PREPOSITIONSAND

Sheworksinabank.
buildings
PREPOSITIONALPHRASESOF
Dontswiminthesea/theriver/
PLACE water thelake.
HelivesinthemiddleofParis/in
Use:
themiddle/centre thecitycentre.
Useprepositionsofplacetodescribewhere

somethingis. Whichfilmwasthatactorin?I
books/films/
readaboutitinthenewspaper.
newspaper
Onisalsousedinthesesituations:


walls,ceilings, Shehungthepictureontheceiling
Theball
doors,floor: /thewall/thedoor.
Theballisonthe isinthebox. Theballisunderthe
Theresadirtymarkonthepage/
box. box. surfaces table

Theresalabelinonthebox/
thefront/side/
bottle
back

Theschoolisontheleft.
left/right
Theball

isoverthebox. Jimsofficeisonthesecondfloor.
Theball Theball Floors
isnexttothe isbetweenthetwo Whatsonthemenu?Didyoubuy
box. boxes. lists/menus everythingonthelist?
IliveonJacksonstreet.The

nearestgasstationisonthe
roads motorway.Thepostboxisonthe
waytowork.

Helivesonthecoast.Londonison
naturallinesand
theRiverThames.
borders
Theballisnear
Theballisin Theballisbehindthe Atisalsousedinthesesituations:
(to)thebox.
frontofthe box.
thetop/bottom Signyournameatthetop/
box.
(ofapage) bottom.
Turnleftatthetrafficlights/
Directions: roundabout/endofthestreet.

Inisalsousedinthesesituations: Waitatthetrafficlights/corner/
Position(nextto
tree.
Countries,cities, WeliveinFrance/inParis/in something)
villages Madrid. Iwrotemynameatthefront/
Itsthehighestbuildinginthe thefront/theback backofthebook.
theworld world.
Whathappenedatthebeginning/
thebeginning/the
Theyhaveacottageinthe endofthefilm?
mountainsand end
mountains/inavalley.
valleys
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B1Grammartopics1

 Imethimataparty/conference/ Singledayevents:WealwayseatoutonChristmas
events footballmatch Day.
Illmeetyouattheairport/the
UseONbeforeaday+morning/afternoon/evening/
buildings station/home
night.SeeyouonTuesdaynight!

Commonmistakes: Dontuseaprepositionbefore:today,tonight,
tomorrow,yesterday.
1.Somestudentsmissoutpartoftheprepositional
phrases.
Ilivenextasmall
Ilivenexttoasmallshop. ALTERNATIVECOMPARATIVE
shop.=>

FORMS
Iparkedthecarin Iparkedthecarinfrontofthe
UseandForm:
frontthebuilding. building.
Thesestructurescanbeusedtocomparetwothings.
=>
Theyarealternativestothecomparativeform(er/
2.Somestudentsaddasecondprepositionwhereitis
more...).
notnecessary.
Yourbagis 1)Somephrasescanbeusedtoshowthattwo
behindofthe Y thingsareidentical.
door.=> thesame(noun)asMypenisthesameasyours.
Hishouseisthesamesizeasours.

PREPOSITIONSOFTIME Thisphrasecanbeusedwithquantifiers:suchasjust,
exactly,almost,andnearly.
Use: Yourbagisexactlythesameasmine!
Useprepositionsoftimebeforedays,months,years
andothertimewords. 2)Somephrasescanbeusedtoshowthattwo
thingsarethesameornearlythesame.
AT:
as(adjective/adverb)asMybagwasas
Usebefore: expensiveasyours.
Times:Wereleavingat3oclock Herunsasquicklyasme.
Lunchtime/bedtime:Hesarrivingatlunchtime.
Thisstructureisoftenusedinliteraturetomake
Night:Icantsleepatnight.
similes.
Theweekend:Seeyouattheweekend!
Shesasquietasamousetoday.
Festivals:WewentawayatEaster.
Youreasprettyasapicture!
IN:
Youcanusequantifierssuchas:just,almost,
themorning/afternoon/evening:Seeyouinthe nearlywiththesephrases.
morning! Herunsalmostasfastasme.
Months:MybirthdaysinJune. Yourbagwasnearlyasexpensiveasmine.
Seasons:Wealwaysgoonholidayinsummer.
3)Otherphrasesfocusondifferences.
Years:Hewasbornin1996.
differentfromHisresultsareabitdifferent
ON: fromours.

Dates:Wearrivedhereon4thAugust. Thisphrasecanbeusedwithquantifiers,such
Daysoftheweek:LetsgotothezooonSaturday. asslightly,abitandalittle.
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notas(adjective)asYourjacketisntasnew 1)Youcanuseboth,neitherandeitherdirectlybefore
asmine. anoun.
(negativeverb)as(adverb)asHedoesntworkas Bothsupermarketsaregood.
hardasIdo. Neithersupermarketsellselectricalgoods.
Wecangotoeithersupermarket,Idontmind.
Thisstructurebeusedwiththequantifiersquite,
halfandnearly. 2)Both,neitherandeitherareoftenusedwithof.
Myjobisnthalfasinterestingasyours. Butyoumustalwaysuseadeterminer(the,my,these,
Hedoesntplaythepianonearlyaswellashissister. those,hisetc)beforethenoun.

