Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MAGIC MUSHROOMS
Around the World
Nobody knows precisely when the first magic A quasi-cannibalistic ritual, the act of eating the
mushroom emerged from the shadows of children of the gods unlocked one's power to
prehistory to enter the light of consciousness. experience the truly divine. But not all
mushrooms enable human beings to enter the
Nobody knows when the first magic mushroom realm of divine consciousness. This magic power
was eaten by a human being. Nobody knows resides in only those fungi known as "fool's
just who the first magic mushroom eater was. In mushrooms", which were considered poisonous
seeking answers to these questions, we can only and believed to be the spawn of the Devil
speculate. Mycophobes, however, are quick to throughout the late Middle Ages and well into
voice their conviction that only a fool would be modern times.
reckless enough to want to attain a higher state
of consciousness beyond the boundaries of
everyday reality. And only a fool would attempt The New World: The Aztecs in Mexico
to do this by ingesting those odd little things that referred to a number of small, inconspicuous
mysteriously thrive on decaying, humid soil, mushrooms as teonartacatl, or "flesh of the
Gods." These sacred mushrooms were eaten
rotten wood and malodorous mounds of cow during the course of rituals intended to contact
manure.
the Gods in order to learn about the world and the
Historically, magic, mushrooms have realm of the divine. These magic mushroom
been feared and hated` since antiquity: magic rituals thoroughly spooked the Catholic
mushrooms were thought to be made from Spaniards. The mushroom eaters, commonly
poisons that had dripped from serpents' fangs; thought of as Devil worshippers, were hounded
they were considered to be unclean emissions of by the Inquisition. Still, all good things survive
evil spirits; moreover, mushrooms were a known the tests of time, so the cult of magic mushroom
cause of death and disease, bloated stomachs and eaters did not become extinct. Like mycelia
insanity. Beliefs such as these have survived to underground, the cult continued to flourish, and
at the proper time in recorded history, in 1957,
the present day. They persist, for example,,, as the fruit of the fully grown mushroom re-surfaced
figures of sp eech, s u c h as the slick Austrian to draw widespread public attention. Valentine
description of a societal misfit as someone "who and Gordon Wasson became the heroes of the
ate those madness-inducing mushrooms." modern neo-mycophilic movement.
But, there is another, very different,
magic mushroom legacy as well.
Christian Rdtsch
When R.G. Wasson, R. Heim and A. new findings from the fields of mycology,
Hofmann began their interdisciplinary research taxonomy and natural products chemistry.
program to study the Mexican species of Wasson and his successors have already provided
mushrooms and their usage in Mexican detailed accounts pertaining to the history and
mushroom cults, their efforts culminated in a study of the Mexican mushroom species, so that
1958 landmark report that described the isolation, these materials need not be repeated in this
molecular structure and synthesis of the context. However, certain aspects concerning the
mushrooms' active ingredients: psilocybin and more recent uses of these mushrooms as well as
psilocin. Several years later, these substances their conditions of growth will receive more
were also identified in a species of mushroom in detailed attention in later chapters.
Europe, Psilocybe semilanceata, which became the The main purpose of this book is to
first in a series of newly discovered species. Since inspire further study of these mushrooms,
then, psychoactive mushrooms from other genera particularly basic research efforts and medical
have been reported with increasing frequency. applications of magic mushroom ingredients.
As part of my analytical work dedicated The extensive bibliography will help
to the identification of naturally occurring scientists and other interested mycophiles to
chemicals, I had the good fortune to be part of a further immerse themselves in this complex area
research team that studied alkaloids found in a of study.
variety of mushroom species. Now I believe the
time has come for a comprehensive review of
Jochen Gartz
EUROPEAN SPECIES
Figure 7 - Distribution pattern of Psilocybe cyanescens across Europe and North Africa
(according to Krieglsteiner). Black dots indicate approximate locations where Psilocybe
cyanescens was found.
Mr. E Branl, on a poisonous Species of Agaric
To the Editors of,,t h e M e d i c a l a n d P h y s i c a l J o u r n a l .
Ge n t l e m e n ,
* This accuracy may seem trivial, but I have met with people who
supported the following symptoms might have arisen from the use of
a copper vessel.
