation.
a = constant = 15.93 Microohms per foot for 60 Hz operation
And the variables S and r m are the same definitions as for the
cables in flat configuration discussed previously. The induced shield
voltage in phase B is given as follows:
Vshi = Ic Xm
Page No. 58
With Xm as calculated in the above formula.
A B C
S
A B C
S S
FIG. 7.5
Flat configuration, two-circuits without transposition
The induced shield voltages in A & C phases are determined as follows:
Ic b
V shi = 3Y 2 + (Xm - 2 ) 2
2
where:
b
Y = Xm + a +
2
b = new constant = 36.99 micro-ohms per foot per 60Hz operations
All other designations have same values as in the previous cases.
A B C
S
C B A
S S
FIG. 7.6
Two circuits, flat configuration with two phase conductors
on opposite vertical arrangement.
The induced shield voltage is given below:
Ic b
V shi = 3Y 2 + (Xm - 2 ) 2
2
Page No. 59
where:
Y = Xm + a - b
2
All other designations have same values as in the previous cases.
Table 7.1 shows the summary of formulas for calculating shield voltages, currents and
losses for single-conductor cables.
Page No. 60
TABLE 7.1
Page No. 61
8.0 IMPORTANCE OF JACKET STRESS DETERMINATION
Under normal conditions, the shield induced voltage will probably be of

no great concern but under high load current and particularly currents of fault
magnitude, it is conceivable this voltage may reach a value that will overstress the
cable jacket.
As previously discussed, the single-point grounding will produce an
induced shield voltage at the free end which is proportional to the current in the
central conductor and the distance from the ground point of the shield to the free
end of the shield.
The jacket average voltage stress may be computed as follows:
Sj = Vshi
t
where: Sj = average stress of cable jacket in volts per mil caused by the induced
voltage Vshi.
t = Jacket Thickness in Mils.
The maximum stress on the jacket can be determined by the following

equations.
0.000868 Vshi
Sjmax =
d log10 D
d
where:
d = Shield outside diameter in inches.
D = Jacket outer diameter in inches
Sjmax = maximum voltage stress in volts/mil
Vshi = Ic [52.93 log 10 ] microvolts/ft for 60 Hz operation.
Sample Problem:
3 Single-Conductor Shielded Power Cables are installed on equilateral

triangle configuration on 3-inch cable spacing.
Cable data are as follows:
Thickness of jacket on the shield, T = 50 mils

Thickness of shield material, t = 5 mils
Outside Diameter of shield = 1.0 inch
Length of Cable = 600 ft
Fault Current, I c = 30,000 amps line-to-ground fault
Find the shield induced voltage and jacket voltage stress under fault
conditions.
Page No. 62
Solution: B
A C
S = 3.0
Fig. 8.1
Shield Outside Diameter = 1.0

Shield thickness, t = 5 mils = 0.005 inch
Jacket Thickness, T = 50 mils = 0.05 inch
S = Cable Spacing = 3.0 inches
Then
S
V shi = I c (52.93 log 10 )) microvolts/ft
rm
where,
r m = mean radius of shield

Shield Outside Diameter t
=
2
1 0.005
= = 0.4975 inch
2
For 600 ft,
3.0
X m = 52.93log10 x 600 x10 -6
0.4975
= 52.93 (0.780328)
= 0.02478 ohms
Then, V shi = I c X m
I c = 30,000 Amps
V shi = 30,000 (0.02478)

= 743.40 Volts
Page No. 63
V shi 743.40
Then average stress, S j = = = 14.808 Volts/Mil
T 50
Then, maximum jacket voltage stress for a 50 Mil jacket thickness will be:
S jmax = 0.000868Vshi
d log10 D u
d
= 0.000868 (743.40) u
1.0 log10 1.0 + 2 (0.05)
1.0
= 0.64529 u
1.0 (0.0413926)
= 15.589 volts/mil of jacket thickness
The cable manufacturer shall be consulted for their maximum voltage

stress on the jacket. A safe value for the shield induced voltage is about a
maximum of 50V under normal operating conditions.
Page No. 64
9.0 PURPOSE AND TYPE OF CABLE TERMINATION
Discussions on this subject will address the design, application and

preparation of cables that are to be terminated. The application of this material
will cover medium & high voltage cable system.
9.1 Purpose of Termination
Because medium & high voltage power cables are shielded, special
method are required to connect them to devices or other cables. This method is
called termination which is a way of preparing the end of a cable to provide
adequate electrical & mechanical properties. These essential requirements include
the ff:
1.) Electrically connect the M.V. & high voltage cable conductor to
electrical equipment bus, or non-insulated conductor.
2.) Physically protects and supports the end of the cable conductor,
insulation shielding system and overall jacket, shield or armor of
the cable.
3.) Effectively control electrical stresses to provide both internal and
external dielectric strength to meet desired insulation levels for the
cable system.
The current carrying requirements are the controlling factors in the
selection of the proper type and size of the connector or lug to be used. Variations
in these components are related to the base material used for the conductor within
the cable, the type of termination used, and the requirements of the electrical
system.
The physical protection offered by the termination will vary considerably,
depending on the requirements of the cable system, the environment, and the type
of termination used. The termination must provide an insulating cover at the cable
end to protect the cable components (conductor, insulation and shielding system)
from damage by any contaminants that may be present including gases, moisture
and weathering.
9.2 Electrical stresses in the M.V. & H.V. Power cables when these cables
are cut
Shielded medium or high voltage cables are subject to unusual stresses

where the shield system is ended just short of the point of termination. This can be
elaborated further as follows:
Wherever a medium or high voltage shield power cable is cut, the end of
the cable must be terminated so as to withstand the electrical stress concentration
that is developed when the geometry of the cable has changed. The electrical
stress or voltage stress is described as lines of equal length and spacing between
the conductor shield and the insulation shield. As long as the cable maintains the
same physical dimensions, the electrical stress will remain consistent. When the
cable is cut, the shield ends abruptly and the insulation changes from that in the
Page No. 65
cable to air. The concentration of electrical stress is now in the form as shown in
Fig. 9.1 with the stress concentrating at the conductor and insulation shield.
Shield (non-magnetic
Insulation metallic & semiconducting)
Electrical
Stress Field
Electrostatic Flux Lines