4)Whencomparingadverbsandadjectives,we Bothofchildrenlikechocolatecake.=>Bothofthe
sometimesrewritetheauxiliaryverbattheendofthe childrenlikechocolatecake.
sentences.Ifthereisnotauxiliary,youcanwritedo,
However,youdonthavetouseofwithboth.
doesordid.
Bothofthechildrenlikechocolatecake.
JuliaisjustassociableasMariais.
Bothchildrenlikechocolatecake.
YoucantrunasfastasIcan!
IdidntsleepaswellasIdidonSundaynight. 3)Youcanuseboth,neitherandeither+of+object
pronoun(you,them,us).
CommonMistakes:
Somestudentstrytousetheer/morecomparative Bothofthemworewhitedresses.
formtomakenegativecomparisons.However,notas Neitherofuswaslate.
asismorecommon. Haveeitherofyougotapen?
Imnottallerthanyou.=>Imnotastall
4)Youcanuseboth...and...;neither...nor...,
asyou.
andeither...or....
Examples:
BothJamesandDianaworkhere.
BOTH,EITHER,NEITHER NeitherJamesnorDianaworkshere.
YoucanaskeitherJamesorDiana.
Use:

1)Both
Bothmeanstwooftwothings. SO,SUCH,TOO,ENOUGH
Ihavetwocats.Ilikebothofthem.
Too
2)Neither Use:
Neithermeansnotoneortheotheroftwothings. Toomeansthereisalotofsomething.Itshows
Neitherofmycatsisgrey. anegativeopinion.
Remembertouseasingularverbafterneither. Itstoohot=ItisveryhotandIdontlikeit.
Neitherofthedogsaredangerous.=>Neitherofthe
Form:
dogsisdangerous.
Youcanusetoobeforeanadjective.
3)Either Itstoocold.Mytrousersaretoosmall.
Eithermeansoneortheother.
Youcanalsouseitbeforeanadverb,
Therearetwocakes.Pleasehaveone.Youcanhave
Youwalktoofast.Jamesspeakstooquietly.
eitherone.
Beforeanoun,usetoomuch(uncountablenouns)or
Form:
many(countablenouns).

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Iatetoomuchfood.
Iatetoomanysandwiches. Such
Use:
Youcanalsousetoomuchafteraverb.
Suchalsomeansvery.Suchisusedbefore
Iatetoomuch.
anadjectiveandnoun.
Pauldrinkstoomuch.
Theyaresuchnicechildren.
Enough
Use: Form:
Enoughmeansyouhavewhatyouneed. A/an,ifnecessary,goaftersuch,notbefore.
Wehaveenoughfoodforeveryone=everyonehas Thatsasuchprettydress.=>Thatssuchapretty
somefood. dress!
Wedonthaveenoughchairsforeveryone=some
LikeSo,Suchcanbeusedwithathatclause,toshow
peopledonthavechairs.
aresultofthefirstclause.
Form: Iwassuchanicedaythatwedecidedtogotothe
Writeenoughbeforeanoun. park.
Wehaveenoughchairs.

Butwriteitafteranadjectiveorverb. Commonmistakes
Areyouwarmenough?Hesqualifiedenough.She
1)Somestudentsusetoowithapositivemeaning.But
isnttallenoughtobeamodel.
usesoorveryhere

Itstoohot!Ilovethesummer!=>Itssohot!Ilovethe
Youdontworkhardenough.Areyousleeping
summer!
enough?
2)Somestudentswriteenoughinthewrongplace.
Sentenceswithenougharesometimesfollowedbyto
Dowehavesugarenough?=>Dowehaveenough
+verbinfinitive.
sugar?
Imnottallenoughtoreachthebook.
Ihaventgotenoughmoneytobuythatcoat. 3)Somestudentsuseso/suchthatincorrectly.
Itwassohotthatthesunwasshining.
So
Thissentenceisnotcorrectbecausethesunwas
Use:
shiningisnotadirectresultofItwassohot.Thehot
Someansvery.
daydidnotcausethesuntoshine.
Itssohot!

Form:
Soisgenerallyusedbeforeanadjectiveoranadverb.
CONNECTINGWORDS
Hessofunny!Heplaysthepianosowell!
Use:
However,inmodernEnglish,itisincreasinglybeing Connectivesjointwoclauses,andshowthe
usedbeforenounsandverbs. relationshipbetweenthem.
Thatdressissolastyear!(=Thatdressislastyears Therelationshipcanshow:
fashion)
ImsogoingtoshoutathimwhenIseehim!(so= acontrastAlthough,but,eventhough,
really) however,despite,inspiteof
acausebecause,becauseof,asaresultof,
Socanbeusedwithathatclause,toshowaresultof
dueto
thefirstclause.
IwassohotthatIcouldntsleep.
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 aneffectso,consequently,asaresult,thus, iIarrivedlatebecausethetrafficwasbad.
therefore Becausethetrafficwasbad,Iarrivedlate.