Listen Well to this Frightful Story from St. mushroom species responsible for the poisoning
James's Green Park.... case described by Brande (see p. 17). Within the
context of Sowerby's book, only the variety of
About 200 years ago, E. Brande published mushrooms distinguished by their cone-shaped
an account about a remarkable case of mushroom caps were believed to cause intoxication. Figure
intoxication in London. On October 3, 1799 an 9 shows a typical rendition of Psilocybe
impoverished family picked some mushrooms in St. semilanceata. This mushroom species was
James's Green Park and prepared them for a meal known to Sowerby's contemporaries as
(see Figure 8, p. 15). "Agaricus glutinosus Curtis" and its descriptions
Shortly after eating the mushrooms, the are fully compatible with current knowledge
father and his four children developed symptoms of about Psilocybe semilanceata.
intoxication, such as markedly dilated pupils, A few years later, renowned Swedish
spontaneous laughter and delirium. The progression mycologist E. Fries referred to "Agaricus
of symptoms was experienced as wave-like, with semilanceatus" in his book entitled "Obser-
cycles of increasing and fading intensity. In vationes Mycologicae" (1818). Later on, the
addition, the father's visual perception was affected same mushroom also appeared under the names
so that everything around him appeared to be black Coprinarius semilanceatus Fr. or Panaeolus
- a frightening experience he believed to presage his semilanceatus (Fr.) Lge. Not until 1870 did
impending death. Kummer and Quelet classify this mushroom as
Even though two family members (ages 12 a member of the genus Psilocybe.
and 18) consumed only small amounts of the Consequently, two valid designations may be
cooked mushrooms, the ensuing symptoms of found in the literature:
intoxication were no different from those observed -- Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr.) Kumm. or --
in family members who had eaten comparatively -- Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr.) Quel.
larger portions. After several hours, the psychic and
perceptual disturbances subsided and finally
disappeared, without any lingering side effects. Around 1900, M. C. Cooke reported two or
Attempts to treat acute symptoms included three new instances of accidental mushroom
administration of emetics and fortifying tonics. In intoxication involving children in England.
the end, these potions were heralded as the crucial Interestingly, Cooke noted that symptoms were
treatment that "cured" the family. caused only by a variety of mushroom known to
For the most part it is extremely difficult, if turn blue (var. caerulescens). He
not impossible, to assemble complete and accurate was the first mycologist to wonder if a bluing
details on many aspects of magic mushroom history variety of this species was poisonous, or if the
from source materials available today. Thus, it is an bluish color was induced by external factors,
instance of rare good fortune and a boon to causing changes in the mushroom's chemical
mushroom historians that E. Brande's description of composition so as to render them poisonous.
a typical psilocybin syndrome was augmented by J. Early Descriptions
Sowerby, author of "Coloured Figures of English
Fungi or Mushrooms" (London, 1803). Sowerby's A close relative of Mexico's
book included a rendition and description of the psychoactive species, Psilocybe semilanceata is
a mushroom whose physical appearance
resembles Psilocybe semperviva Heim &
Cailleux and Psilocybe
Stalks generally single, sometimes clustered, from two to four inches in
height, the thickness of a goose quill, thread shaped whitish almost solid, the
tube being very small, glutinous; ring, a little below the cap, scarce
perceptible.
Cap, from one to two inches in breadth, of a brown color; in the full. grown
ones hemispherical, always convex, and more or lets glutinous; wet with
rain, it becomes browner and transparent,'so that it sometimes appears
striated.
Gills numerous, single, of a brownish purple color, clouded; whole ones
about twenty, horizontal, three shorter ones placed betwixt them; they throw
out a powder of a brownish purple color."
With respect to the use of it, he only says, There is nothing acrimonious or
disagreeable in its taste, yet its appearance will not recommend it to the
lovers of mushrooms."
The cap is uniformly conic to bell-shaped, with a pointy or obtuse center forming
an almost wart-like protrusion; initially, caps are often taller than they are wide, margins
are bent and curved inward; later on, width of cap is 1.5-4 cm. Hygrophanous; coloration
is a dirtyish olive-brown when wet, with translucent striate margins; at the center,
coloration is ocher or greenish-yellow against an overall shade of smudgy pale yellow and
oftentimes some greenish stains; only the margins are banded by a darkcolored, watery
stripe around the edge. No stripes or banding evident when mushrooms are completely
dried. Lacking a veil, caps are thin-fleshed, bald, with an easily separable pellicle that
remains gelatinous-sticky for a long time, turning shiny when dry.