Conductor
(on radial formation)
FIG. 9.1
Electrical Stress Field, Cut End
In order to reduce the electrical stress at the end of the cable, the insulation
shield is removed a sufficient distance to provide the adequate leakage or creep
age distance between the conductor and shield. The said distance is dependent on
the voltage involved as well as the anticipated environmental conditions. At the
point where the shield is stopped, the dielectric filed is no longer confined to the
cable insulation but rather distributes itself between the conductor and the ground.
Longitudinal electrical stress will be introduced over the surface of the cable
insulation. The voltage distribution insulation with the shield removed is shown in
FIG. 9.3. As shown in FIG. 9.2, it is apparent that a high concentration of
longitudinal and radial electrical stresses will occur where the shield ends.
Longitudinal Voltage Stress

(Equipotential Lines)
Radial Voltage Stress Conductor

Insulation
End of Shell
Semiconducting and
Metallic Shield
FIG. 9.2
Electrical Stress Field, Shield Removed
Page No. 66
In most case, this local breakdown in the insulation known as partial discharge
which can cause erosion of the insulation and ultimately complete breakdown in the
cables. FIG 9.3 shows the voltage distribution in the insulation with cable shield
removed.
Insulation
Shield
Jacket
Voltage
Insulation
Conductor
FIG. 9.3 Section
Voltage Distribution with Cable Shield Removed.
9.3 Voltage Distribution in the Insulation with Cable Shield Removed.
The high electrical stresses can be controlled and reduced to a value within
the safe working limits of the materials used for termination. The most common
method of reducing these stresses is to gradually increase the total thickness of the
insulation at the termination by adding, over the insulation, a pre molded rubber
cone or insulating tapes to form a cone. This form is commonly called a stress
cone. This function can also be accomplished by using a high dielectric constant
material, as compared to that of the cable insulation either in tape form or pre
molded tube applied over the insulation in this area. See FIG. 9.4. The voltage
distribution is shown in FIG. 9.5.
Pre-molded stress control tube

Shield
Conductor
Insulation
FIG. 9.4
Stress cone using High Dielectric Constant Material
Page No. 67
Insulation
Jacket Shield Pre-molded Stress
Voltage Control Tube
Insulation
Conductor
Section
FIG. 9.5
Voltage Distribution with Stress Control Tube
9.4 Voltage Distribution with Stress Control Tube
Some of the newer terminations do not require a stress cone. The pre-
molded tube is the usual type being presently used. The cold-shrink 3M scotch
brand and the heat shrinkable Raychem brand are of pre-molded tube type on the
market. This method results in a low stress profile and is referred to as
capacitance stress control. The stress cones are becoming less popular than the
pre-molded tube of high dielectric constant material because it is easy to apply.
Fig. 9.5 shows a basic cross section of the pre-molded type as applied over a
shielded power cable and the resulting voltage distribution. This type is used for
indoor installation. For outdoor installation such as in weather exposed areas,
additional creepage distance from the conductor terminal lug to the grounded
shield of the cable will be gained by using a non-melting insulation skirts or rain
hoods between the stress control assembly and conductor lug. The insulation is
usually a track-resistant material like silicon rubber.
Heat-shrink pre-molded stress control must be slipped over the cable prior
to installing the conductor lug. As the name implies, heat is applied to shrink the
pre-molded stress control tube assembly.
Cold-shrink pre-molded stress control tube has a removable liner made of

polypropylene (for 3M brand) that is pulled out and the tube collapse over the
underlying surface. Please note that the tube overlaps the end of the shield at an
appropriate distance. FIG. 9.6 and 9.7 below shows a typical 3M scotch brand
cold-shrink outdoor termination kit with rain hoods or skirts. Indoor type has no
rain hoods or skirts (see FIG. 9.8 and FIG. 9.9). Please note the pre-molded tube
overlapping the semi-conducting insulation shield.
Page No. 68
FIG. 9.6
3M Brand Outdoor Type Cold-Shrink Termination
FIG. 9.7
3M Brand Cold-Shrink Termination with Removal Liner
Page No. 69
FIG. 9.8
3M Brand Indoor Type, Cold-Shrink Termination Kit
FIG. 9.9
3M Brand Indoor Type, Cold-Shrink Termination Kit
with Removable Liner
Page No. 70
FIG. 9.10 (below) shows an actual installation of outdoor cold-shrink type

termination.
FIG. 9.10
Outdoor Cold Shrink Type 11kV polymeric insulated cables
(XLPE & EPR)
Manufacturers instructions must be followed so that proper installation of

the stress control tube will be effected.
Page No. 71
10.0 POWER CABLE INSTALLATION
Insulated power cables are commonly installed either underground or in air. It is

important to note that the ambient temperature used in the determination of cable rating
refers to climatic conditions and the mode of installation: In underground duct bank; in
raceway such as conduits, cable tray and wire ways; and direct buried in ground within
the industrial plant, the cable is mostly installed either in conduit over head racks or trays.
Metal racks or trays properly bonded together supply the necessary ground path for cable
faults such installations results in lower installed costs as well as being more flexible. The
cables are readily accessible for repair and physical changes in circuit arrangement. Such
installation will save 20 to 50% over a conventional cable in conduit system on an
installed cost basis. In addition to the initial saving, the cable rack installation will result
in continued saving because of its accessibility and flexibility.
An important concert is the installation of cables in steel conduit. One single-

