What are different categories of antenna and give an example of each?

1. Different categories of antenna are as follows :

1. Wire Antennas - Short Dipole Antenna

2. Microstrip Antennas - Rectangular Microstrip (Patch) Antennas
3. Reflector Antennas - Corner Reflector
4. Travelling Wave Antennas - Helical Antennas
5. Aperture Antennas - Slot Antenna
6. Other Antennas - NFC Antennas

2. What is handover and what are its types?

Handover in mobile communication refers to the process of transferring a

call from one network cell to another without breaking the call.
There are two types of handover which are as follows :

Hard Handoff : hard handoff is the process in which the cell connection is
disconnected from the previous cell before it is made with the new one.

Soft Handoff : It is the process in which a new connection is established

first before disconnecting the old one. It is thus more efficient and smart.

3. What is ionospheric bending?

When a radio wave travels into the ionospheric layer it experiences

refraction due to difference in density. The density of ionospheric layer is
rarer than the layer below which causes the radio wave to be bent away
from the normal. Also the radio wave experiences a force from the ions in
the ionospheric layer. If incident at the correct angle the radio wave is
completely reflected back to the inner atmosphere due to total internal
reflection. This phenomenon is called ionospheric reflection and is used in
mobile communication for radio wave propagation also known as
ionospheric bending of radio waves.

4. What is CDMA?

CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access which uses digital format.
In CDMA systems several transmissions via the radio interface take place
simultaneously on the same frequency bandwidth. User data is combined
at the transmitters side with a code, then transmitted. On air, all
transmission get mixed. At the receiver's side the same code is used as in
the transmitters side. The code helps the receiver to filter the user
information of the transmitter from incoming mixture of all transmissions on
the same frequency band and same time.

5. Explain the concept of frequency re-use.

The whole of the geographical area is divided into hexagonal shape

geometrical area called cell and each cell having its own transceiver. Each
BTS (cell site) allocated different band of frequency or different channel.
Each BTS antenna is designed in such a way that i cover cell area in which
it is placed with frequency allotted without interfering other cell signals. The
design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all of the
cellular base station within system is called frequency reuse.

6. Explain Bluetooth.

Bluetooth is designed to be a personal area network, where participating

entities are mobile and require sporadic communication with others. It is
omni directional i.e. it does not have line of sight limitation like infra red
does. Ericsson started the work on Bluetooth and named it after the Danish
king Harold Biuetooth. Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz area of spectrum
and provides a range of 10 metres. It offers transfer speeds of around 720
Kbps.

7. What are GPRS services?

GPRS services are defined to fall in one of the two categories :

- PTP ( Point to point)

- PTM ( Point to Multipoint)
Some of the GPRS services are not likely to be provided by network
operators during early deployment of GPRS due in part to the phased
development of standard. Market demand is another factor affecting the
decision of operators regarding which services to offer first.

8. What are the advantages of CDMA?

Advantages of CDMa are as follows :

1. Frequency diversity : Transmission is spread out over a large bandwidth

due to that less affected by noise. If bandwidth is increased S/N ratio
increases, which means noise will be reduced.
2. Multiplication Resistance : Chipping codes used for CDMA not only
exhibit low correlation but also low autocorrelation. Hence a version of the
signal that is delayed by more than one chip interval does not interfere with
dominant signal as in other multipath environments.
3. Privacy : Due to spread spectrum is obtained by the use of noise like
signals, where each user has a unique code, so privacy is inherent.
4. Graceful Degradation. In CDMA, more users access the system
simultaneously as compared to FDMa, TDMA.

9. What are the advantages of spread spectrum?

SPread spectrum has the following advantages :

1. No crosstalk interference.
2. Better voice quality/data integrity and less static noise.
3. Lowered susceptibility to multipath fading.
4. Inherent security.
5. Co-existence.
6. Longer operating distances.
7. Hard to detect.
8. Hard to intercept or demodulate.
9. Harder to jam than narrow bands.
10. Use of ranging and radar.

10. Explain the steps involved in demodulating a signal.

Once the signal is coded, modulated and then sent, the receiver must
demodulate the signal. This is usually done in two steps :
1. Spectrum spreading (e.g., direct sequence or frequency hopping)
modulation is removed.
2. The remaining information bearing signal is demodulated by multiplying
with a local reference identical in structure and synchronised with received
signal.