NoteyoucanONLYstartasentencewithBecauseif
Thesewordscannotbeusedinterchangeably.They
therearetwoclausesinthesentence.
maybelocatedindifferentplaceswithinthe

sentence,andtheymayuseadifferentgrammar.
Becausewewerelate.INCORRECT
Form: Becausewewerelate,wemissedthestartofthe
a)ConnectivesshowingContrast show.CORRECT
Comparethesesentenceswiththesamemeaning:
StartingasentencewithBecauseismoreformalthan
iItissunnybuttemperaturesarelow. usingitinthemiddleofasentence,andismost
commonlyusedinwriting,notspeaking.
NeverstartasentencewithBut.Youcanusebutafter
acomma(,).Inshortsentences,nopunctuationis iiIarrivedlatebecauseofthebad
needed. traffic.ORBecauseofthebadtraffic,Iarrivedlate.
Iarrivedlateduetothebadtraffic.ORDuetothe
iiAlthoughitissunny,temperaturesarelow./Even
badtraffic,Iarrivedlate.
thoughitissunny,temperaturesarelow.
Iarrivedlateasaresultofthebadtraffic.ORAsa
NotehowAlthoughandEventhougharelocatedina resultofthebadtraffic,Iarrivedlate.
differentpartofthesentencefrom
Notehowtheseexpressionsarefollowedbyanoun,
But.AlthoughandEventhoughgobeforetheknown
notaverbclause.
clause,whereasbutgoesbeforetheunknownclause.
Thetwoclausesareseparatedwithacomma.The c)ConnectivesshowingEffect
orderofclausescanbereversed. Comparethesesentenceswiththesamemeaning.

iWewerelatesowemissedthebeginningofthe
Temperaturesarelow,eventhough/althoughits
show.
sunny.
NeverstartasentencewithSo.Socanfollowa
iiiItissunny.However,temperaturesarelow.
comma(,).Inshortsentences,nopunctuationis
Notehowhoweverstartsasentenceandisfollowed needed.
byacomma.Itmayalsobeseenafterasemicolon(;).
iiWewerelateandthuswemissedthebeginningof
Consequently,itisusuallyseeninlongersentences.
theshow.
ivDespitethesun,temperaturesarelow. Wewerelateandconsequentlywemissedthe
Inspiteofthesun,temperaturesarelow. beginningoftheshow.
Wewerelateandasaresultwemissedthebeginning
NotethepositionofDespiteandInspiteofbeforethe
oftheshow.
knownclause.Theorderofclausescanbereversed:
Wewerelateandthereforewemissedthebeginning
Temperaturesarelowdespite/inspiteofthesun.
oftheshow.
Alsonotethatthesewordsarefollowedbyanoun,
Consequently,Asaresult,ThereforeandThusare
notaverbclause.Youcanalsousetheingformof
moreformalthanSo.Theyarecommoninformal
theverbinthesesentences.
sentences.Theyoftenstartasentence,buttheycan
Despite/Inspiteofitbeingsunny,temperaturesare bejoinedtotheprevioussentencewithand.
low.
CommonMistakes:
b)ConnectivesshowingaCause 1.SomestudentsbeginsentenceswithButandSo.
Comparethesesentenceswiththesamemeaning. Joewenttouniversity.Buthedidntlikeit.Joe
A2Grammartopics5

B1Grammartopics5

wenttouniversity,buthedidntlikeit. Icantdoanythingtohelp,canI?
2.Somestudentswriteasentencewithbecauseand Wewontbelate,willwe?
onlyoneclause.
Caution:
Iwenttotheshop.BecauseIneededsomebread.I
CAUTION:UsearentwithIminquestionstags.
wenttotheshopbecauseIneededsomebread.
Imabitcareless,arentI?NOTIma
3.Somestudentsdonotusenounswhentheyneeded
bitcareless,amnotI?
to.
Iwentindoorsduetoitwascoldoutside.Iwent 2)Inpresentandpastsimplesentences,usedo,
indoorsduetothecoldweatheroutside. doesordidinthequestiontag.
BrianandCathydonteatmeat,dothey?

Yourdadlivesabroad,doesnthe?
QUESTIONTAGS Yourfriendsenjoyedthemselves,didntthey?

3)Useapositivequestiontagafternever.
Use:
Milesnevergoesout,doeshe?
Usequestiontagsintwosituations.
1)Youarenotsureifsomethingistrue,soyouwantto
check.Inthiscase,yourvoiceshouldrisewhenyou
saythequestiontag.
EMBEDDEDQUESTIONS

Use:
Yourenotgoingnow,areyou?
Wheneveryouuseanintroductoryphrasebeforea

question,youmustchangethewordorderinthe
2)Youknowsomethingistrue.Youwantto
question.
include/involveanotherpersonintheconversation.In
Introductionsinclude:
thiscase,yourvoiceshouldfallwhenyousaythetag.
Canyoutellme...?Doyouknow...?Idontknow...Im
Itdoesnotsoundlikeaquestion.
notsure...Iwonder...Icantremember...