conductor cable when used as part of a 3-phase or single-phase A.C. circuit, should not
be installed by itself in a rigid steel conduit (RSC), intermediate metallic conduit (IMC),
or electrical metallic tubing (EMT) conduit length. Without the benefit of other phase
conductors producing canceling magnetic fields, the one single-conductor cable will
produce high hysteresis and eddy current losses in the magnetic steel. This heats the
conduit and will eventually cause the cable to overheat and fail.
The PEC and NEC standard will be referred to for the standard installation
practices. However, additional details can be found in the IEEE standard 422-1977 and
other reference books published by IEEE press. The succeeding discussions are based on
the said IEEE press and by other publishers to supplement the PEC & NEC.
10.1 Cables in Underground Ducts.
Cables may be installed in ducts buried in the ground with an earth sand and
concrete envelope. Generally it is a good practice to install one power cable per duct and
the internal diameter of the duct should be al least 15 mm greater than the cable diameter.
Cable ratings in ducts correspond to only 80 % of the direct-buried cables in ground
rating.
In using the underground duct bank system, a problem will be encountered. It is

essentially impossible to keep underground ducts from moisture and in some cases the
ducts may even be flooded. Because of these conditions cables to be installed in duct s
must be suitable for wet installation conditions. However, recent advances in cable
manufacturing the protective covering or jackets must exhibit excellent resistance to
moisture, acids, alkalis and other contaminants. Thus, these cables can meet very
satisfactorily the conditions of underground ducts.
Page No. 72
In urban areas, these is often a need to install a large number if circuits in a

trench. In such cases, a special concrete structure built with a uniformly spaced hole to
house the cable. Each hole is usually lined with a plastic tube, most often made of
polyethylene or PVC, such construction is called a duct bank. This construction permits
installation and subsequent removal when necessary, of a large number of circuits. Very
often, several cables may be installed in one duct. An example of a duct bank is shown in
Fig. 10.1 below.
Ground surface, amb = 20 C
Native soil
s = 1.3 C m/W Ground cable
2.03 m
Concrete
c = 0.6``C m/W
0.23 m
0.1 m Transite
0.71 m
duct
0.48 m 0.23 m
FIG. 10.1
Two Circuits in a Duct bank
Several duct bank arrangement are shown in PEC which will be referred to
10.2 Direct Buried Cables
Cables may be buried directly in the ground where permitted by the PEC when
the need for future maintenance along the cable run is not anticipated nor the protection
of the conduit required. The cables must be resistant to moisture, soil contaminants, used
and rodent damage. Direct burial cable 600V must be shielded and provide exterior
ground path for personnel safety in the event of accidental dig-in.
Page No. 73
The most common method of installing power cables underground is to lay them
directly in the soil at a depth of about 1.0 m (3 to 4 ft). Typical installation configuration
of a 3-phase circuit composed of single-conductor cables laid directly in soils are shown
in Fig. 10.2a, 10.2b, 10.2c.
1.0 m
Equilateral Triangle Flat Configuration Flat Configuration with

Configuration with Cable Touching Separation Between Cable
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 10.2
Typical installation of directly buried cables.
The separation of phase cables improves the heat dissipation process:; however in
some cases, in the case of multi-point grounding, the metallic insulation shield the cable
arrangement will produce increase in power losses due to circulation current in the shield
circuit. Thus, the cable ampacity will be reduced. PEC ampacity tables specify one-point
grounding which will not effect circulating current in the shield.
Occasionally, when it is important to achieve the highest possible current ratings,

cables installed underground are located in an envelope of materials characterized by
better thermal conduction than native soil. This additional material is called Thermal
Backfill. A good backfill material can have thermal conductivity of two or more times
greater than native soil. FIG. 10.3 shows a typical installation of a cable circuit in thermal
backfill.
Page No. 74
Native soil
s = 1.2 C m/W
1.2 m
0.2 m
0.65 m
Backfill, f = 0.55 C m/W
0.75 m
FIG. 10.3
Cables installed in a thermal backfill
Page No. 75
10.3 Cables in Raceways
Scope. The primary requirements of raceway systems are to provide both a means of
supporting cable runs between electrical equipment and physical protection to the cables.
Raceway systems consist primarily of cable tray and conduit. This section provides a
guide to the selection of systems consistent with these requirements.
10.3.1 Conduit Recommendations
10.3.1.1 Conduit Material Application
1.) Rigid Steel Conduit (RSC) and Intermediate Metallic Conduit (IMC) may be used
exposed in wet and dry locations, embedded in concrete, and directly buried in
soil. When used in cinder fills, it should be protected by no cinder concrete at
least 2 inches thick. When used where excessive alkaline conditions exist, it
should be protected by a coat of bituminous paint or similar material. PVC coated
steel conduit may be used in corrosive environments. Copper-silicon alloy, brass,
or plastic plugs should be used to plug spare conduits in wet locations.
2.) PVC conduit may be used exposed, directly buried (Type DB), or embedded in
concrete (Type EB). It is recommended that its specifications include a
requirement that the material have satisfactory characteristics, such as lack of
brittleness and adequate impact strength for the ambient temperatures expected.
For outdoor applications with exposure to direct sunlight, coefficient of expansion
should also be considered. Flammability of PVC conduit is of particular concern
in indoor-exposed locations. Burning or excessive heating of PVC may result in
the formation of HCL in the presence of moisture which can in turn, attack
reinforcing steel, deposit chlorides on stainless steel surfaces, or attack electrical
contact surfaces. The use of exposed PVC conduit indoors is not recommended.
3.) EMT may be used in dry accessible locations to perform the same functions as
RSC except in hazardous areas (as defined by PEC.) Compression couplings
should be used where possible. EMT should not be relied upon to provide a fault
return path.
4.) Aluminum conduit (alloy 6063) or plastic coated steel conduit is recommended in
fresh water cooling tower areas because of the corrosive environment and for
other applications where uncoated steel conduit would not be suitable. Aluminum
conduit may be used exposed in wet and dry locations. Because aluminum
conduit may corrode in concrete, its use is not recommended without a protective
coating for a distance inside and outside the point of concrete penetration. If
caution is used, aluminum conduit may be embedded in concrete which does not
contain calcium-chloride or other alkaline admixtures. It should not be installed in
soil or embedded in concrete structures below ground water level. Aluminum may
be used, exposed, or concealed, where a strong magnetic field exists. Aluminum,
when subjected to certain chemical sprays used in containment structures of
nuclear plants, can combine with the spray to release hydrogen which can
accumulate to explosive concentrations. If such reactions may occur, the use of
aluminum conduit is not recommended.
Page No. 76
10.4 Conduit System Design