11. How can a Pseudo Random Noise COde be usable?

To be usable for direct sequence spreading, a PN code must meet the

following conditions :
1. Sequence must be built from 2 levelled numbers.
2. The codes must have sharp autocorrelation peak to enable code
synchronization.
3. Codes must have a low cross-correlation value, the lower it is, more are
the number of users which can be allowed in the system.
4. The codes should be balanced i.e. the difference between ones and
zeros in code may only be 1.

12. What are the drawbacks of walsh codes?

Walsh codes have the following drawbacks :

1. The codes do not have a single, narrow autocorrelation peak.

2. The spreading is not over the whole bandwidth; instead the energy is
spread over a number of discrete frequency components.
3. Although the full sequence cross correlation is identically zero, this does
not hold for a partial sequence cross correlation function. Thus advantage
of using orthogonal codes is lost.
4. Orthogonality is also affected by channel properties like multi path.

13. Explain radio environment in building.

Building penetration : Building penetration depends on the material used for

construction and architecture used. This varies building to building and is
based on building construction.
Building Height Effect : The signal strength is always higher at top floor and
generally floor gain height is about 2.7dB/floor which is not dependent on
building construction.
Building Floor Reception : The signal isolation between floors in a multi
floor building is on the average about 20dB. Within a floor of 150 * 150 feet,
the propagation loss due to interior walls, depending on the wall materials
is about 20 dB between the strong and the weak areas.

14. List some advantages of GSM.

Here are some advantages of GSM :

1. GSM is mature, this maturity means a more stable network with robust
features.
2. Less signal deterioration inside buildings.
3. Ability to use repeaters.
4. Talk time is generally higher in GSM phones due to pulse nature of
transmission.
5. The availability of Subscriber Identity Modules allows users to switch
networks and handset at will.
6. GSM covers virtually all parts of world so international roaming is not a
problem.

15. What are the various types of numbers for network identity?

Various types of number for network identity are as follows :

1. MSISDN ( Mobile station ISDN) Number : It is international mobile
subscriber number which is normally called mobile number. It is unique
worldwide.
2. MSRN ( Mobile Subscriber Routing Number) : MSRN is used during
mobile terminate trunk call to provide location of mobile subscriber.
3. HON ( Hand Over Number ) : HON is used for providing information
required to transfer call from one B?SC to another BSC or to another MSC.
4. ISMI ( International Mobile Subscriber Identity Number) : Purpose of
ISMI is for location update and authentication.
5. TMSI ( Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity ) : TMSI is used instead of
IMSI to improve security efficiency of network.
6. IMEI : International Mobile Equipment Identity.

16. What are the functions of Base Station System ( BSS)?

Functions of BSS are as follows :

1. Radio path control.
2. BTS and TC control.
3. Connection establishment with MS-NSS.
4. Mobility management, speech transcoding.
5. Connection of statistical data.

17. What are the parts of Network Management System ( NMS )?

Following are the parts of network management system :

1. OMC : Operation and maintenance center - Computerized monitoring
center.
2. NMC : Network Management Center - Centralized control of a network is
done here.
3. OSS : Operation and support system - Used for supporting activities
performed in an OMC and/or NMC.
18. What are applications of DSP?

Some selected applications or digital signal processing that are often

encountered in daily life are listed as follows:
1. Telecommunication: Echo cancellation in telephone networks.
2. Military Radar signal processing
3. Consumer electronics Digital Audio/TV
4. Instrumentation and control
5. Image processing image representation, image compression
6. Speech processing speech analysis methods are used in automatic
speech recognition
7. Medicine Medical diagnostic instrumentation such as computerised
tomography (CT)
8. Seismology DSP techniques are employed in geophysical exploration for
oil and gas.
9. Signal Filtering Removal of unwanted background noise.

19. What is analog-to-digital conversion of signals?

A discrete-time signal is defined by specifying its value only at discrete

times, called sampling instants. When the sampled values are quantised
and encoded, a digital signal is obtained. A digital signal is obtained from
the analog signal by using an analog-to-digital converter. This entire
process is referred to as the conversion of signals from analog to digital
form.