Gills are olive brown to blackish purple brown in color, with the edges often
remaining white, gill spacing is quite crowded; gill attachment is either roughly linear or
mostly adnexed; up to 3.5 mm wide; attached at the stem only, fully detached later on.
Spores are elongated to ellipitical in shape, smooth and large, measuring 12-16 u
by 6-8,u. Color of spore dust is blackish purple brown.
Stem is very slender, almost uniformly thin and always twisted, 6-12 cm long and
1.25-2 mm thick, yellowish or whitish in color; areas subjected to pressure develop bluish-
green stains. Stems are silky smooth and roughly at the center, cortinate fibrils appear like
remnants of a veil, which is brittle and lined with a white fibrous cord of wool-like
texture.
When dry, the flesh of the cap is colored pale yellow, while the stem's flesh is
ocher brown in color, especially towards the bottom. It is odorless and its flavor is mild.
The mushroom grows from August to October, frequently in gregarious clusters, and can
be found in pastures and along roadways, growing on dung that has undergone complete
decomposition. It is not a particularly rare species.
Figure 11(above) This excellent description of Psilocybe semilanceata by Michael & Schulz
(1927) is shown here as originally published in German, with an English translation.
Mycologists specialize in the study of Psilocybes, Psilocybe semilanceata does not grow in locations
despite the fact that Psilocybe semilanceata is the where artificial fertilizer has been used. Such
most common and conspicuous species among the pastures are often flanked by creeks or swamp
Psilocybes. Also, mushroom lovers whose lands, which saturate the soil with water. During the
interests are not purely scientific (see Chapter 7.4) summertime, the warm climate in these wet areas
do not usually preserve their knowledge for provides an excellent environment for optimal
posterity in the form of distribution maps. mycelial growth. In Germany, the mushroom's
However, there is one map from 1986, which habitat ranges from the coastal areas to
shows the distribution pattern of Psilocybe mountainous regions, where the species has been
semilanceata across Germany (see Figure 20, p. found at altitudes of up to 1,720 m (5,160 ft) above
28). sea level (MTB-8443, 1985). In the former
Almost no published information is available Czechoslovakia, samples have been collected at
about locations where Psilocybe species have altitudes ranging from 330 to 1,000 m (1,000 -
been found in eastern Germany. During my own 3,000 ft), with one location at 1,400 m (4,200 ft)
field trips, I have discovered Psilocybe above sea level. According to these distribution
semilanceata specimens in various locations, such patterns, the species does not appear to favor a
as near my hometown of Mansfeld in the Vorharz specific altitude. As of 1986, 44 locations in the
Mountains, in the marshlands of Duben as well as former Czechoslovakia had been logged, yielding a
in other eastern German marshland areas. In total of 54 samples. In contrast to other mushroom
addition, friends who are also mycologists have species, such as the cultivated commercial white
told me about finding the mushrooms in other mushrooms (Agaricus bisporis), Psilocybe
parts of the country. A book published in 1952 is semilanceata will fruit in a comparatively much
among the rare sources that includes details about wider range of temperatures.
specimens discovered in the southeastern state of While Psilocybe semilanceata is common
Saxony (see Figure 16, p. 23). throughout Germany, the species does not appear to
The Psilocybe species grow most favor specific areas where it occurs in marked
abundantly on wet pastures surrounded by forest abundance or density. One obvious limitation on the
areas. In my experience, Psilocybe semilanceata growth of the species is the limited presence of
grows in most of Germany's forestlands. The fertilizer in areas that would otherwise be excellent
species fruits during the fall, from late September locations for the mushroom to thrive in. Most likely
through October. It favors acidic soil and grassy that is why the species has not expanded into new
terrain alongside trails or around the edges of habitats in Germany over the last few decades.
forest lands. Specimens are generally clustered in Descriptions of frequency of occurrence in the older
small groups of 30 mushrooms or less. Deer literature are comparable to contemporary
droppings or other animal feces are usually observations.
present at those locations, even though the On occasion, however, Psilocybe
mushrooms never grow directly on top of dung. semilanceata can produce a huge number of fruiting
Occasionally, extremely stunted specimens may bodies at certain locations where conditions for
be found in the mountains by the side of the road. growth are excellent.
