11

Shielded Metal Arc

Welding Principles

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is manual arc Chapter Objectives

welding in which the heat for welding is generated by an
electric arc established between a flux-covered consum-
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
able metal rod called the electrode and the work. For this
reason, the process is also called stick electrode welding. 11-1 List the percentage of usage of SMAW in the industry.
The combustion and decomposition of the electrode cre- 11-2 Name the components that make up the schematic
ates a gaseous shield that protects the electrode tip, weld representation of the shielded metal arc.
puddle, arc, and the highly heated work from atmospheric 11-3 Know the maximum arc temperature of an SMAW
contamination, Fig. 11-1. Additional shielding is provided electrode.
for the molten metal in the weld pool by a covering of 11-4 List the four constant current welding machines.
molten slag (flux). 11-5 List the common type and uses of constant current
welding machines.
11-6 Name the power supply ratings.
For video showing the fundamentals of SMAW, 11-7 Name the characteristics of the four basic types of
please visit www.mhhe.com/welding. welding machines.
11-8 Choose the correct cable size based on the application.
The weld metal is supplied by the metal core of the 11-9 List the welders safety equipment.
consumable electrode, and the physical properties vary
with the electrode classification. Certain electrodes also
have metal powder mixed with the electrode coverings.
The shielding and filler metal largely control the mechan-
ical, chemical, metallurgical, and electrical characteris-
tics of the weld. Characteristics of electrodes for shielded
metal arc welding are presented in Chapter 12.

278
 Welding Machine AC or DC Electrode
Electrode Coating Power Source and Controls Holder
Core Wire
Shielding Atmosphere Electrode
Arc Pool
Arc Stream Arc
Solidified Slag
Penetration Depth

Base Metal
Work Cable Work
Solidified Weld Metal
Electrode Cable
Fig. 11-1 Schematic representation of the shielded metal arc.
Adapted from AWS Standard Terms and Definitions, AWS3.0:2010, page 12 Fig. 11-2 Elements of a typical electric circuit for shielded metal
arc welding. Adapted from Welding Handbook, 9/e.

be removed. Deslagging causes some loss in deposition

Process Capability efficiency.
Shielded metal arc welding is one of the most widely used
of the various electric arc welding processes. Rather than Operating Principles
replacing shielded metal arc welding, the popularity of
Shielded metal arc welding equipment sets up an elec-
the other processes is causing the total amount of welding
tric circuit that includes the welding machine, the work,
performed to increase.
electric cables, the electrode holder and electrodes, and a
According to a recent market study of equipment and
work clamp, Fig.11-2. The heat of the electric arc brings
process usage among the industrial market segments,
the work to be welded and the consumable electrode to a
SMAW represents 42 percent, GMAW/FCAW 34percent,
molten state. The heat of the arc is intense. Temperatures
GTAW 13percent, SAW 9percent, and others 2 percent of
as high as 9,000F (5,000C) have been measured at its
the total welding. However, when looking at the dominant
center.
markets using SMAW, 56percent of construction welding
Welding begins when an electric arc is started by strik-
is SMAW and 61 percent of maintenance and repair is
ing the work with the electrode. The heat of the arc melts
SMAW.
the electrode and the surface of the base metal next to the
Equipment for shielded metal arc welding is less com-
arc. Tiny globules of molten metal form on the tip of the
plex, more portable, and less costly than that for other arc
electrode and are transferred by the arc into the molten
welding processes. This type of welding can be done indoors
pool on the work surface. In flat welding the transfer is
and outdoors, in any location, and in any position.
induced by the force of gravity, molecular attraction, and
Shielded metal arc electrodes are available to match the
surface tension. When the welding is in the vertical and
properties and strength of most base metals. Metals most
overhead positions, electromagnetic, along with molecu-
easily welded by the shielded metal arc process are car-
lar attraction and surface tension are the forces that cause
bon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, and heat-resisting
the metal transfer. Because of the high temperature of
steels. Cast iron and the high strength and hardenable types
the arc, melting takes place almost instantaneously as the
of steel can also be welded providing the proper preheat-
arcis applied to the weld. After the weld is started, the arc
ing and postheating procedures are employed. Copper and
ismoved along the work, melting and fusing the metal as
nickel alloys can be welded by this process although gas
it progresses.
metal arc (GMAW, also known as MIG/MAG) welding
and gas tungsten arc (GTAW, also known as TIG) welding
are preferred.
Welding Power Sources
The shielded process is not used for welding the softer The successful application of the welding process re-
metals such as zinc, lead, and tin, which have low melting quires proper tools and equipment. Welders will find it
and boiling temperatures. impossible to do good work if they have inferior equip-
Processes that employ continuously fed electrode wires ment, if they lack equipment, or if they choose the wrong
(gas metal arc) or no filler metal (gas tungsten arc) have type of equipment for a particular job. The welding in-
some advantage in deposition efficiency. After each pass, dustry has spent many years in experimentation and
the slag formed by the shielded metal arc electrode must practical application, as well as millions of dollars in