20. What are the properties of ROC for z-Transform?

Properties of the ROC for the z-Transform :

1. X(z) converges uniformly if and only if the ROC of the z-transform X(z) of
the sequence includes the unit circle. The ROC of X(z) consists of a ring in
the z-plane centered about the origin. That is, the ROC of the z-transform
of x(n) has values of z for which x(n) r-n is absolutely summable.
2. The ROC does not contain any poles.
3. When x(n) is of finite duration then the ROC is the entire z-plane, except
possibly z=0 and/or z=infinity.
4. If x(n) is a right sided sequence, the ROC will not include infinity.
5. If x(n) is a left sided sequence, the ROC will not include z=0. However if
x(n)=0 for all n>0, the ROC will include z=0.
6. If x(n) is two sided and if the circle |z| = r0 is in the ROC, then the ROC
will consist of a ring in the z-plane that includes the circle |z|=r0.
7. If X(z) is rational, then the ROC extends to infinity, i.e. the ROC is
bounded by poles.
8. If x(n) is causal, then the ROC includes z=infinity.
9. If x(n) is anti- causal, trhen the ROC includes z=0.

DIGITAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Ques 1. Explain about setup time and hold time, what will happen if
there is setup time and hold tine violation, how to overcome this?
Ans. For Synchronous flip-flops, we have special requirements for the inputs
with respect to clock signal input there are Setup Time: Minimum time Period
during which data must be stable before the clock makes a valid transition.
E.g. for a positive edge triggered flip-flop having a setup time of 2ns so input
data should be Stable for 2ns before the clock makes a valid transaction
from zero to one.
Hold Time: Minimum time period during which data must be stable after the
clock has made a valid transition. E.g. for a posedge triggered flip-flop, with
a hold time of 1 ns. Input Data (i.e. R and S in the case of RS flip-flop) should
be stable for at least 1 ns after clock has made transition from 0 to 1 Hold
time is the amount of time after the clock edge that same input signal has to
be held before changing it to make sure it is sensed properly at the clock
edge. Whenever there are setup and hold time violations in any flip-flop, it
enters a state where its output is unpredictable: this state is known as
metastable state (quasi stable state); at the end of metastable state, the flip-
flop settles down to either 1 or 0. This whole process is known as
metastability
Ques 2. What is difference between latch and flip-flop?
Ans. The main difference between latch and FF is that latches are level
sensitive while FF is edge sensitive. They both require the use of clock signal
and are used in sequential logic. For a latch, the output tracks the input when
the clock signal is high, so as long as the clock is logic 1, the output can
change if the input also changes. FF on the other hand, will store the input
only
when there is a rising/falling edge of the clock. Latch is sensitive to glitches
on enable pin, whereas flip-flop is immune to glitches. Latches take fewer
gates (also less power) to implement than flip-flops. Latches are faster than
flip-flops.
Ques 3 Given only two xor gates one must function as buffer and
another as inverter?
Ans Tie one of xor gates input to 1 it will act as inverter. Tie one of xor gates
input to 0 it will act as buffer.
Ques 4 Difference between Mealy and Moore state machine?
Ans Mealy and Moore models are the basic models of state machines. A
state machine which uses only Entry Actions, so that its output depends on
the state, is called a Moore model. A state machine which uses only Input
Actions, so that the output depends on the state and also on inputs, is called
a Mealy model. The models selected will influence a design but there are no
general indications as to which model is better. Choice of a model depends
on the application, execution means (for instance, hardware systems are
usually best realized as Moore models) and personal preferences of a
designer or programmer. Mealy machine has outputs that depend on the
state and input (thus, the FSM has the output written on edges) Moore
machine has outputs that depend on state only (thus, the FSM has the output
written in the state itself.
Advantages and Disadvantages
In Mealy as the output variable is a function both input and state, changes of
state of the state variables will be delayed with respect to changes of signal
level in the input variables, there are possibilities of glitches appearing in the
output variables. Moore overcomes glitches as output dependent on only
states and not the input signal level. All of the concepts can be applied to
Moore-model state machines because any Moore state machine can be
implemented as
a Mealy state machine, although the converse is not true. Moore machine:
the outputs are properties of states themselves which means that you get
the output after the machine
reaches a particular state, or to get some output your machine has to be
taken to a state which provides you the output. The outputs are held until you
go to some other state Mealy machine:
Mealy machines give you outputs instantly, that is immediately upon
receiving input, but the output is not held after that clock cycle.
Ques 5 Difference between one hot and binary encoding?
Ans. Common classifications used to describe the state encoding of an FSM
are Binary (or highly encoded) and One hot.A binary-encoded FSM design
only requires as many flip-flops as are needed to uniquely encode the
number of states in the state machine. The actual number of flip-flops
required is equal to the ceiling of the log-base-2 of the number of states in
the FSM.A one hot FSM design requires a flip-flop for each state in the
design and only one flip-flop (the flip-flop
representing the current or hot state) is set at a time in a one hot FSM
design. For a state machine with 9- 16 states, a binary FSM only requires 4
flip-flops while a one hot FSM requires a flip-flop for each state in the design
FPGA vendors frequently recommend using a one hot state encoding style
because flip-flops are plentiful in an FPGA and the combinational logic
required to implement a one hot FSM design is typically smaller than most
binary encoding styles.
Since FPGA performance is typically related to the combinational logic size
of the FPGA design, one hot FSMs typically run faster than a binary encoded
FSM with larger combinational logic blocks
Ques 6 How to achieve 180 degree exact phase shift?
Ans.
a) DCM an inbuilt resource in most of FPGA can be configured to get 180
degree phase shift.
b) BUFGDS that is differential signaling buffers which are also inbuilt
resource of most of FPGA can be used. Digital Electronics Solved Questions
Ques 7 What is significance of RAS and CAS in SDRAM?
Ans. SDRAM receives its address command in two address words. It uses
a multiplex scheme to save input pins. The first address word is latched into
the DRAM chip with the row address strobe (RAS). Following the RAS
command is the column address strobe (CAS) for latching the second
address word. Shortly after the RAS and CAS strobes, the stored data is
valid for reading.
Ques 8 Tell some of applications of buffer?
Ans. a) They are used to introduce small delays.
b) They are used to eliminate cross talk caused due to inter electrode
capacitance due to close routing.
c) They are used to support high fan-out, e.g.: bufg
9) Give two ways of converting a two input NAND gate to an inverter?
a) Short the 2 inputs of the NAND gate and apply the single input to it.
b) Connect the output to one of the input and the other to the input signal.
Ques 10. Why is most interrupts active low?
Ans. This answers why most signals are active low if you consider the
transistor level of a module, active low means the capacitor in the output
terminal gets charged or discharged based on low to high and high to low
transition respectively. When it goes from high to low it depends on the
pull down resistor that pulls it down and it is relatively easy for the output
capacitance to discharge rather than charging. Hence people prefer using
active low signals.