10.4.1 Exposed Conduit
1.) Where it is necessary to route conduit through hazardous areas, such as the turbine
lube oil reservoir area or areas where cables may be subjected to high ambient
temperatures, steam, fire, or moving equipment, careful consideration should be
given to selecting cable which will be compatible with the environment.
2.) Flexible conduit should be used between conduit and equipment conduit boxes
where vibration is anticipated. Except in locations where there are overriding
technical reasons for not doing so, adequate continuity between conduit and
equipment should be provided for grounding. Liquid tight flexible conduit is
recommended for most areas. Flexible conduit length should be as short as
practicable and should incorporate at least the minimum bending radii
recommended for the cable which is to be installed.
3.) Where it is possible for water or other liquids to enter conduits, sloping of conduit
runs and drainage of low points should be considered.
4.) Installations where conduit enters electrical equipment enclosures from the top
should be designed to prevent water from entering the equipment. If condensation
can enter the enclosure from inside the conduit, a drain fitting should be installed
in the enclosure.
5.) The entire metallic, conduit system, when embedded or exposed, should be
electrically continuous and grounded, preferably with grounding bushings or
grounding clamps.
10.4.2 Embedded Conduits and Manholes

1.) Spacing of embedded conduits should permit fittings to be installed. This spacing
will vary in accordance with the class of concrete being used around the conduits.
The use of a mud mat should be considered in order to provide structural strength
during installation.
2.) Nonmagnetic conduit in duct runs containing one phase of a three-phase power
circuit should not be supported by reinforcing steel forming closed magnetic paths
around individual conduits. Nonmetallic spacers should be used.
3.) Concrete curbs or other means of protection should be provided where other than
RS conduits turn upward out of floor slabs.
4.) Concrete encased duct banks should be adequately reinforced under roads and in
areas where heavy equipment may be moved over the duct bank.
5.) Directly buried nonmetallic conduits should not be installed under roadways or in
areas where heavy equipment may be moved over them unless protected
structurally or where conduits are made from resilient compounds suitable for this
service.
Page No. 77
6.) Conduits in duct banks should be sloped downward toward manholes or drain
points.
7.) Duct lengths should not exceed those which will develop pulling tensions in
excess of those allowed by the cable manufacturers or maximum allowable
tensions calculated from methods outlined in F-4.5.2
8.) Manholes should be oriented to minimize bends in duct banks.
9.) Manholes should have a sump to facilitate the use of a pump if necessary.
10.) Provisions should be made for attachment of cable pulling devices and to
facilitate pulling cables out of conduits in a straight line.
11.) Reinforcing steel in the manhole walls should not form closed loops around
individual nonmetallic conduit entering the manhole.
12.) Provisions should be made to facilitate racking of cables along the walls of the
manhole when considering any separation requirements.
13.) Exposed metal in manholes, such as conduits, racks, and ladders, should be
grounded.
14.) End bells should be provided where the conduits enter manholes.
10.5 Conduit Installation

1.) Supports of exposed conduits should follow NEC recommendations or industry
standards.
2.) Rigid steel conduit joints and connections should be made thoroughly watertight
and rustproof by means of the application of a thread compound which will not
insulate the joint. Each threaded joint should be thoroughly cleaned to remove all
of the cutting oil before the compound is applied. The compound should be
applied only to the male conduit threads to prevent the obstruction of the raceway.
3.) Running threads should not be utilized, and welding of conduits should be done at
any time.
4.) Field bends should not be of lesser radius than specified by the NEC and should
show no flattening of the conduit.
5.) Large radius bends should be used in conduit runs when the bending radius of the
cable to be contained in the conduit exceeds the radius of standard bends to ease
pulling tensions and to prevent cable damage.
6.) Conduit installed in or through concrete should have ends plugged before the
concrete is poured. All joints should be watertight.
7.) All conduit end interiors should be free of burrs and be cleaned after installation.
8.) All conduit should be permanently identified at each end with the conduit number
as it appears on the drawings.
Page No. 78
9.) Flexible conduit connections should be used for all motor terminal boxes and
other equipment which is subject to vibration, but the connections should be of
minimum lengths and should employ at least the minimum bending radii
established by the cable manufacturer.
10.6 Cable Tray Recommendations
10.6.1 Tray Design