The soil below older cow pastures provides
an excellent medium for extensive mycelial Between a Creek and a Marshlands Pond....
growth. In some locations, large areas yield an
abundance of fruiting bodies, mirroring the extent 8'/2 Inches Tall !
of mycelial saturation in the soil. Given adequate
moisture, maximum yields can be expected, if the At this point, I would like to provide some
pasture was grazed at least once during the weeks more details about two marshlands locations, where
before fruiting season. However, the mushrooms we have conducted mycological field research over
also thrive under similar conditions on horse and the course of several years.
sheep pastures. Such grassy areas inside forests At the first location, the fruiting bodies
are usually grazing areas for deer, who provide grew in a shallow grass valley among very tall grass
the soil with additional fertilization. However, on slightly acidic soil. This grassy area was
a forest clearing between a creek and a marshlands Psilocybe semilanceata is the blue discoloration
pond. In areas exposed to direct sunlight, of parts of the cap and the lower half of the stem,
temperatures were significantly higher than they While the degree of discoloration is relatively
were in surrounding areas, a phenomenon that minor, it is particularly noticeable when the
persisted during the fall season. Deer droppings mushrooms are wet. Fruiting bodies that are old
contributed to frequent fertilization of the area. The and wet may spontaneously develop transparent,
fruiting bodies from the first batch of mushrooms blue stains across their caps. On the other hand,
found in this location had stems of up to 81/2 in.[!] discoloration of the stems does not set in until the
(21.5 cm) tall, due to very tall grass in the area. The fruiting bodies have been separated from the
caps of the mushrooms were so tiny, that clear mycelia for about 30 to 60 minutes. Even in areas
identification of the species as Psilocybe of abundant harvests, I have always found
semilanceata was not immediately possible. Even mushrooms with bluish-green discolorations
though a bluing reaction was present, alongside others that lacked this characteristic.
chromatography testing was needed to confirm the During the drying process, the blue coloration is
species. Subsequent discoveries, however, yielded preserved, even though some fading may occur.
samples that could be identified on the spot based The historic descriptions of Psilocybe
on their morphological characteristics. We were semilanceata cited above are so detailed that I
able to collect 30 to 60 specimens at this location cannot add any of better quality. In spite of many
every fall for three consecutive years. opinions in the literature to the contrary, there is a
Unfortunately, the location was destroyed soon noticeable odor that emanates from damp fruiting
afterwards, due to man-made modifications to the bodies that have been opened. This odor is similar
marshlands and construction of an access road. to, but weaker than the one associated with
During the same year, we discovered a Psilocybe bohemica, which is often described as
second location within about half a mile of the first reminiscent of radishes or poppies, but as
one. The area was very large, a former cow pasture generally not unpleasant (also see Chapter 3.2).
which had been grazed regularly. It was located In addition, the mushrooms have another
next to a creek that saturated the soil completely. special attribute that rarely occurs in other
Today, sheep occasionally graze the area and deer species. Under the light of a quartz lamp,
droppings are commonly found in the grass. Here, Psilocybe semilanceata specimens turn
Psilocybe semilanceata fruits in abundance. Each fluorescent. The substance responsible for this
fall season, the pasture is covered with hundreds of phenomenon, however, has not yet been
fruiting bodies (see Figure 15, p. 23). identified.
For three years, we returned to the area
three times each fall, and harvested a total of 2,800 Accounts of Impressive Experiences
mushrooms (ca. 140 g or 5 oz dry weight) at the Psilocybe semilanceata is quite likely the
location. While some of the fruiting bodies could most potently psychoactive mushroom among the
be spotted easily on the grassy soil (see Figure 17) European species. The impressive nature and
the vast majority of the specimens were usually rapid onset of the effects are reflected in the
concealed inside clumps of grass (see Figure 18). description of an intoxication from England cited
When the weather is dry, Psilocybe above. These elements are also part of the
semilanceata is an easily recognizable species. The following account, which details a mycologist's
fruiting bodies are extremely hygrophanous, which first self-experiment:
is why the color of the caps changes to a dark olive After ingesting 1.3 g (less than one-
black-brown when the mushrooms are wet. Only a sixteenth of an ounce) of dried and pulverized
close inspection of the gills and the crooked stems mushrooms (30 mushrooms total) in water on an
enabled us to differentiate the wet mushrooms from empty stomach, 20 minutes passed before the
the Panaeolus species (see Chapter 3.3). Like many sudden onset of hallucinatory effects, including a
other psychotropic mushroom species, a crucial heavy flow of tears. The apparitions are best
characteristic of described as a conjunction of visions and
Figure 17 - Psilocybe semilanceata on grassy soil.