Hedoesntliveherenow,doeshe? Whatsthetime?=>Canyoutellmewhatthetimeis?
Wheredidhego?=>Idontknowwherehewent.
Form:
Questiontagsareeither: Form:
1)positivestatementswithshort,negativequestions 1)Ifthequestionhasanauxiliaryverb,swapthe
attheend. positionsoftheauxiliaryverbandthesubject.Youcan
Thesetagschecksomethingthatyoubelieveistrue. alsodothisinsentenceswiththeverbtobe.
ItsMondaytoday,isntit?
Example:Whencanyougethere?
2)negativestatementswithshort,positivequestions Canistheauxiliaryverbandyouisthesubject.Swap
attheend. theirpositionswhenyouaddanintroduction.
Thesetagschecksomethingthatyoubelieveisfalse. Doyouknowwhenyoucangethere?
Itsnotraining,isit?
Otherexamples:
Makequestiontagsthisway: Wherehashegone?=>Idontknowwherehe
hasgone.
1)Ifthereisanauxiliaryverboramodalverb,writeit
Whataretheydoing?=>Idontknow
intheoppositeform(positiveornegative)attheend
whattheyredoing.
ofthesentence.Thenwritethesubjectpronounofthe
Whattimeisit?=>Haveyouanyideawhattimeitis?
sentence.
Iansnice,isnthe? Youcannotcontracttheverbifitisthelastwordin
Laurahasntarrivedyet,hasshe? thesentence.
A2Grammartopics6

B1Grammartopics6

Doyouknowwhattimeits?=>Doyouknowwhat common.
timeitis? Mighthebelate?

2)Ifthequestionisinthepresentorpastsimple, 4)MaycanbeusedwithIorwetomakerequests.
removedo/does/didfromthequestion.Changethe However,canandcouldaremorecommon.
verbendingsothattheverbisinthecorrecttense. MayIhavesomechocolate?Maywegototheparty?

Example: 5)MayandMightarealwaysfollowedbyaverbin
Wheredidhego?=>Didyouseewherehewent? theinfinitiveform.
Whattimedoyougetup?=>Canyoutellmewhat Imightgo.NOTImighttogo.
timeyougetup? Shemightstay.NOTShemightstaying.
Wheredoesshework?=>Iwonderwheresheworks.

3)Ifaquestiondoesnothaveaquestionword Will+adverbsofprobability
(Where,What,Whyetc.)useiforwhetherbeforethe
question. Use:
Youcanusewillandwontwithdifferentadverbsto
Example: showhowprobableafutureeventis.
Doeshelivehere?=>Doyouknowifheliveshere?
Aretheycomingtotheparty?=>Doyou
Illpossiblygototheparty.
knowwhethertheyarecomingtotheparty?
Illprobablygototheparty.
Illdefinitelygototheparty.
Illcertainlygototheparty.
MAYMIGHTANDADVERBSOF
Form:
PROBABILITY
Notethatwill/llisusedbeforetheadverb,
MayandMight butwontisusedaftertheadverb.

Use: Illprobablyseeyoulater.
UseMayandMighttotalkaboutwhatwillpossibly Iprobablywontseeyoulater.
happeninthefuture.MayandMightmeanmaybe
will.Theycanrefertothefutureorthepresent.
Examples:Imighthaveapeninmybag.(=present SHOULDHAVE
use)
Shemayarrivetomorrow.(=futureuse) Use:
1)Shouldhavecanbeusedtoexpressregret
Form: aboutthepasttowishthatsomethinginthepast
MayandMightaremodalverbs,likecan,willand hadhappenedinadifferentway:
should,sotheyfollowthesamerules. Ishouldhavestudiedformyexam!
1)Donotaddstothethirdpersonsingular. (Ididntstudyformyexams.Ifailed.NowI
Hemaycome.NOTHemayscome. wishthatthepastwasdifferent.)
Shemightstay.NOTShemightsstay.
2)Shouldhavecanalsobeusedtotalkabout
2)Toformanegative,addnotaftermayandmight. somethingyouexpectedtohappen,butitdidnt
Hemaynotcome.Shemightnotstay. happen(oritdidnthappenuntillater).
3)Toformquestions,invertmay/mightandthe Thelettershouldhavearrivedbynow,butit
subject.However,questionswithmightarenot hasntcomeyet.
(Iwasexpectingaletter,butitisnt