Electronics Interview Questions

609916

1. What is Electronic?
The study and use of electrical devices that operate by controlling the flow of electrons or
other electrically charged particles.

2. What is communication?
Communication means transferring a signal from the transmitter which passes through a
medium then the output is obtained at the receiver. (or)communication says as transferring
of message from one place to another place called communication.

3. Different types of communications? Explain.

Analog and digital communication.
As a technology, analog is the process of taking an audio or video signal (the human voice)
and translating it into electronic pulses. Digital on the other hand is breaking the signal into
a binary format where the audio or video data is represented by a series of "1"s and "0"s.
Digital signals are immune to noise, quality of transmission and reception is good,
components used in digital communication can be produced with high precision and power
consumption is also very less when compared with analog signals.

4. What is sampling?
The process of obtaining a set of samples from a continuous function of time x(t) is referred
to as sampling.

5. State sampling theorem.

It states that, while taking the samples of a continuous signal, it has to be taken care that
the sampling rate is equal to or greater than twice the cut off frequency and the minimum
sampling rate is known as the Nyquist rate.

6. What is cut-off frequency?

The frequency at which the response is -3dB with respect to the maximum response.
7. What is pass band?
Passband is the range of frequencies or wavelengths that can pass through a filter without
being attenuated.

8. What is stop band?

A stopband is a band of frequencies, between specified limits, in which a circuit, such as a
filter or telephone circuit, does not let signals through, or the attenuation is above the
required stopband attenuation level.

9. Explain RF?
Radio frequency (RF) is a frequency or rate of oscillation within the range of about 3 Hz to
300 GHz. This range corresponds to frequency of alternating current electrical signals used
to produce and detect radio waves. Since most of this range is beyond the vibration rate
that most mechanical systems can respond to, RF usually refers to oscillations in electrical
circuits or electromagnetic radiation.

10. What is modulation? And where it is utilized?

Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic of a periodic wave with an external
signals.
Radio communication superimposes this information bearing signal onto a carrier signal.
These high frequency carrier signals can be transmitted over the air easily and are capable
of travelling long distances.
The characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of the carrier signal are varied in
accordance with the information bearing signal.
Modulation is utilized to send an information bearing signal over long distances.

11. What is demodulation?

Demodulation is the act of removing the modulation from an analog signal to get the
original baseband signal back. Demodulating is necessary because the receiver system
receives a modulated signal with specific characteristics and it needs to turn it to base-
band.