Shielded Metal Arc Welding Principles Chapter 11279

developing the equipment necessary to carry on welding
processes.
Each welding process reaches its maximum efficiency
when used with the power source designed for it. Each
type of power source has certain fundamental electri-
cal differences that make it best suited for a particular
process.
A welding machine must be able to meet changing arc
load and environmental conditions instantly. It must deliver
the exact amount of electric current at precisely the right
time to the welding arc in order to control arc behavior and
make welds of consistent quality.
The arc welding process requires enough electric cur-
rent (measured in amperes) to produce melting of the work
and the metal electrode and the proper voltage (measured
in volts) to maintain the arc. Depending on their size and
type, electrodes require 17 to 45 volts and approximately
100 to 500 amperes. The current can be alternating or di-
rect, but it must be provided through a source that can be
controlled to meet the many conditions encountered on
the job.
Welding machines are available in a wide variety of
types and sizes to suit the demands of different welding
processes, operations, and types of work. There are a
number of different makes, each having its own particu-
lar design. The control panel of each model is different
in many respects. The selection of a particular machine
may also depend upon cost, portability, and personal
preference.
Welding power sources are also known as power
supplies and welding machines. All machines may
be classed by (1) output slope, whether constant cur-
rent or constant voltage, and (2) power source type,
such as transformer, transformer-rectifier, inverter, or
generator.
Type of Output Slope
Welding machines have two basic types of output slope
constant current, which is also referred to as variable
voltage, and constant voltage, which is also referred to as
constant potential.
Output slope, sometimes called the volt-ampere char-
acteristic or curve, is the relationship between the output
voltage and output current (amperage) of the machine as
the current or welding workload is increased or decreased,
Fig.11-3.
Output slope largely determines how much the welding
current will change for a given change in load voltage.
Thus it permits the welding machine to control the weld-
ing heat and maintain a stable arc.
The output slope of the machine indicates the type and
amount of electric current it is designed to produce.
280Chapter 11Shielded Metal Arc Welding Principles
Constant Voltage
100
Performance
Constant Current
80 Performance
Voltage (Volts)
60
40
20
100 200 300 400 500 600
Current (Amps)
Fig. 11-3 Typical output slopes for constant current and constant
voltage power sources. Source: From Welding Handbook, 9/e.
Each arc welding process has a characteristic output
slope:
SMAW and GTAW require a steep output slope from
a constant current welding machine. Constant cur-
rent is necessary to control the stability of the arc
properly.
GMAW and FCAW require a relatively flat output
slope from a constant voltage power source to produce
a stable arc.
Submerged arc welding is adaptable to either slope,
depending on the application and extra control
equipment.
Some d.c. welding machines, especially the inverter
type, may combine the two basic types of output slope in
a single unit. By turning a selector switch on the machine,
a steep slope (constant current) or a flat slope (constant
voltage) can be produced.
Types of Power Source
Constant current welding machines are also classified by
the manner in which they produce welding current. There
are four general types:
Engine-driven generators These are powered by a
gas or diesel combustion engine. These machines
can also be found with an a.c. or d.c. electric motor
as their power source; however, they are no longer
being manufactured and are rarely found in industry
today. Both may produce d.c., a.c., or a.c.-d.c. weld-
ing current.
Transformer-rectifiers These use a basic electrical
transformer to step down the a.c. line power voltage
to a.c. welding voltage. The welding voltage is in turn
passed through a rectifier to convert the a.c. output to
d.c. welding current. Transformer-rectifiers may be
either d.c. or a.c.-d.c. machines.
 A.C. transformers These use an electrical transformer
to step down the a.c. line power voltage to a.c. weld-
ing voltage.
Inverters This type of power source increases the fre-
quency of the incoming primary power, thus provid-
ing for a smaller-size machine and improved electrical
characteristics for welding, such as faster response
time and more control for pulse welding. Inverters
may be either constant current, constant voltage, or
both. They can produce a.c. or d.c. welding current.
It is important to select the right power source for
each job, Fig.11-4. A study of the job will usually indi-