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B1Grammartopics7

here). PRESENTPERFECTVSPAST
Heresthebus!Itshouldhavebeenhere
SIMPLE
twentyminutesago.
(Thebusislate.Ithasjustarrived). PresentPerfect
Form: Use:
1)Thepresentperfecttenseisoftenusedtotellup
I shouldhave+past Youshouldhave todatenews.
You participle phonedme. Greatnews!Janehashadababy!
He/She/It shouldve
Youshouldnt Butyoucannotusethepresentperfectwithphrases
We
shouldnthave+past havedonethat. relatingtofinishedtime.
They
participle Greatnews!Janehashadababyyesterday!
So,toaskaboutandgivemoredetails,youneedto
usethepastsimple.
PRESENTPERFECTCONTINUOUS Greatnews!Janehashadababy!
Whendidshehaveit?
Use:
Shehaditlastnight!
Usepresentperfectcontinuousintwosituations.
1)Youstartedsomethinginthepastandyouarestill 2)Thepresentperfectcanbeusedwithphrases
doingitnow. relatingtounfinishedtime,suchas:
Ivebeenworkingallmorning(andImstillworking thisweek,today,thisyear
now). IveseenRogertwicethisweek.
ThatsthesecondtimeIveseenthatfilmthisyear.
2)Youhavejustfinisheddoingsomething.Theeffects
ofthisactivitycanstillbeseen. 3)Thepresentperfectisoftenusedinsentenceswith
Ivebeengardening,somyhandsaredirty. thesewords:
just,yet,already,ever,never
Form: Ivejustfinishedthereport.
Formthepresentperfectcontinuousinthisway. Karenhasfinishedthebookalready.
Ihaventfinishedthereportyet.
PositiveandNegative
IveneverbeentoSpain.Haveyoueverbeen?
have/havent been verb+ing
4)Thepresentperfectisusedtodescribeperiodsof
I,you,we, ve/venot
timethatstartinthepastandcontinueuntilthe
they
has/hasnt present.Itisoftenusedwithforandsince.

s/snot Ivelivedhereforfiveyears.
he,she,it Jameshasworkedheresincelastsummer.

Examples:Youvebeeneatingchocolate.Ive
Thepresentperfectandpastsimplemayappearinthe
notbeensleepingwell.
samesentence:
Questions IvelivedheresinceIwasachild.
Tomhasbeenunemployedsinceheleftthefactory.
I,you,we, been verb+ing?
Have they PastSimple
Has Use:
he,she,it
Thepastsimplecanbeusedwithphrasesrelating
Examples:Haveyoubeendrinking?HasEmily tofinishedtime,suchas:
beenseeingherexboyfriend?
A2Grammartopics8

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yesterday,lastweek,lastmonth,in2010,twoweeks PASTPERFECT
ago
Use:
Jemmaleftthecompanysixweeksago.
a)Thepastperfectisanarrativetense.Thismeansit
IemailedTonylastweek.
isusedwhentellingastoryaboutthepast.
Form: Itisusedinthesameparagraphasverbsinthepast
PresentPerfect simpletense,andisoftenusedinthesamesentence
asapastsimpleverb.
Positive
Thepastperfectdescribesaneventwhich
I/you/they have/ve pastparticiple
happenedbeforeanothereventinthepast.Weuseit
/we
has/s whenwedonotwanttosaytheeventsintheorder
he/she/it
theyhappened.

Example:
Negative Asentencewiththeeventsintheorderthey
happened:
I/you/they havent/ pastparticiple
Johnwenttotheshoponthewayhomefromwork,so
/we venot
hegothomelate.
he/she/it
hasnt/s Bothverbsareinthepastsimple.
not
AsentenceinwhichtheeventsareNOTinorder:
Johngothomelatebecausehehadgonetotheshop
onthewayhomefromwork.
Questions
Theeventwhichhappenedbeforetheotherverbisin
Have you/they pastparticiple? thepastperfecttense.
/we
b)Thepastperfectisalsousedinotherstructures
Has
he/she/ suchas:
it Iwish:IwishIhadcleanedthe
house!

ThirdConditional:IfIhadpracticedharder,we
PastSimple mighthavewonthecompetition.

Positive Form:

I/you/they pasttenseverb I
/we/he/she you
had pastparticiple
/it he/she/it
we hadnt
they
Negative
Writeanyadverbsbetweenhadandthepast
I/you/they/we/he/she/it didntinfinitiveverb
participle.
Questions Thefilmhadalreadystarted.
Theposthadjustbeendelivered.
Did you/they infinitiveverb?
/we/he/
she/it

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FUTURECONTINUOUS Will I be verb+ing?

you
Wont
Use: he/sheit
a)Usethefuturecontinuoustotalkaboutanevent Am we goingtobe
thatwillalreadybeinprogressataspecifiedtimein Is they
thefuture. Are

Thistimenextweek,Illbedrivingtomyparents b)Rememberthatsomeverbsarenotusedin
house. continuoustenses.Theseincludeverbsconnected
withpossession:possess,own,belong,likesand
Phrasesoftenseenwiththisuseofthefuture
dislikes:like,love,hateandotherabstract
continuousinclude:
verbs:seem,be,cost,want.
By...,Thistimenextweek...,In__yearstime...;when
+presentsimple;bythetime+presentsimple.