12. Name the modulation techniques.

For Analog modulation--AM, SSB, FM, PM and SM
Digital modulation--OOK, FSK, ASK, Psk, QAM, MSK, CPM, PPM, TCM, OFDM

13. Explain AM and FM.

AM-Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier signal
is varied in accordance with the information bearing signal.
FM-Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier signal
is varied in accordance with the information bearing signal.

14. Where do we use AM and FM?

AM is used for video signals for example TV. Ranges from 535 to 1705 kHz.
FM is used for audio signals for example Radio. Ranges from 88 to 108 MHz.

15. What is a base station?

Base station is a radio receiver/transmitter that serves as the hub of the local wireless
network, and may also be the gateway between a wired network and the wireless network.

16. How many satellites are required to cover the earth?

3 satellites are required to cover the entire earth, which is placed at 120 degree to each
other. The life span of the satellite is about 15 years.

17. What is a repeater?

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level
and/or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover
longer distances without degradation.

18. What is an Amplifier?

An electronic device or electrical circuit that is used to boost (amplify) the power, voltage or
current of an applied signal.

19. Example for negative feedback and positive feedback?

Example for ve feedback is ---Amplifiers And for +ve feedback is Oscillators

20. What is Oscillator?

An oscillator is a circuit that creates a waveform output from a direct current input. The two
main types of oscillator are harmonic and relaxation. The harmonic oscillators have smooth
curved waveforms, while relaxation oscillators have waveforms with sharp changes.

21. What is an Integrated Circuit?

An integrated circuit (IC), also called a microchip, is an electronic circuit etched onto a
silicon chip. Their main advantages are low cost, low power, high performance, and very
small size.

22. What is crosstalk?

Crosstalk is a form of interference caused by signals in nearby conductors. The most
common example is hearing an unwanted conversation on the telephone. Crosstalk can also
occur in radios, televisions, networking equipment, and even electric guitars.

23. What is resistor?

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that opposes an electric current by
producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in
accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR.

25. What is inductor?

An inductor is a passive electrical device employed in electrical circuits for its property of
inductance. An inductor can take many forms.

26. What is conductor?

A substance, body, or device that readily conducts heat, electricity, sound, etc. Copper is a
good conductor of electricity.

27. What is a semi conductor?

A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between that of a
conductor and that of an insulator(An Insulator is a material that resists the flow of electric
current. It is an object intended to support or separate electrical conductors without passing
current through itself); it can vary over that wide range either permanently or dynamically.

28. What is diode?

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal device. Diodes have two active electrodes between
which the signal of interest may flow, and most are used for their unidirectional current
property.

29. What is transistor?

In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch
electronic signals. The transistor is the fundamental building block of computers, and all
other modern electronic devices. Some transistors are packaged individually but most are
found in integrated circuits

30. What is op-amp?

An operational amplifier, often called an op-amp , is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic
voltage amplifier with differential inputs[1] and, usually, a single output. Typically the
output of the op-amp is controlled either by negative feedback, which largely determines
the magnitude of its output voltage gain, or by positive feedback, which facilitates
regenerative gain and oscillation.

31. What is a feedback?

Feedback is a process whereby some proportion of the output signal of a system is passed
(fed back) to the input. This is often used to control the dynamic behaviour of the system.

32. Advantages of negative feedback over positive feedback.

Much attention has been given by researchers to negative feedback processes, because
negative feedback processes lead systems towards equilibrium states. Positive feedback
reinforces a given tendency of a system and can lead a system away from equilibrium
states, possibly causing quite unexpected results.

33. What is Barkhausen criteria?

Barkhausen criteria, without which you will not know which conditions, are to be satisfied
for oscillations.
Oscillations will not be sustained if, at the oscillator frequency, the magnitude of the
product of the
transfer gain of the amplifier and the magnitude of the feedback factor of the feedback
network ( the magnitude of the loop gain ) are less than unity .
The condition of unity loop gain -A? = 1 is called the Barkhausen criterion. This condition
implies that
A?= 1and that the phase of - A? is zero.

34. What is CDMA, TDMA, FDMA?

Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method utilized by various radio
communication technologies. CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special
coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code) to allow multiple users to be
multiplexed over the same physical channel. By contrast, time division multiple access
(TDMA) divides access by time, while frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) divides it
by frequency.
An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people wish to
communicate with each other. To avoid confusion, people could take turns speaking (time
division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or speak in different directions
(spatial division). In CDMA, they would speak different languages. People speaking the
same language can understand each other, but not other people. Similarly, in radio CDMA,
each group of users is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same channel, but only
users associated with a particular code can understand each other.