1.) Cable tray design should be based upon the required loading and the maximum
spacing between supports. Loading should include the static weight of cables and
a concentrated load of 200 lb at midspan. The tray load factor (safety factor) is
recommended to be at least 1.5, based on collapse of the tray when supported as a
simple beam.
2.) When ladder-type tray is specified, normal rung spacing should be maintained at
the centerline of the horizontal elbows.
3.) Minimum radius of horizontal and vertical elbows, crosses and tees of cable trays
should be based on the minimum bending radius of power cables specified by
cable manufacturers and PEC.
4.) Design should minimize the possibility of the accumulation of fluids or debris on
covers or in trays.
10.6.2 Tray System Design
1.) In general, the recommended vertical spacing for cable trays is 12 inches
measured from the bottom of the upper tray to the top of the lower tray. A
minimum of 9 inches clearance is recommended between the top of a tray and
beams, piping, etc. to facilitate installation of cables in the tray.
2.) It is recommended that trays for cables of different voltage levels be stacked in
descending order with the higher voltage above.
3.) Trays should not be located close to heat sources unless cables are derated for the
higher expected ambient temperature.
10.6.3 Tray Selection
The usual materials from which tray is fabricated are galvanized steel and aluminum.
In selecting material for trays, the following should be considered:
1.) Aluminum, when subjected to certain chemical sprays used in containment

structures of nuclear plants, can combine with the spray to release hydrogen
which can accumulate to explosive concentrations.
Page No. 79
2.) Galvanized tray may rapidly corrode in locations such as outdoors near the ocean
or immediately adjacent to a cooling tower where the tray is continuously wetted
by chemically treated water. If aluminum is used instead for such applications, a
corrosive resistant type should be specified. Special coatings for steel tray may
also serve as a satisfactory protection against corrosion.
3.) For cable tray and tray support systems located outdoors, the effect of the
elements on both the structure and the trays should be considered. Aluminum
alloys 6061-T6, 6063-T6, and 5052-M34 are acceptable with careful recognition
of the differences in strength. Where galvanized steel is used, hot-dip mill
galvanized steel should normally be used for indoor application, and hot dipped
galvanized after fabrication steel for exterior use, or in damp locations.
4.) Consideration should be given to the relative structural integrity of aluminum
versus steel tray during a fire.
10.6.4 Tray Load Capacity
1.) The quantity of cables in any tray may be limited by the structural capacity of the
tray and its supports. Tray load capacity is defined as the allowable weight of
wires and cables carried by the tray. This value is independent of the dead load of
the tray system. In addition to and concurrent with the tray load capacity and the
dead load of the tray system, any tray should neither fail nor be permanently
distorted by a concentrated load of 200 lbs. at midspan at the centerline of the tray
or on either side rail.
2.) The quantity of cables in any cable tray may be limited by the allowable
conductor temperatures. The conductor temperatures are held within the cable
rating by assigning conductor ampacities which include the effects of appropriate
derating factors.
3.) The quantity of cables in any tray may be limited by the net usable cross-
sectional area of the tray. The depth of cable fill should not exceed the depth of
the tray, that is, when the installation is complete, all cables should be below the
level of the top of the side rail of the tray. A rule of thumb to use is that the
summation of the cross-sectional areas of cable should not be more than 40
percent of the usable cross section of the tray.
4.) The quantity of cables in any tray may be limited by the structural capacity of the
tray and its supports.
5.) The quantity of cables in any tray may be limited by the capacity of the cables at
the bottom of the tray to withstand the static bearing load imposed by cables
located adjacent and above. This restraint is generally applicable to
instrumentation cabling but may also apply to power and control cables.
Page No. 80
10.7 Cable Tray Installation
10.7.1 Dropouts
1.) Dropout fittings should be provided where required to maintain the minimum
cable bending radius.
2.) Where conduit is attached to the tray to carry exiting cable, the conduit should be
rigidly clamped to the side rail and a suitable bending radius provided. Conduit
connections through the tray bottom or side rail should be avoided.
10.7.2 Covers
1.) Horizontal trays exposed to falling objects or to the accumulation of debris should
have covers.
2.) Covers may be of the inverted V-shape or sloped to deflect falling objects and to
discourage use as a walkway.
3.) Covers should be provided on exposed vertical tray risers at floor levels and other
locations where possible physical damage could occur.
4.) Where covers are used on trays containing power cables, consideration should be
given to ventilation requirements.
10.8 Grounding
Cable tray system should be electrically continuous and solidly grounded. When
cable trays are used as raceways for solidly grounded or low-impedance grounded
power systems, consideration should be given to the tray system continuity and
ampacity as a conductor. Inadequate ampacity or discontinuities in the tray system
may require that a ground conductor be attached to and run parallel with the tray.
The ground conductor may be either bare or insulated depending upon metallic
compatibility.
10.9 Identification
The cable tray sections should be permanently marked to facilitate positive

identification of cable routes.
10.10 Supports
The type and spacing of cable tray supports will depend on the loads. Tray sections
should be supported near section extremities and at fittings such as tees, crosses, and
elbows.
Page No. 81
11.0 WIRE WAYS
Wire ways are sheet metal troughs with hinged or removable covers for housing and
protecting wires and cables. Wire ways are for exposed work only and should not be
used in hazardous areas nor where corrosive vapors exist. In outdoor locations wire
ways should be of rain-tight construction. The sum of the cross-sectional areas of all
conductors at any cross section of a wire way should not exceed 40 percent of the
interior cross-sectional area of the wire way. Wire ways should be supported at
intervals of not more than 5 ft. Taps from wire ways should be made with rigid or
flexible metal conduit, or armored cable.
Page No. 82
12.0 SUPPLEMENTAL RECOMMENDATIONS PERTAINING TO POWER