At least one other Psilocybe species in different herbariums. However, the microscopic
addition to Psilocybe semilanceata is known to data pertaining to the Psilocybe species are poorly
exist in Europe. At this point, I must emphasize delineated and oftentimes overlap. It is therefore
that the differentiation of single species within imperative that additional mycological studies of
the Psilocybe genus is subject to considerable Psilocybe cyanescens be performed. To this end,
controversy among eminent taxonomists. For fresh mushroom samples from various European
example, there are different methods of locations should be used, and biochemical methods
distinguishing the Hypholoma genus from the must be included in the investigation. Guzman's
Stropharia genus. division of Psilocybe cyanescens by geographic
area, however, definitely turned out to be
inaccurate. According to his system, -North Africa
The Widespread Distribution was home to Psilocybe mairei, while Psilocybe
of Psilocybe cyanescens cyanescens were found in England and Holland and
Psilocybe serbica supposedly grew in Serbia and
While Psilocybe semilanceata is a species Bohemia. The geographic distribution of the entire
that has long been clearly defined and is well species seems to cover a vast area, with variations
known by this name, there are, according to along climate and terrain at locations where samples
Krieglsteiner, other strongly bluing mushrooms were collected. Such disparate morphologies are to
that can be described as belonging to the be expected when dealing with "young" species,
"Psilocybe cyanescens complex". These are all that is, species that have not yet firmly established
mushrooms that grow on raw compost and plant themselves and are still expanding into new
debris. locations.
In accordance with current states of Figure 7 (p. 14) displays locations in
knowledge, the following names in the literature Europe and North Africa where samples of
are merely synonyms for Psilocybe cyanescens Psilocybe cyanescens have been found.
Wakefield emend. Krieglsteiner:
Figure 23
Distribution pattern of Psilocybe
cyanescens in Germany and adjacent areas
(according to Krieglsteiner). Locations are
indicated by black dots.
Figure 24 - Psilocybe cyanescens at a natural location (USA).
On June 15, 1965, 1. Ferencz discovered expert mycologists. The species are part of a
fruiting bodies known as "fibrehead mushrooms" in large group of mushrooms that are nicknamed
Osca, Hungary, county of Pest. The mushrooms' "LBMs" (Little Brown Mushrooms) in the
characteristics did not match those of any known American literature and as such they often entail
species of the genus Inocybe, as described in the considerable taxonomic problems. Other ex-
literature. That same year, as well as on several amples of mushrooms in this group are the
occasions later on, Ferencz and other mycologists Panaeolus species as well as those of the genus
found large numbers of mushrooms of the same Psilocybe.
species growing in different locations. Eventually, Whenever a "new mushroom" appears
in 1968, these mushrooms were described as a new spontaneously, the question of its origin has to
species named Inocybe aeruginascens Babos (see be addressed. Herink, the Czech mycologist,
Figure 33, p. 47). maintains that he had already discovered the
species during the 1930s. He reportedly
deposited samples in a herbarium, but the
mushrooms have never been clearly identified as
Strange Distribution Patterns in Inocybe aeruginascens on the basis of
Hungary and Germany biochemical analyses. As fruiting bodies of the
Inocybe aeruginascens were found
In 1985, a few mycologists who simultaneously in Hungary and Germany, the
specialized in the study of the genus Inocybe found direction of the species' geographical migration
fibreheads with greenish discolorations in 17 could not be determined. It is possible
locations (46 specimens) across Hungary. In her that the species was initially confined to a very
1983 article, Babos noted that Inocybe small area and only began to attract attention
aeruginascens had become the most common after it had migrated into new habitats. We can
mushroom of the Lower Valley's sandy areas only speculate about the possibility of mutations
around the Hungarian capital city of Budapest. The that may have evolved from known species over
species is known to fruit across these areas, singly a relatively short period of time.