cate whether alternating or direct current should be used.
This will determine the selection of either an a.c. or d.c.
power source or a combination a.c.-d.c. power source. For
shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc weld-
ing, the performance characteristics of any of these four
power sources must be the constant current rather than
the constant voltage type. The constant voltage machine
is preferred for semiautomatic and automatic arc welding
processes such as gas metal arc.
Constant Current Characteristics
Constant current welding machines are primarily
used for shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc
welding because current remains fairly constant regard-
less of changes in arc length. They are also called droop-
ing voltage, variable voltage, or droopers because the
load voltage decreases, or droops, as the welding current
increases.
These machines can also be adapted to spray arc MIG/
MAG welding (d.c.), flux cored arc, or submerged arc
welding (a.c. or d.c.) with a special arc voltage sensing
control and variable speed wire feeder. This control senses
the changes in arc voltage and corresponding arc length
and varies the wire feed speed to maintain a constant arc
length voltage. Constant current welding machines, how-
ever, are not as satisfactory for spray arc MIG/MAG weld-
ing as constant voltage machines because of the poorer
arc starting and more complicated equipment.
Output Slope Constant current welding machines have a
steep output slope and are available in both d.c. and a.c.
welding current. The steeper the slope of the volt-ampere
curve within the welding range, the smaller the current
change for a given change in arc voltage, Fig.11-5. Some
jobs require a steep volt-ampere curve (A) while other jobs
require the use of a less steep volt-ampere curve (B). The
constant current power source enables the welder to con-
trol welding current in a specific range by simply chang-
ing the length of the arc as welding progresses.
Open Circuit and Arc Voltage Open circuit voltage is the
voltage generated by the welding machine when no weld-
ing is being done. The machine is running idle. Arc volt-
age is the voltage generated between the molten tip of the
electrode and the surface of the molten weld pool during
welding. It is also referred to as arc length. Load volt-
age is the voltage at the output terminals of the weld-
ing machine when an arc is going. Load voltage is the
combination of the arc voltage plus the voltage drop in
the welding circuit. Open circuit voltage generally runs
between 50 and 100 volts. Arc voltage runs between
18 and 36 volts. The two open circuit voltages expressed
in Fig. 11-5 are approximately 90 volts (A) and slightly
below 50 volts (B). The arc voltages range from 32 (long
arc) to 22 volts (short arc).
Open circuit voltage drops to arc voltage when the arc
is struck, and the welding load is on the machine. Arc
voltage is determined by the arc length held by the welder
and the type of electrode used. When the arc is length-
ened, the arc voltage increases and the current decreases.
If the arc is shortened, the arc voltage decreases and the
current increases. Note that in Fig. 11-5 there is a differ-
ence of 40 amperes between the long arc and the short arc.
Just how much change takes place depends on the open
circuit voltage setting. Although the total current range
between the long arc and the short arc in Fig. 11-5 is 40
amperes, the range that the two open circuit voltages have
in common is only 15 amperes. The minimum open cir-
cuit voltage (B) produces a much wider current range than
the maximum circuit voltage (A).
Open circuit voltage on constant current machines
is higher (about 80 volts) than on most constant voltage
machines (about 50 volts). Arc voltage depends on the
physical arc length at the point of welding and is con-
trolled by the welder in shielded metal arc welding and
gas tungsten arc welding. Arc voltage is much lower than
open circuit voltage: normally about 20 to 30 volts for
shielded metal arc welding, 10 to 15 volts for gas tung-
sten arc, and 25 to 35 volts for submerged arc.
There is no voltage adjustment dial on constant current
welding machines. However, open circuit voltage can be
adjusted with the fine current adjustment dial on welding
machines having dual control.
In shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc
welding, the welder cannot hold the arc length truly con-
stant. Rather wide changes in arc length and, therefore, a
voltage change, will occur. With a constant current ma-
chine, relatively small changes in current (amperage) re-
sult from changes in arc length. Thus the welding heat and
burnoff rate of the electrode are influenced very little, and
the welder is able to maintain good control of the weld
pool and the welding operation.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding Principles Chapter 11281
 SMAW and GTAW