CABLE PULLING, PULLING FORCE, CALCULATIONS, PROTECTION
OF CABLE AND CABLE SUPPORTS IN VERTICAL RUNS.
12.1 Cable Pulling Procedure
1.) The minimum temperature at which cable at which cable can be pulled will
depend on the type of the insulation and the jacket or sheath. If the cable is not
warmed as recommended by the manufacturer, then care should be taken to
prevent fracture upon impact, sharp bending, or kinking.
2.) Lubricants should be compatible with cable jackets, insulations, and the
environment. They should not set up or harden during the installation period.
3.) Pulling winches and other necessary equipment should be of adequate capacity to
ensure a steady continuous pull on the cable.
4.) Cable reels should be set up on jacks in such a position that the cable may be
unreeled and fed into the raceway without subjecting the cable to a reverse bend
as it is pulled from the reel.
5.) A suitable flexible feeder tube or cable protector may be used to protect and guide
the cable from the cable reel into the raceway. The radius of the feeder tube or
cable protector should be as large as possible but not less than the minimum
bending radius of the cable. If a feeder tube or cable protector is not used, the
cable should be hand guided into the raceway.
6.) The pulling cable used may be wire, manila, synthetic fiber, or hemp rope. Bare
wire rope should not be used as a pulling cable in conduits which contain
nonmetallic or aluminum bends. Wire and synthetic fiber rope should be used
with caution on heavy pulls because of danger to personnel resulting from pulling
cable breakage.
7.) When pulling eyes instead of basket-weave-type grips are used for pulling lead
covered cables, they should be securely attached to the cable. The lead sheath
should be wiped to the shank of the pulling eye to present a smooth, completely
covered seal so that moisture cannot enter the insulation, even after severe strain.
8.) A swivel should be attached between the pulling eye and the pulling cable. All
shard points of the hardware which attaches the cable to the eye, such as bolts and
cable clamps, should be thoroughly taped to prevent such projections from
catching at conduit ends or damaging conduits.
12.2 Cable Pulling Force Requirements
Caution should be observed to prevent the pulling tensions on cables from

exceeding allowable limits. This requirement establishes the maximum distance a cable
may be pulled safely, without subjecting it to damage.
The maximum pull distance depends on the following:

1.) Tensile strength of conductor or sheath
2.) Coeffecient of friction between cable sheath or jacket and surface of conduit
or duct
Page No. 83
3.) Weight of cable

4.) Maximum allowable sidewall pressure of the cable construction
5.) Number, location, angle, and radius of bends
6.) Slope
The expected pulling force of a cable in a straight section of duct may be

calculated from the following formula which does not consider slope:
F = LWK
where:
F Total pulling line force, in pounds
L Length of conduit or duct runs, in feet
W Weight of cable(s), in lb/ft
L Coeffecient of friction
FIGURE F - 4
Expected Pulling Force Around a Bend for
Conduit or Duct Runs Containing Bends
For conduit or duct runs containing bends, the expected pulling force around a
bend should be determined as follows.
Refer to Figure and assume pulling from A to D.
F is determined for the pull from A to B by the straight-length method given

above.
Then,
FC = TB eKa
where:
F Force after the bend, in pounds
T Maximum tension in pounds
e Naperian logarithm base (2.72)
K Coeffecient of friction
a Angle of the bend in radius (1 radian = 57.3 degress)
Page No. 84
The coefficient of friction can vary from 0.3 for well lubricated cables pulled into
new smooth wall conduits to 0.5 for lubricated cables pulled into rough or dirty conduits
or ducts. An assumed coefficient of friction can be checked by using a dynamometer.
The maximum allowable force should be determined from manufacturers cable

specifications for the cable being pulled or from the following formula, whichever is
lower.
Fmax = 0.008 x N x cmil
where:
Fmax Maximum allowable pulling force, in pounds
cmil Circular mil area of each conductor
0.008 A constant depending on conductor material (0.008 can be
Used for annealed copper conductors)
K Number of conductors
Conduit design should also consider sidewall pressure in bends such that the
maximum allowable sidewall pressure is not exceeded during cable pulling. A cables
maximum allowable sidewall pressure is directly related to the maximum tensile force. In
the absence of instructions from the cable manufacturer, this force in pounds should be in
the range of 100 (for small diameter cables such as instrumentation) to 300 (for large
diameter cables such as medium-voltage power cables) times the radius of curvature of
the conduit, expressed in feet. Use of these limiting factors has prevented excessive
compressive stresses on the insulation and sheath or jacket at the bend, based on past
experience.
12.3 Pulling Instructions
1.) The maximum force as calculated in Section F 3.5.2 corresponds to 10,000 lb/in2
stress for copper. An upper limit of 6,000 lb/in2 for a lead covered cable should be
used to prevent damage to the lead which is wiped to the pulling eye.
2.) When using a basket-weave-type pulling grip applied over a lead sheathed cable,
the force should not exceed 1500 lbs as determined by the following formula:
Fm = 1500 (t) (D t)
where:
Fm Maximum force, in pounds
t Lead sheath thickness, in inches
D Outside diameter of cable, in inches
3.) When pulling a nonleaded cable with a basket-weave-type pulling grip, the
maximum force should not exceed 1000 lbs or the Fmax in Section _____ as
determined before whichever is less.
Page No. 85
4.) Pulling instructions for coaxial, triaxial, and other special cables should follow the
manufacturers recommendations.
5.) A dynamometer should be used on runs when pulling force calculations indicate
allowable stresses may be exceeded.
6.) Consideration should be given to the preferred pulling direction to minimize the
cable pulling tension.
12.4 Bending Radius of Cables
The minimum bending radius for the various types of cables are as follows:
1.) None-shielded single-conductor and multi-conductor cables 8 times the overall

cable diameter.
2.) Covered cables 12 times the overall cable diameter.
3.) Non-shielded type MC (Metal-Clad cable) with interlocking armor or a
corrugated sheath 7 times the overall diameter of the metallic sheath.
Note: Type MC cable with smooth metallic sheath requires a greater minimum
bending radius.
4.) Multi-conductor cable or multiplexed single-conductor cables having individually
shielded conductors 12 times the diameter of the individually shielded
conductors or 7 times the overall cable diameter which is greater.
12.5 Requirements for Paralleled Conductors
For paralleled conductors, installation for each phase, neutral or grounded circuit,
conductors shall:
1.) Be of the same length