or in gregarious clusters on the sandy soil of the Finally, during the 1980s, a few fruiting
poplar forests, or in mixed forests that include bodies were collected at locations in Holland
poplars. They have also been found on meadows (1980) and the Rhone Valley (Wallis Canton) of
near poplar trees. The mushrooms are loyal to the Switzerland (1984).
location and grow there every year, climate In 1983, the species immediately
conditions permitting. attracted the attention of biochemists and
In 1975, Kaspar collected the Inocybe clinicians, after G. Drewitz described mysterious
species in Berlin (K6penick District) as well. More psychotropic intoxications caused by these
detailed studies revealed that the mushrooms had mushrooms in the city and district of Potsdam,
previously been misidentified. As early as 1965, Germany, during June and July, 1980. The
fruiting bodies of the species were found in the. observed range of effects was sensational for
arboretum at Berlin (Baumschulenweg District). mushrooms of the Inocybe genus, because many
The species had been noted "in passing" by other of its species induce typical muscarine poisoning
mycologists with little interest in the mushrooms. symptoms. Muscarine causes parasympathetico-
Many species (about 160) of the large European mimetic symptoms, such as pupil contraction
Inocybe genus cannot be easily differentiated from (miosis), increased salivation and saliva
each other, and therefore attract little interest from production. Muscarine has been identified in at
least 40 species of the Inocybe genus. The
first reports
about deaths following ingestion of the potent marked sense of intoxication that she described as
muscarine-containing Inocybe patouillardi Bres. "mostly amusing ". Spacial illusions were
date back to the early 20th century. experienced in combination with striking feelings of
weightlessness, distances appeared to be magnified.
After several hours, these symptoms gradually faded
Identification Errors without lasting consequences; only the dilation of
the pupils persisted well into the next day.
Below is a more detailed description of the Based on these cases, Drewitz proposed
effects of Inocybe aeruginascens: that the mushrooms contain psilocybin or similar
On June 30, 1980 a teenager collected the substances, a hypothesis that was later confirmed
mushrooms near Potsdam and misidentified them (see Tables 6 and 7, p. 49).
as fairy ring mushrooms (Marasmius oreades (Bolt. More cases of intoxications were reported
& Fr.) Fr.), a species known as a choice table in the years that followed and earlier cases could
mushroom. At home, the teenager's father sauteed also be traced to this mushroom species. In each of
the mushrooms in margarine, and they were these cases, the mushrooms were misidentified as
subsequently eaten by both of them. The son ate fairy ring mushrooms.
only about one-third of the cooked mushrooms.
About 35 to 45 minutes after the meal, both
father and son began to experience initial
symptoms. The son mainly reported colorful
illusions and hallucinations. The woven pattern of
TABLE 5
his white handkerchief suddenly appeared as
shining stripes of crimson red. With his eyes Accidental Intoxications with Inocybe
closed, he saw magically illuminated, abstract aeruginascens in Eastern Germany
structures. He noticed his own state of
foolish silliness that occurred for apparently no
reason at all. Following his father's Year # of People Location
instructions, he soon found himself outside, in the Hohen-
pouring rain, running back to a near-by railroad 1977 3
Neuendorf
embankment, still laughing and giggling, in order 1980 2 Teltow
to gather more of the mushrooms that had 1980 1 Potsdam
poisoned him. 1984 4 Oranienburg
1984 2 Magdeburg
The father's symptoms initially included
1985 3 Woltersdorf
yawning and a burning sensation of the face, as 1986 7 Potsdam
well as itching at the hairline and fatigue. He
then experienced increasing numbness
(paraesthesia) of the left half of his face and his
In all cases, the symptoms subsided after
left arm. Later on, these symptoms spread to the
several hours, with no lasting side effects. A
right half of his body. Fully conscious, he also
psychiatrist surely would have found these
noticed motor disturbances that disrupted his
situations interesting - especially the last case
language ability. His
involving an extended family - and would most
psyche was increasingly dominated by images of
likely have welcomed the opportunity to study the
depersonalization: For the duration of the
psychodynamics and social interactions during the
experience he felt that he "was standing beside
period of collective intoxication.
himself as an observer", while his voice sounded
In 1983, Babos reported another case of
very strange to him.
unintentional ingestion of Inocybe aeruginascens in
The second case of intoxication in Potsdam
Budapest, which had occurred on July 1, 1970. In
occurred on July 13, 1980:
this case, symptoms included subjective feelings of
Seventy-five minutes after ingestion of
decreasing gravity, colorful hallucinations, spacial
fibrehead mushrooms with greenish discolorations
illusions and nausea without vomiting.