Whenyouarrive,Illbedrivinghome. SECONDCONDITIONAL
BythetimeIgethome,youllprobablybehavinga
bath. Use:
The second conditional structure is used to talk
b)Thefuturecontinuouscanbeusedinsteadofthe
about imaginary situations and the
presentcontinuousforfutureplans.
consequences.
WillyoubegoingtoJanesparty? Example: If I had a car, I could visit
Yes,butIllbegettingthereabitlate,becauseIm my friend.
goingtoameetingafterwork. (But the truth is, I do not have a car, and

c)Wecanalsousethefuturecontinuoustomakea I cannot visit my friend).

guessaboutsomethingthatisinprogressatthe The second conditional structure is also used to

moment. talk about imaginary abilities and the
DontphoneRichardnow,hellbehavingdinner. consequences.
Ohno,Iforgotaboutthedinner!Itllbeburning,I Example: If I could fly, I wouldnt
knowit! need a car.
Thesesentencesarenotaboutthefuturebutwecan (But the truth is, I cannot fly, and so I
usethefuturecontinuoustotalkaboutwhat need a car.)
weassumeishappeningatthemoment.
Form:
Form:
1) Make the second conditional in this way.
a)Youcanmakethefuturecontinuous
withwillorgoingto.Makethefuturecontinuousthis If I past , I would / verb
way: you simple you wouldnt (infinitive

PositiveandNegative he he d form)
she... she...
could /
I willbe verb+ing
couldnt
you wontbe
he/sheit Example: If we had more money, we
am/are/isgoingtobe
we would buy that house.
they
Or
Questions

A2Grammartopics
10
B1Grammartopics10

I would / verb if I past THIRDCONDITIONAL

you wouldnt (infinitive you simple
he d form) he Use:
she... she... Usethethirdconditionaltotalkaboutpastevents.
could /
Useittodescribewhatcouldhavehappened(event
couldnt
b)asaresultofsomethingelse(eventa).However,
Example: Shed be more successful if neithereventanoreventbhappened.Thereforethe
she worked harder. thirdconditionaldescribeshypothetical,imaginary
situations.
2) The verb to be can use were for all subjects.
This is particularly true in the sentence: If I were IfIhadbeenathomeyesterday,Idhavegotyour
you phonecall.
If I were you, Id buy a bicycle. (But,Iwasnotathome,andIdidntreceiveyourcall.)

However, this rule is often overlooked. Thethirdconditionalisoftenusedtocriticise:

If he were more careful, he wouldnt break Ifyouhadworkedharder,youwouldnthave
everything. => failedthetest.
If he was more careful, he wouldnt break (Butyoudidntworkhardandyoufailedthe
everything. test).
Oritcanbeusedtoexpressregret:
3) To talk about imaginary abilities, use could.
IfIhadntspentallmymoney,Icouldve
If I could + ,I would / verb boughtacomputer.
you verb you wouldnt (infinitive (ButIspendallmymoneyandIcouldntbuy
he (infinitive) he d form) acomputer).
she... she... Oritcanbeusedtoexpressrelief:
IfIwedtakenthatroute,wedhavebeen
Example: If I could help you, I would!
stuckinthetrafficjamforhours!
4) Notice that the infinitive verb after the modal (Butwedidnttakethatroute,andwedidnt
verbs is not necessary if the meaning is clear. getstuck)
Dont contract modal verbs when there is no
Form:
infinitive verb present.
a)Makethethirdconditionalstructurethisway:
If I could pay, Id... => If I could pay, I would...
wouldhave
Common errors: wouldve
If pastperfect , past
1) Many students write would after If dhave
(had+past participle
If I would have a lot of money, I would buy that wouldnt
participle)
car! have
(hadnt+past
=> If I had a lot of money, I would buy that
participle)
car!
EVENTA EVENTB
2) Many students forget to use could to talk about
abilities. IfyoudtoldmethatAnnahadputonweight,I
If I played the drums, Id join a band. wouldnthavecongratulatedheronbecoming
=> If I could play the drums, Id join a band. pregnant.

Or:

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 toisgenerallyusedtotalkaboutrulesandthings
beyondyourcontrol.
I/you/ wouldhave pastperfect
YouhavetoseetheEmpireStateBuildingwhileyou
he/she wouldve (had+past
past if areinNewYork.
/we/it dhave participle)
participle
/they (hadnt+past shouldShouldandoughttoareusedtogivea
wouldnt
participle) suggestion.
have
YoushouldtryhaggiswhileyouareinScotland.
EVENTB EVENTA
couldCouldisusedtogiveanoption.
Jimwouldnthavemadethosemistakesifyouhad Youcouldstayinahotel,oryoucouldstayataguest
trainedhimproperly. house.