Constant
current

Generators Transformer-types

a.c. or a.c.-d.c. or d.c. a.c.-d.c. or d.c. a.c. or d.c. a.c.

only Engine-driven d.c. only Transformer- Transformer- Transformer3
generator Inverter7 rectifier rectifier2

GMAW and FCAW

Constant
voltage

Generators
Constant Constant
current6 voltage

d.c.
Engine-driven
generator
Adjustable slope Transformer types
and/or inductance

d.c. d.c. d.c. d.c.

Engine-driven Spray Transformer- Transformer- Inverter
generator Globular4 rectifier rectifier Variable slope
Fixed slope Short circuiting5 Fixed slope Variable slope and/or
Inductance

Spray Spray
Globular4 Globular4 Spray
Short circuiting5 Globular4
Short
circuiting5
Pulse

Fig. 11-4 Common types and uses of arc welding machines.1 Source: Republic Steel Co.

282Chapter 11Shielded Metal Arc Welding Principles

 Submerged Arc

Constant Constant
current6 voltage

Generators Transformer-types Inverters Generators Transformer types

d.c. d.c. a.c. a.c.-d.c d.c. d.c.

Engine- Transformer- Transformer3 f requency Engine-driven1 Transformer-
driven1 rectifier amplitude generator rectifier
generator cc or cv Fixed slope Fixed slope

Fig. 11-4 (Concluded)

This figure shows the most common uses of welding machines for processes noted. Other combinations are possible.
1

 The a.c. can be used only on single-phase line power. The d.c. is most commonly used on three-phase power, except for most a.c.-d.c. units.
2

 Single phase only.

3

 Mild steel carbon dioxide weldingnot normally used for stainless.

4

 Inductance usually added. Some shorting-arc machines have a fixed slope set at a steeper angle with adjustment made by varying the
5

inductance.
 Used with voltage-sensing control and variable speed wire-fed unit.
6

 Invertera.c. or d.c. may be used.

7

100
Machines for Shielded Metal
Maximum OCV
ArcWelding
Engine-Driven Generator Welding
Machines
Generators are classified by the type of engine that
A drives the generator. The common generator welding
machine consists of a hydraulic or internal combustion
VoltageVolts

B engine, a d.c. generator, and an exciter connected to it.

50 Minimum OCV The engine drives the generator that provides the current
for welding.
These types of engine-driven generators are very
32 Long Arc Length popular in the field where electric power supply is not
Normal Arc Length Arc Voltage readily available. They are typically driven by a gasoline
22 Short Arc Length or diesel internal combustion engine. Generators used in
the field are illustrated in Figs.11-6, 11-7, and 11-8.
125 Amps The engine-driven generators have a very wide use
27 Volts due chiefly to their desirable characteristics for many arc
welding operations.
100 15 200 They have a forceful or soft penetrating arc.
CurrentAmps 40 Amps They are versatile; they can be used to weld all metals
that are weldable by the arc process.
Fig. 11-5 Two possible output slopes for a constant current They are flexible, with the proper electrode, processes
welding power source. The steep slope (A) gives minimum current
variation. The flatter slope (B) indicates the variation in current by and gases can be used for many applications.
changing the length of the arc. Note that changing the open circuit They can also function as generators to power lights
voltage (OCV) changes the slope of the curve. or other tools like plasma arc cutting equipment.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding Principles Chapter 11283