(Inocvbe aeruginascens), the woman began to
experience hot flashes, nausea without vomiting,
strongly dilated pupils, along with a
roots of different deciduous trees (Populus, Tilia,
Flights of the Soul Quercus, Betula), on lawns in parks and gardens,
at the edges of trails and in the paved margin areas
In this context, the following account is of of tree-lined sidewalks (where they may even
interest; it details the experience of a mycologist grow on bare, sandy soil) as well as amongst the
who took 2.4 g of dried mushrooms in the course of greenery of residential areas in the suburbs and
a test experiment: communities in and around Berlin.
The mushrooms tasted like ordinary table Herein lies the most marked difference
mushrooms. While reclining in a state of relaxation between Inocybe aeruginascens and other
about 30 minutes later, a very comfortable feeling European psychotropic mushroom species:
of loss of gravity set in, with no other somatic Inocybe aeruginascens grows only in areas of
effects. Abstract hallucinations developed slowly, in human development. Their prime locations are in
the form of bursting colors and lights. Once a state the middle of villages and towns, where they grow
of complete loss of gravity was attained, it was locally much like other Inocybe species. They may
followed by a very vivid sensation of the soul in temporarily produce mass quantities of fruiting
flight, coupled with feelings of euphoria. When bodies, in those locations that are typical habitats
looking out the window into the dark night of a for the edible varieties of the fairy ring mushroom.
forest landscape, visions of strange patterns and So far, the most abundant crop of fruiting
formations occurred, which were deeply impressive bodies was observed in 1987, due to very wet
and seemed to impart an inkling of eternity. At the weather conditions, which allowed the mushrooms
end of four hours, the effects had dissipated without to thrive. The following years were comparatively
dysphoria or any type of somatic side effect. dry and the species hardly fruited at all. It wasn't
A control experiment for comparison until 1990 that a few mushrooms re-emerged at the
purposes was performed using 0.8 g of dried classic location in Potsdam. Despite 1989 having
Psilocybe semilanceata. The onset of symptoms was been a bad year for mushrooms, it was the year
much more sudden, including a heavy flow of tears, when Inocybe aeruginascens was found for the
so that there was an initial phase of anxiety. Only in first time at four locations in and around Rostock,
a later phase of the experience was it possible to a city located on the Eastern German coast, which
perceive ornaments in the form of "underwater is famous for its wet climate. Finding the
streamers", and to appreciate the aesthetically mushrooms at these locations is evidence for a
enhanced nature of these visions. much wider expansion of the species. In coming
The regular pattern of. involuntary years, we should expect the species to further
intoxications is a good indicator for the large scope migrate into areas with sandy soil.
of expansion of Inocybe aeruginascens into new The Inocybe species are mycorrhizal
habitats during the 1980s. For example, at the time mushrooms, that is, in contrast to other psilocybin-
of the initial intoxications - when the species was containing species, they require a symbiosis with
still restricted to a few easily quantifiable certain types of wood in order to fruit. Fruiting
collections - the mushrooms had spread from occurs at the time of greatest biochemical activity
Potsdam to the location known in 1982, and from of the symbiotic partner trees. Following periods
there moved on to several other locations in the of extended rainfall, Inocybe aeruginascens grows
vicinity, where more than 150 mushrooms were in the trees' root areas from late May until
found (see Figure 34). October. The mushrooms are especially common
in May and June, a time period during which
Inocybe aeruginascens is easily differentiated
Symbiosis With Trees from other species of fibreheads, as long as one
pays close attention to locations, the characteristic
Starting in late May 1984, fruiting bodies greenish to bluish discoloration (e.g. if the
of the species could be found in abundance at mushrooms are stored overnight, especially in the
countless new locations across the Brandenburg refrigerator) and the description shown below (see
region of Germany. They tend to grow near the Figure 32).
