Introduction to Engineering

Experimentation
Third Edition

Anthony J. Wheeler

Ahmad R. Ganji

School of Engineering
San Francisco State University

With Third Edition contributions by

V. V. Krishnan
San Francisco State University
Brian S. Thurow
Auburn University

PEARSON

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 Contents

Preface 9

CHAPTER 1 Introduction 11

Engineering Experimentation and Measurement 11

1.1 Applications of

1.1.1 Measurement in Engineering Experimentation 11

1.1.2 Measurement in Operational Systems 13

1.2 Objective and Overview 13

1.3 Dimensions and Units 13

1.4 Closure 15

Problems 15

CHAPTER 2 General Characteristics of Measurement Systems 17

2.1 Generalized Measurement System 17

2.2 Validity of Measurement 18

2.2.1 Measurement Error and Related Definitions 19

2.2.2 Calibration of Measurement Systems 26

2.3 Dynamic Measurements 34

2.4 Closure 38

References 38

Problems 39

CHAPTER 3 Measurement Systems with Electrical Signals 46

3.1 Electrical Signal Measurement Systems 46

3.2 Signal Conditioners 47

3.2.1 Signal Amplification

General Characteristics of 48
54
3.2.2 Amplifiers Using Operational Amplifiers
3.2.3 60
Signal Attenuation
3.2.4 General Aspects of Signal Filtering 62

3.2.5 Butterworth Filters Using Operational Amplifiers 65

3.2.6 Circuits for Integration, Differentiation, and Comparison 69

3.3 Indicating and Recording Devices 70

70
3.3.1Digital Voltmeters and Multimeters
3.3.2Oscilloscopes 71

3.3.3 Strip-Chart Recorders 73

3.3.4 Data Acquisition Systems 74

3.4 Electrical Transmission of Signals Between Components 74

3.4.1 Low-Level Analog Voltage Signal Transmission 74

Signal Transmission 77
3.4.2 High-Level Analog Voltage
3.4.3 Current-Loop Analog Signal Transmission 77
78
3.4.4 Digital Signal Transmission
References 78

Problems 78

3
4 Contents

CHAPTER 4 Computerized Data-Acquisition Systems 81

4.1 Introduction 81

4.2 Computer Systems 82

4.2.1 Computer Systems for Data Acquisition 82

4.2.2 Components of Computer Systems 83

4.2.3 Representing Numbers in Computer Systems 85
4.3 Data-Acquisition Components 88

4.3.1 Multiplexers 88
4.3.2 Basics of Analog-to-Digital Converters 89
4.3.3 Practical
Analog-to-Digital Converters 96
4.3.4 Digital-to-Analog Converters 100

4.3.5 Simultaneous Sample-and-Hold Subsystems 101

4.4 Configurations of Data-Acquisition Systems 102

4.4.1 Internal Single Board Plug-in Systems 102

4.4.2 External Systems 102

4.4.3 Digital Connectivity 103
4.4.4 Virtual Instruments 104

4.4.5 Digital Storage Oscilloscopes 105

4.4.6 Data Loggers 107
4.5 Software for Data-Acquisition Systems 107

4.5.1 Commercial Software Packages 108

References 108

Problems 109

CHAPTER 5 Discrete Sampling and Analysis of Time-Varying Signals 112

5.1 Sampling-Rate Theorem 112

5.2 Spectral Analysis of Time-Varying Signals 117

5.3 Spectral Analysis Using the Fourier Transform 122

5.4 Selecting the Sampling Rate and Filtering 129

5.4.1 Selecting the Sampling Rate 129

5.4.2 Use of Filtering to Limit Sampling Rate 131
References 134

Problems 135

CHAPTER 6 Statistical Analysis of Experimental Data 138

6.1 Introduction 138

6.2 General Concepts and Definitions 140

6.2.1 Definitions 140

6.2.2 Measures of Central Tendency 142
6.2.3 Measures of Dispersion 143

6.3 Probability 144

6.3.1 Probability Distribution Functions 145

6.3.2 Some Probability Distribution Functions with

Engineering Applications 149
6.4 Parameter Estimation 161

6.4.1 Interval Estimation of the Population Mean 162

6.4.2 Interval Estimation of the Population Variance 170
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6.5 Criterion for Rejecting Questionable Data Points 173

6.6 Correlation of Experimental Data 175

6.6.1 Correlation Coefficient 175

6.6.2 Least-Squares Linear Fit 179
6.6.3 Outliers in x-y Data Sets 185
6.6.4 Linear Regression Using Data Transformation 188
6.6.5 Multiple and Polynomial Regression 190
6.7 Linear Functions of Random Variables 194

6.8 Applying Computer Software for Statistical Analysis

of Experimental Data 195
References 195

Problems 196

CHAPTER 7 Experimental Uncertainty Analysis 209

7.1 Introduction 209

7.2 Propagation of Uncertainties General Considerations 209

7.3 Consideration of Systematic and Random Components
of Uncertainty 212

7.4 Sources of Elemental Error 219

7.5 Uncertainty of the Final Results for Multiple-Measurement
Experiments 224

7.6 Uncertainty of the Final Result for Single-Measurement

Experiments 228

7.7 Step-by-Step Procedure for

Uncertainty Analysis 231

7.8 Interpreting Manufacturers' Uncertainty Data 232

7.9 Applying Uncertainty Analysis in Digital
Data-Acquisition Systems 233
7.10 Additional Considerations for Single-Measurement
Experiments 237

7.11 Closure 240

References 240
Problems 240

CHAPTER 8 Measurement of Solid-Mechanical Quantities 254

8.1 Measuring Strain 254

8.1.1 Electrical Resistance Strain Gage 254

8.1.2 Strain
Gage Signal Conditioning 259
8.2 Measuring Displacement 264

8.2.1 Potentiometer 264

8.2.2 Linear and

Rotary Variable Differential Transformers 265
8.2.3 Capacitive Displacement Sensor 269
8.2.4 Digital Encoders 271