b)Youcanalsousemayhave/maynothave,might donthavetoDonthavetoisusedtosaythat
have/mightnothaveorcouldhave/couldnt somethingisntnecessary.
havetodescribelesscertainpossibilitiesratherthan Youdonthavetogetataxi;themetroisreallyfast
certainconsequences. andefficient.
Youmighthavehadanaccidentifyouddrivenhome
shouldntShouldisusedtowarnsomeonegently
inthesnowlastnight.
againstdoingsomething.
c)Sometimestheifclauseisimpliedbutnotspoken. Youshouldntwalkhomealoneafterdark.
Idhavehelped.
mustntMustntisusedtowarnsomeonestrongly
meansIdhavehelpedifyoudaskedme.
againstdoingsomething.
Iwouldnthavesaidthat.
Youmustntgotothatpartofthecityitsdangerous.
meansIwouldnthavesaidthatifIdbeenthere.
Form:
CommonMistakes
Must,shouldandcouldaremodals.Modalsfollowthe
Somestudentswritewouldafterif.Woulddoesnot
followingrules.
gointheIfclause,itgoesintheotherclause.
1)Donotaddstothethirdpersonsingular.
IfIwouldhaveseenSally,Idhavetoldherthe
Hemust.NOTHemusts
news.IfIhadseenSally,Idhavetoldher
2)Toformanegative,addnotaftertheverb.
thenews.
Ishouldnt.NOTIdontshould
3)Toformquestions,invertthemodalverbandthe
subject.
USINGMODALSFOR Mustyou?NOTDoyoumust?
RECOMMENDATIONS 4)Modalsarealwaysfollowedbyaverbin
theinfinitiveform.
Use: Ishouldgo.NOTIshouldtogo./Ishouldcoming.
Thefollowingmodalscanbeusedtogive
recommendations. Havetoisaregularverb.
1)UseDo/Does/Didtoformquestions.
mustMustcanbeusedtogiveastrong
Doyouhavetogo?NOTHaveyoutogo?
recommendation.
2)Havetoisfollowedbyaverbintheinfinitiveform.
YoumustseetheEmpireStateBuildingwhileyouare
Ihavetogo.
inNewYork.
3)Usedont/doesnt/didnttoformnegative
havetoYoucanalsousehavetofor sentences.
recommendations,butmustismorecommon.Have Idonthavetogo.NOTIhaventtogo.
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CommonMistakes: iscorrect.
1.Manystudentsusetoaftermodalverbs. WheresJohn?Isheinthekitchen?
Youmusttovisitthemuseum.Youmustvisitthe No,hecantbe.Iwasinthereaminuteago.
museum.
NOTE:youcannotuse:mustnt+infinitivetomake
2.Somestudentswritethequestionandnegative deductionsaboutwhatisnottrue.
formofhavetoincorrectly.
YouhaventtotakethebusYoudonthavetotake
CommonMistakes:
thebus.
1.Manystudentsdonottaketheopportunitytouse
Haveyoutogonow?Doyouhavetogonow?
thesestructureswhentheycan.
Maybeyourbagisintheclassroom.=>Your
bagmightbeintheclassroom.
MODALSFORPRESENT

DEDUCTION
MODALSFORPASTDEDUCTION
UseandForm:
Thefollowingmodalscanbeusedtomakeguesses UseandForm:
aboutapresentsituation. Thefollowingmodalscanbeusedtoguesswhat
must+infinitive happenedinthepast.
Usethiswhenyoumakeaguessandyouarealmost musthave+pastparticipleverb
certainthatyourguessiscorrect. Usethiswhenyoumakeaguessaboutthepast,and
WheresJohn? youarealmostcertainthatyourguessiscorrect.
Hesnothere.Hemustbeinthebathroom. Thechickenshaveescaped!Howdidtheygetout?
may+infinitive Theymusthavegotoutunderthegate.Thereisno
might+infinitive otherwayout.
could+infinitive mayhave+pastparticipleverb
Usethiswhenyoumakeaguessbutyouareonly mighthave+pastparticipleverb
suggestingonepossibility.Youarenotcertainyouare couldhave+pastparticipleverb
correct. Usethiswhenyoumakeaguessaboutthepast,but
WheresJohn? youareonlysuggestingonepossibility.Youarenot
Hesnothere.Hemaybeinthebathroom,or certainyouarecorrect.
hemightbeinthekitchen,orhecouldbeoutside. Thechickenshaveescaped!Howdidtheygetout?
maynot+infinitive Theymayhavegotoutunderthegate,ortheymight
mightnot+infinitive haveescapedthroughthisholeinthefence.
Usethiswhenyoumakeaguessaboutwhat maynothave+pastparticipleverb
isnottrue,butyouareonlysuggestingone mightnothave+pastparticipleverb
possibility.Youarenotcertainyouarecorrect. Usethiswhenyoumakeaguessaboutwhatdidnt
WheresJohn? happeninthepast,butyouareonlysuggestingone
Hesnothere.Hemaynotbeatworktoday. possibility.Youarenotcertainyouarecorrect.
NOTE:Donotusecouldnothere. WheresJohn?Whyisntheatthemeeting?
Hemaynothavegotthemessage./Hemightnot
cant+infinitive havereceivedthemessage.
Usethiswhenyoumakeaguessaboutwhat
isnottrue,andyouarealmostcertainthatyourguess
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NOTE:maynotisnotcontractedtomaynt,andmight thanthesubject
notisrarelycontractedtomightnt. Thecitywasdestroyedbythevolcano.