Fig. 11-6 Engine-driven d.c. generator for SMAW. Note remote
control and engine gauges. Lincoln Electric
Fig. 11-7 Engine-driven generator (alternator) for SMAW. Note
a.c.-d.c. polarity, wire, stick switch, and 240V./120V. auxillary power
receptacles are located behind protective doors. Miller Electric
Mfg. Co.
They can also have on board air compressors for
doing air carbon arc gouging.
They are durable and have a long machine life where
portability and limited electrical power are the key
requirements.
Sizes Machine sizes are determined on the basis of am-
perage (current output). They range from 100-
ampere
rated machines for home use to more than 750-ampere
rated machines for use with automatic submerged arc
welding equipment.
284Chapter 11Shielded Metal Arc Welding Principles
Fig. 11-8 A versatile engine-driven generator (alternator) capable
of SMAW, GTAW, GMAW, FCAW, and PAC, while providing power for
a grinder for weld-joint preparation. Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
In the manual welding operation, the machine is not
required to provide current continuously. The machine
is idle part of the time while the welder changes elec-
trodes, adjusts the heat setting, sets up the work, cleans
the welds between passes, and shifts welding positions.
For machines rated at 200 amperes or more, the output
rating is based on a 60 percent duty cycle. This means
that the machine can deliver its rated load output for six
out of every ten minutes. Machines rated at 100 amperes
or less are usually rated on the basis of a 50 percent
duty cycle. In many cases these are portable machines
that are not used on a continuous basis. Fully automatic
power supply units are usually rated at a 100 percent
duty cycle.
A welding machine will deliver a higher current value
than its rating indicates. Thus, a welder rated at 200 am-
peres will deliver from 200 to 250 amperes for welding.
The actual output is always somewhat higher than the
rated output. However, a machine should not be used at
or beyond its maximum capacity over an extended period.
A larger machine is indicated. These machines provide
a steady supply of current over a wide range of welding
voltage.
Maintenance The engine-driven generator machines are
very durable and give long service if properly maintained.
Repair costs may be somewhat higher than for other types
of welding machines because many moving parts provide
the opportunity for wear and m alfunction. The control
rheostat should be inspected, cleaned frequently, and re-
placed when necessary. Brushes need frequent inspection
for wear and must be replaced when worn down. Brushes
should ride free in the brush holders.
The manufacturers owners manual should be followed
for all maintenance items.
Controls of the Engine-Driven Generator
Start and Stop Controls These controls are for the pur-
pose of starting and stopping the engine that drives the
generator of the welding machine.
Polarity Switch Electrode negative and electrode positive
are used in d.c. welding. When welding with d.c. electrode
negative (DCEN), the electrode is connected to the nega-
tive terminal of the power source, and the work is connected
to the positive terminal. When welding with d.c. electrode
positive (DCEP), the electrode is connected to the positive
terminal of the power source, and the work is connected to
the negative terminal.
The polarity switch (if provided) changes to either elec-
trode positive or electrode negative. This controls the di-
rection of current flow. In the electron theory it is said to
flow from negative to positive.
Volt-Ampere Meters Meters sometimes serve a dual pur-
pose. On some machines they indicate polarity as well as
current values in volts and amperes. Some machines have
individual meters for volts and amperes. Others have sin-
gle meters that indicate both the volt and ampere readings.
A switch or button must be engaged to obtain individual
readings on a combination volt-ampere meter. In order
to obtain a true indication of the volt and ampere values
being used, the welder must have some other person check
the meters while he or she is welding. Digital meters such
as these will hold the display for 3 seconds after the arc
is broken.
Current Controls The student will better understand the
function of the current controls if he or she keeps in mind
that the ampere rating can be compared with the amount
of water flowing through a pipe. Amperage is the quantity
of current and determines the amount of heat produced
at a weld. Voltage is like pressure behind the water in the
pipe. It is a measure of the force of the current. Voltage
determines the ability to strike an arc and maintain its
consistency. If voltage is too high, the arc is too harsh and
may produce arc blow. On the other hand, if it is too low,
it is very difficult to maintain the arc.
Dual control welding generators provide a wide range
of welding current selection and make it possible to pro-
vide precise heat values. Good arc control is possible
because the output slope of the welding machine can be
readily adjusted. A wheel or lever permits the welder to set
the current at a definite rate.
There are two types of dual control generators: tapped-
step current control and continuously variable current
control.
Dual Tapped-Current Control On generators with fixed current
steps, the coarse adjustment dial selects the current range,
called steps or taps. It is impossible to secure a current value
between two steps by setting the dial between them. The dial
must be set squarely on the desired step to prevent burning
out the control device and taps.
The fine adjustment dial trims the current between the
steps. Whether the fine adjustment dial is to be set high
or low depends on the type and size of the electrode, the
thickness of the metal, whether a soft or digging arc is
required, the arc starting, any restricting characteristics,
and the position of welding.
Dual Control In constant current or constant voltage gen-
erators with dual control, the coarse adjustment switch
adjusts current. (Some manufacturers refer to the coarse
adjustment dial as the job selector, mode switch, or elec-
trode selector.)
The fine dial adjusts the current (amperage) or the volt-
age. The operator adjusts the output slope/inductance-dig for
a given current setting by manipulating both the coarse ad-
justment switch and dig/inductance control dial.
A wheel or knob on both the amperage and the voltage
setting devices gives the welder continuous control of both
the amperage and voltage ratings. This separate, complete
control of both voltage and amperage makes it possible to
set up any volt-ampere combination within the output range
of the particular machine being usedfrom minimum volt-
age at minimum current to maximum voltage at maximum
current. Thus, a welding arc having various characteristics
may be secured.
Remote Control Welding machines may be obtained that
are equipped with remote-control, current-control units.
The welding machine may be installed in any remote
location, and the welder may adjust the current without
leaving the welding work site. This is timesaving on work
where it is necessary for the welder to leave the fabrication
to readjust current.
Air Filters Wear in arc welding machines is costly since
it necessitates not only the cost of replacement parts and
labor, but also the loss of production due to nonuse of the
machine. Bearing and engine wear is critical and may be
reduced through the use of air filters. The filter is replaced
or cleaned regularly with high pressure air, a commercial
solvent, or steam.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding Principles Chapter 11285