2.) Have the same conductor material
3.) Be the same size in circular mils or square millimeters
4.) Have same insulation type
5.) Be terminated in same manner
6.) Cable size must not be less than 50mm2, copper or aluminum.
For other installation requirements of cables on cable trays, conduits and other cable
supports, PEC or NEC shall be referred to.
12.6 Protection of Cables
1.) Before pulling cables, the raceways should be thoroughly inspected and cleaned
such as by pulling a mandrel through conduits. Any abrasions or sharp edges
which might cause damage to cable sheaths or jackets during the pulling
operations should be removed. Once cable pulling operations have started, a
determination should be made as to which trays and cable trenches are susceptible
to damage, and adequate precautions should be taken to protect the cables with
covers.
Page No. 86
2.) After pulling, the ends of cables located outdoors or in moist areas should be
sealed. Cables, such as mineral insulated, paper, and varnished cambric, should be
resealed after pulling, regardless of location.
3.) Sufficient cable slack should be left in each manhole and temporarily supported
so that the cable can be trained to its final location on racks, hangers, or trays
along the sides of the manhole.
4.) Special care should be exercised during welding, soldering, and splicing
operations to prevent damage to cables. If necessary, cables should be protected
by fire-resistant material.
5.) After cable installation has started, trays and trenches should be periodically
cleaned as necessary to prevent the accumulation of debris.
6.) Cables being installed in cable trays or trenches should not be pulled around
corners or obstructions without the use of cable sheaves of the proper radius.
12.7 Cable Supports in Vertical Runs
The weight of a vertical cable should not be supported by the terminals to which it
is connected. It is recommended that vertically run cables be supported by holding
devices in tray or in the ends of the conduit, or in boxes inserted at intervals in the
conduit system. In vertical tray, cable should also be lashed or served at support points
and at intermediate locations to keep all cable completely within the side rails.
Some methods of support and maximum spacing for conductor supports are listed
in the PEC. Support recommendations for special cables such as armor, shielded, coaxial,
etc, should be obtained from the manufacturer. In vertical trays, lashing the cable to the
tray rungs every 2 to 4 ft. will normally provide support for most type cables. When split
blocks are used, they should be spaced 6 to 8 ft. apart.
Page No. 87
13.0 MISCELLANEOUS STANDARD ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION

METHODS/PRACTICES FOR POWER CABLE SYSTEM INSTALLATION
FIG. 13.1
Actual Cable Layout On Cable Trays
Page No. 88
TYPICAL CABLE TRAY LAYOUT
FIG. F-6
Page No. 89
FIG. 13.3. Double-slope duct run on level ground. Water drains

toward manholes from point midway between manholes.
FIG. 13.4. Single-slope duct run between manholes on sloping street.
FIG. 13.5. Single-slope duct run on street with steep grade. Note that duct
run leaves at bottom of one manhole and enters near top of next manhole.
Page No. 90
FIG. 13.6. Conduit run terminated in a handhole. The end bells provide an
outlet to the handhole with rounded edges to prevent cable damage.
FIG. 13.7. Cross-sectional view of a completed conduit installation with the

ducts directly buried in the earth.
Page No. 91
UNDERGROUND SYSTEM
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
FIG. 13.8 (a,b,c,d,e & f). Possible variations of 3-way manholes with
recommended dimensions shown.
Page No. 92
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
FIG. 13.9 (a,b,c & d). Types of cable training in manholes of different shapes.
(Courtesy Edison Electric Institute)
(a) (b)
FIG. 13.10 (a & b). Distribution handhole with recommended dimensions
shown. (a) Plan view; (b) elevation.
Page No. 93
(a)
(b)
PLAN VIEW
(c)
FIG. 13.11 (a,b & c). Possible variations of four-way manhole with recommended
dimensions shown.
Page No. 94
(a)
(b)
FIG. 13.12 (a & b). Two-way distribution manhole with recommended
dimensions shown. (a) Plan view; (b) elevation.
(a) (b)
FIG. 13.13 (a & b). Four-way distribution manhole with recommended
dimensions shown. (a) Plan view; (b) elevation.
Page No. 95
Fig. 13.14. Assembled bank of ducts being

installed. Note use of spacers to hold ducts in
proper position.
Fig. 13.15. Cross-sectional view of a completed

conduit run. The spacers and ducts are all
encased in a concrete envelope.
Plastic base space (a) and intermediate (b)
Page No. 96
Fig. 13.16. Sketch showing cable being drawn into duct. Note
reel, jacks, and feeding tube. Cable reel has been placed on
side of manhole in which cable is drawn and positioned to
give minimum flexing of cable.
Page No. 97
Fig. 13.17. Double-sheave stand made of two paralleled channel irons. Holes in
channel members permit placing sheaves at proper levels.
Fig. 13.18. Woven cable grip, sometimes called basket grip. Note swivel inserted
between pulling rope and cable grip.
Page No. 98
Fig. 13.19. Cleating arrangement for horizontal runs of single-

core cables in a vertical plane.
Page No. 99
Fig. 13.20 (a & b). Vertical cleating arrangements for single-