35. explain different types of feedback

Types of feedback:
Negative feedback: This tends to reduce output (but in amplifiers, stabilizes and linearizes
operation). Negative feedback feeds part of a system's output, inverted, into the system's
input; generally with the result that fluctuations are attenuated.
Positive feedback: This tends to increase output. Positive feedback, sometimes referred to
as "cumulative causation", is a feedback loop system in which the system responds to
perturbation (A perturbation means a system, is an alteration of function, induced by
external or internal mechanisms) in the same direction as the perturbation. In contrast, a
system that responds to the perturbation in the opposite direction is called a negative
feedback system.
Bipolar feedback: which can either increase or decrease output.

36. What are the main divisions of power system?

The generating system,transmission system,and distribution system

37. What is Instrumentation Amplifier (IA) and what are all the advantages?
An instrumentation amplifier is a differential op-amp circuit providing high input impedances
with ease of gain adjustment by varying a single resistor.

38. What is meant by impedance diagram.

The equivalent circuit of all the components of the power system are drawn and they are
interconnected is called impedance diagram.

39. What is the need for load flow study.

The load flow study of a power system is essential to decide the best operation existing
system and for planning the future expansion of the system. It is also essential for
designing the power system.

40. What is the need for base values?

The components of power system may operate at different voltage and power levels. It will
be convenient for analysis of power system if the voltage, power, current ratings of the
components of the power system is expressed with referance to a common value called
base value.
 Analog Communication
1. What is Sampling? What is Sampling Theorem?
Ans: Sampling is defined as the process in which an analog signals are converted into digital signals. It means that a
continuous time signal is converted into a discrete time signal.

Analog Communication notes

Sampling Theorem is defined as : The continuous time signal that can be represented in its samples and recovered
back if the sampling frequency (fs) is greater than the maximum frequency of the signal (fm) that is fs >2fm.
2. Define PAM and write down its drawbacks?
Ans: Pulse Amplitude Modulation is the process by which the amplitude of the regularly spaced pulses varies
according to the the amplitude of the modulating signal.
The drawbacks are:
a. Since the amplitude of the pulses varies therefore the peak power of the modulating s/g is much greater.
b. The bandwidth required for transmitting is greater since the amplitude varies.
3. What is Modulation? What happens in over modulation?
Ans: Modulation is defined as the process in which some characteristics of the signal called carrier is varied according
to the modulating or baseband signal. For example Amplitude Modulation, Phase Modulation, Frequency Modulation.
In case of over modulation, the modulation index is greater than one and envelope distortion occurs.
4. What do you mean by Nyquist rate?
Ans: In case of Nyquist rate, the sampling frequency is equal to the maximum frequency of the signal and therefore
the successive cycles of the spectrum does not overlap.
5. What do you mean by FM and classify FM?
Ans: Frequency Modulation can be defined as the frequency of the carrier (wc) is varied acc. to the modulating signal
about an unmodulated frequency.
FM are of 2 types:
a. Narrowband FM
b. Wideband FM
6. What is under sampling?
Ans: Under sampling is also known as aliasing effect in which the the sampling frequency is less than the
maximum frequency of the signal and therefore the successive cycles of the spectrum overlap.
7. State the advantages of superheterodyning?
Ans: The advantages are:
a. High selectivity and sensitivity.
b. No change in Bandwidth that is bandwidth remains same all over the operating range.
c. High adjacent channel rejection.
8. What is multiplexing? Name the types of multiplexing?
Ans: Multiplexing is defined as the process in which a number of message signals are combined together to form
composite signals so that they can be transmitted through the common channel.
The two types of multiplexing are:
a. Frequency Division Multiplexing: In this technique, fixed frequency bands are allotted to every user in the complete
channel bandwidth. Such frequency is allotted to user on a continuous basis.
b. Time Division Multiplexing: When the pulse is present for the short time duration and most of the time their is no
signal present in-between them than this free space between the two pulses can occupied by the pulses from other
channels. This is known as Time Division Multiplexing.
9. What is Amplitude Modulation?
Ans: Amplitude Modulation is defined as the process in which the instantaneous value of the amplitude of the carrier
is varied according to the amplitude of the modulating or base band signal.
10. How can be aliasing be avoided?
Ans: Aliasing can be avoided if:
a. Sampling frequency must be greater than the frequency of the modulating signal.
b. The frequency should be band limited to maximum frequency of the signal(fm) Htz.
c. If pre-alias filter is used.