canthave+pastparticipleverb b)Whenthesubjectofthesentenceisunknown.
couldnthave+pastparticipleverb ThischeesewasmadeinCanada.
Usethiswhenyoumakeaguessaboutwhatdidnt
Itiscommoninformalandscientificwriting.
happeninthepast,andyouarealmostcertainthat
yourguessiscorrect. Form:
Thechickenshaveescaped!Howdidtheygetout? Youcanusethepassivevoiceinalltenses.Usethe
Theycanthavegotoutunderthegate.Ifixedthat correctformofbe+thepastparticipleoftheverb.
yesterday.
PresentSimple: Past Theworkers
NOTE:youcannotuse:mustnthave+pastparticiple I participle collecttherubbish
am
verbtomakedeductionsaboutthepast. you/they/we ofWednesdays.
are
It/She/he =>Therubbishis
CommonMistakes: is
collectedon
1.Manystudentsdonottaketheopportunitytouse
Thursdays.
thesestructureswhentheycan. taken
MaybeIleftmybookathome.Imayhaveleftmy PastSimple: given Peoplebuiltthe
bookathome. you/they/we built castleover800
were
IthinkRobinwenttotherestaurantwithoutus. I/It/She/he made yearsago.
was
Robinmusthavegonetotherestaurantwithout eaten =>Thecastlewas
us. brought builtover800
cooked yearsago.
2.Notethatcouldhavehasthesamemeaning
left...
asmighthaveandmayhave. PresentPerfect: Someonehas
WhyisTomlate? I/you/they/ takenmybook!
have
Hemay/might/couldhavegotstuckintraffic. we =>Mybookhas
been
It/She/he beentaken!
However,inthenegativeformthemeaningisnot has
thesame. been
WhyisTomlate?
PastPerfect: Whenwearrived
Hemay/mightnothavegotyourmessage.(NOT
I/you/they/ attheairport,
couldnot) had
we/it/she/he someonehad
=Maybehedidntgetyourmessage. been
resoldourtickets.
Couldnthavehasthesamemeaningascanthave. =>Whenwe
WhyisTomlate? arrivedatthe
Imnotsure!Hecant/couldnthaveforgottenabout airport,ourtickets
theparty! hadbeenresold.
=Imsurehedidntforget.
Modals Youmustweara
I/you/they/ hardhatinthis
canbe
we/it/she/he area.
SIMPLEPASSIVE willbe
=>Hardharts
would
Use: mustbewornin
be
Thepassivevoiceisused: thisarea.
must
a)Whentheobjectofasentenceismoreimportant be
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 should changes
presentperfect pastperfect
be to
could Ivereadthat ItoldhimthatIdread

be book. thebook.
changes
pastcontinuous pastperfectcontinuous
to
Tomentionwhocausedtheaction,useby. Hesaidthatshehad
Shewaswalking
Thebinswereemptiedbythecleaningstaff. beenwalkinghome
homealone.
alone.
presentperfect changes
REPORTERSPECH pastperfectcontinuous
continuous to
Ivebeen ItoldhimthatIdbeen
Use:
Usereportedspeechtotalkaboutwhatanother working, working.
personsaidinthepast. 2)Toreportspeech,useHe/She/Isaid(that)...
Eve:IwenttothepartyonFridaynight. YoucanalsouseHe/Shetoldme(that)...;Itoldhim
James:Evesaidthatshehadgonetothe /her(that)...
partyonFridaynight.
3)Dontusequotationmarks()whenreporting
Form: speech.
1)Whenreportingspeech,theverbinthesentence
4)Referencestotimesinthepastalsomayneedto
mayshifttoapasttense.
changewhenusingreportedspeech,ifthattimeisno
changes longerthesame.
am/is/are was/were
to
thismorning/week/ thatmorning/week/
Shesaidthatshewas
Iamfine. month month
fine.
yesterday thepreviousday
changes
presentsimple pastsimple thepreviousweek/
to lastweek/month
month
Ilikeit. Hesaidhelikedit.
ago earlier/previously
present changes
pastcontinuous tomorrow thefollowingday
continuous to
thefollowingweek/
Hesaidthatshewas nextweek/month
Shessleeping. month
sleeping.
changes
will would
to
Yousaidthatyoudbe
Illbethere.
there.
changes
can could
to
Icancometothe Yousaidthatyoucould

meeting. cometothemeeting.
changes
pastsimple pastperfect
to
Ididthe Tomsaidthathehad

shopping. donetheshopping.
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