core and multicore cables.
Page No. 100

Fig. 13.21. Running bond technique
Page No. 101

Fig. 13.22. Typical rollers and skid plates.
Page No. 102

LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS/PUBLICATIONS
1.0 RATING OF ELECTRIC POWER CABLES

by George Anders, Published by IEEE Press, 1997
2.0 ELECTRIC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
by Ebasco Services Inc. and Electrical World Magazine, 1987
3.0 TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
by Dr. C.R. Bayliss, Published by Butterworth-Heinemann, 1996
4.0 INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEM HANDBOOK
by D. Beeman, 1955, Published by Mc-Graw-Hill Book Co.
5.0 PHILIPPINE ELECTRICAL CODE, 2008 Edition
6.0 NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE, 2008 Edition
Published by NFPA, USA.
7.0 ELECTRIC POWER DISTRIBUTION FOR INDUSTRIAL PLANTS
IEEE STD. 141-1993, 1993 Edition, Published by. (Institute of
Electrical & Electronics Engrs (IEEE) of USA.
8.0 G.E. TECHNICAL PAPERS ON CABLES (Series from 1964 to 1973)
Published By General Electric Co. of USA
9.0 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING AND TESTING
by H.M. Ryan, 1994, Published by Peter Peregrinus Ltd/
Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE), London United Kingdom
10.0 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGG, THEORY AND PRACTICE
by M. Khalefa, 1990, Published By Marcel Dekker, Inc. USA
11.0 ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
by L. Griggsby 2007, Published by CRC @ Press, USA.
12.0 LINEMANS AND CABLEMANS HANDBOOK
by E. Kurtz and T. Shoemaker, 1992 Edition, Published by
McGraw-Hill Book Co. USA.
13.0 ELECTRIC POWER CABLE ENGINEERING
Edited By W.A. Thue, 2002 edition, Published by Marcel Dekker Inc. USA.
14.0 IEEE GUIDE FOR THE DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF CABLE
SYSTEMS IN POWER GENERATING STATION. IEEE STD. 422-1977.
By the Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineer, USA.
15.0 ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION REFERENCE BOOK
by Westinghouse Electric Co., 1950
Page No. 103

16.0 WIRES AND CABLES

by the Electric Power Research Institute, USA.
17.0 ELECTRICAL POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

By T. Gonen, 2nd Ed., 2008, published by CRC Press.
18.0 IEEE STD. 835 - POWER CABLE AMPACITY TABLES
Page No. 104

OPP - Power Cable Seminar - (August 21, 2010) - FINAL

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2.0) CLASSIFICATION OF CABLES

3.0) THE 3 PRINCIPAL FACTORS IN THE SELECTION OF CABLE SIZE

4.0) CABLE CONSTRUCTION

5.0) SHIELDING OF MEDIUM & HIGH VOLTAGE CABLES

6.0) GROUNDING OF METALLIC SHIELD OR SHEATH OF POWER

7.0) METALLIC SHIELD LOSSES

8.0) IMPORTANCE OF JACKET STRESS DETERMINATION

9.0) PURPOSE AND TYPE OF CABLE TERMINATION

10.0) POWER CABLE INSTALLATION

12.0) SUPPLEMENTAL RECOMMENDATIONS Pertaining to Power Cable

13.0) MISCELLANEOUS STANDARD ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION

ELECTRIC POWER CABLES FOR LOW VOLTAGE

Electric power cables play an important role in the transmission and

Power cable is designed according to its electrical function in a circuit,

1.) Single-conductor (1/C) cable consists of one insulated conductor with

The discussions in this paper will be centered on low-voltage and

FIG. 1.1 (a,b, & c). 1/C, Triplex and Multiconductor.

2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF CABLES

Cables are classified according to their insulation. The insulating material

2.1 Cable Characteristics

Many characteristics should be considered in judging an insulation,

2.1.1) Physical Properties and Heat Aging

2.1.2) Insulation Resistance

2.1.3) Power Factor

2.1.4) Dielectric Strength

2.1.5) Dielectric Constant

2.1.6) Track Resistance

Good track resistance of insulation is important for long reliable

2.1.7) Resistance to Moisture

2.1.8) Resistance to Corona (partial discharge) and Ionization

2.1.9) Mechanical Strength and Flexibility

during its life. An example is a cable on reel supplying a traveling

2.1.10) Temperature Rating

2.1.11) General Environmental Consideration

Weathering considerations are also important. Certain insulations

With advanced nuclear technology there is a growing interest in

2.2 Insulation Materials

Underground power cables have 3 voltage classifications as follows:

2.3 Conductor Materials

The principal difficulty encountered with aluminum conductors is that of

2.3.1) The first characteristic of aluminum is that the surfaces of

2.3.2) The second characteristic of aluminum is that it is soft and

2.3.3) The third characteristic of aluminum is that it is damaged by

PEC specifies aluminum alloy series AA-8000 electrical grade, for

2.4 Current Carrying Capacity

The current carrying capacity or ampacity of a cable is defined as

2.5 Insulation Resistance of Cables

An important aspect of a power cable is its insulation resistance

2.5.1) Through the body of the insulation (Volume insulation resistance)

Volume insulation resistance of a cable is the direct current resistance

On surface resistivity, there is a current flowing over the surface of the

The volume insulation resistance at 60F is given by the following

The following data for the values of K in Meg-ohms1000ft. for common

THW (75C PVC) ------------------------ 2,000

Assuming a type THW 500MCM copper power cable which has an

R I = 4000 log 10 (1.21156)

Therefore: R I = 333.38 Megohms or say 333.0 Megohms

In order to measure the insulation resistance of a cable, the insulation must be

Values of a for some insulation materials are as follows:

For low voltage cables (600V) insulation resistance measurement, megohmeter

3.0 THE 3 PRINCIPAL FACTORS IN THE SELECTION OF CABLE SIZE.

The determination of conductor size is principally based on three