8.3 Measuring Linear Velocity 271

8.3.1 LinearVelocity Transducer 271

8.3.2 Doppler Radar Velocity Measurement 272

8.3.3 Velocity Determination Using Displacement
and Acceleration Sensors 273
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8.4 Measuring Angular Velocity 274

8.4.1 Electric Generator Tachometers 274

8.4.2 Magnetic Pickup 275
8.4.3 Stroboscopic Tachometer 276
8.4.4 Photoelectric Tachometer 277

8.5 Measuring Acceleration and Vibration 277

8.5.1 Piezoelectric Accelerometers 277

8.5.2 Strain-Gage Accelerometers 280

8.5.3 Servo Accelerometer 281

8.5.4 Vibrometer 281
8.6 Measuring Force 282

8.6.1 Load Cells 282

8.6.2Proving Rings 284
8.7 Measuring Rotating Shaft Torque 285

References 287
Problems 288

CHAPTER 9 Measuring Pressure,Temperature, and Humidity 294

9.1 Measuring Pressure 294

9.1.1 Traditional Pressure-Measuring Devices 294
9.1.2 Pressure Transducers 301

9.1.3 Measuring a Vacuum 303

9.2 Measuring Temperature 307

9.2.1 Thermocouples 307

9.2.2 Resistance-Temperature Detectors 314
9.2.3 Thermistor and Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors 318

9.2.4 Mechanical
Temperature-Sensing Devices 320
9.2.5 Radiation Thermometers
(Pyrometers) 322
9.2.6 Common Temperature-Measurement Errors 325

9.3 Measuring Humidity 331

9.3.1 Hygrometric Devices 331
9.3.2 Dew-Point Devices 332

9.3.3 Psychrometric Devices 332

9.4 Fiber-Optic Devices 334
9.4.1 Optical Fiber 334

9.4.2 General Characteristics of Fiber-Optic Sensors 336

9.4.3 Fiber-Optic Displacement Sensors 337

9.4.4 Fiber-Optic Temperature Sensors 338

9.4.5 FiberOptic Pressure Sensors 340
9.4.6 Other Fiber-Optic Sensors 341

References 341
Problems 342

CHAPTER 10 Measuring Fluid Flow Rate, Fluid Velocity, Fluid Level,

and Combustion Pollutants 346

10.1 Systems for Measuring Fluid Flow Rate 346

10.1.1 Pressure Differential Devices 346
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10.1.2 Variable-Area Flowmeters 362

10.1.3 Turbine Flowmeters 365

10.1.4 Mass Flowmeters 366
10.1.5 Positive-Displacement Flowmeters 369

10.1.6 Other Methods of Flow Measurement 369

10.1.7 Calibrating Flowmeters 373
10.2 Systems for Measuring Fluid Velocity 374

10.2.1 Pitot-Static Probe 374

10.2.2 Hot-Wire and Hot-Film Anemometers 376
10.2.3 Fluid
Velocity Measurement Using the

Laser-Doppler Effect 378

10.3 Measuring Fluid Level 381

10.3.1 Buoyancy Devices 381
10.3.2 Differential-Pressure Devices 382
10.3.3 Capacitance Devices 383
10.3.4 Conductance Devices 384
10.3.5 Ultrasonic Devices 384

10.3.6 Weight Methods 385

10.4 Measuring Air Pollution Species 385

10.4.1 Nondispersive Infrared Detectors 386

10.4.2 Chemiluminescent Analyzers 388

10.4.3 Flame Ionization Detectors 389
10.4.4 Other Gas-Analysis Devices 390

10.4.5 General Considerations about Sampling

and Measuring Pollutant Gases 390
References 391

Problems 392

CHAPTER 11 Dynamic Behavior of Measurement Systems 397

11.1 Order of a Dynamic Measurement System 397

11.2 Zero-Order Measurement Systems 398

11.3 First-Order Measurement Systems 398

11.3.1 Basic Equations 399

11.3.2 Step Input 399

11.3.3 Ramp Input 400

11.3.4 Sinusoidal Input 402
11.3.5 Thermocouple as a First-Order System 402

11.4 Second-Order Measurement Systems 407

11.4.1 Basic Equations 407

11.4.2 Step Input 408

11.4.3 Sinusoidal Input 410

11.4.4 Force Transducer (Load Cell) as a Second-Order System 411

11.4.5 Pressure-Measurement Devices as Second-Order Systems 414
11.4.6 Second-Order Systems for Acceleration and Vibration 423

11.5 Closure 427

References 428

Problems 428
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CHAPTER 12 Guidelines for Planning and Documenting Experiments 432

12.1 Overview of an Experimental Program 432

12.1.1 Problem Definition 432
12.1.2 Experiment Design 433

12.1.3 Experiment Construction and Development 433

12.1.4 Data Gathering 434
12.1.5 Data
Analysis 434

12.1.6 Interpreting Data and Reporting 434

12.2 Common Activities in Experimental Projects 434
12.2.1 Dimensional Analysis and Determining the Test Rig Scale 434
12.2.2 Uncertainty Analysis 438
12.2.3 Shakedown Tests 438
12.2.4 Test Matrix and TestSequence 439
12.2.5 Scheduling and Cost Estimation 443
12.2.6 Design Review 447

12.2.7 Documenting Experimental Activities 448

12.3 Closure 456
References 456

Answers to Selected Problems 457

APPENDIX A Computational Methods for Chapter 5 460

APPENDIX B Selected Properties of Substances 463

Glossary 468

Index 476