Figure 32 - Description of Inocybe aeruginascens (Germany, 1986) with English translation at right.
Another controversy documented in the literature The room seemed smaller, and the walls closer than
revolves around the psychoactivity of several usual. Objects were shimmering, and appeared
species of the genus Gymnopilus. yellow with dark areas in the center. The trees and
More than 50 years ago, in October 1942, a grass were a vivid green, with spots of radiant
remarkable case of intoxication occurred m purple. These sensations were not unpleasant.
Cleveland, Ohio, which was attributed to Pholiota Everything seemed to be unnaturally colored,
spectabilis. Today, these mushrooms have resembling the image of a color TV. Even though he
been identified as Gymnopilus spectabilis (Fr.)A.H. was unable to collect his thoughts, his mind felt sharp
Smith (USA). In Europe, they are also Known as and clear: he asked himself questions and
Gymnopilus junonius (Fr.) Orton. immediately knew the answers. By contrast, after
A woman had been out for a walk in the woods one having put down a book, he was unable to find it
afternoon and had taken a few nibbles from a again. After a few hours all three of the involuntary
mushroom that she found, feeling confident that she participants had recovered and were able to give a
could distinguish the edible from the poisonous ones. coherent account of their experience.
As soon as she lay down, she began to experience the In this case, the mushrooms involved were
most glorious visions of color and sounds of music, also identified as Pholiota spectabilis. This
but with no feelings of discomfort whatsoever. A identification is questionable, however, because
friend who was with her felt that a doctor should be the species is generally described as having an
called immediately. When she consulted me about extremely bitter taste. It was determined that there
her symptoms, I told her that certain mushrooms are are significantly more species of the genus
known to cause the symptoms she suffered. I Gymnopilus in North America (73) than there are in
added that these mushrooms were not classified as Europe (15).
poisonous, nor did the effects last very long.
called that same evening and said that the Mushrooms 24 Inches Tall!
hallucinations had soon passed and that she was
feeling perfectly normal again. She added that if this
Even though Gymnopilus junionius is one
was the way one was supposed to die of mushroom
of the largest-sized species of mushrooms (with
poisoning, she was all for it.
stems that have been observed to grow up to 24
Another case of poisoning was chronicled in
inches [60 cm] tall), there are no known European
Harvard, Massachusetts:
cases of intoxications caused by Gymnopilus
On September 9, 1966, at about 9 a.m., a 56~year-
species. The extremely bitter taste typical of some
old retired mechanical engineer of Harvard,
Gymnopilus species is an effective deterrent to
Massachusetts, picked a bunch of mushrooms
their ingestion as table mushrooms, anyway.
clustered by the side of the road in front of his house.
However, the cases of intoxication in the
Under the mistaken impression that they were honey
U.S. prompted Hatfield and his collaborators to
mushrooms (Armillaria mellea an edible species) he
perform phytochemical testing on some of these
tasted the fresh flesh and found them to be slightly
species. From 1968 to 1971 this group of
bitter However, he took them home, where his wife
investigators reported that eight species, including
washed them and fried them in butter. He ate
Gymnopilus junonius contained inactive
two or three caps around noon and within 15
styrylpyrones, such as bis-noryangonin. In the
minutes began to feel disconnected and "woozy" .
wake of yet another case of unintentional
head felt numb and his vision was blurred.
intoxication with Gymnopilus validipes in the U.S., The mushroom was initially classified as
the same research team was able to confirm that this Tricholomopsis rutilans (Schaeff.:Fr.) Sing.
species contained psilocybin (0.12%). They also However, this magnificent and beautiful
found the alkaloid in three other species, including mushroom was found to have spore dust
Gymnopilus spectabilis. colored orange to rusty brown, along with a
Still, similar analyses of European well-formed, bright yellow cortina. It also
Gymnopilus species continued to yield negative turned blue in reaction to pressure and with age.
results. Closer study revealed that the specimen was
It was only through a set of strange actually of the species Gymnopilus purpuratus,
circumstances that the presence of psilocybin and its a mushroom that, after a hundred years, had
derivatives was finally confirmed in European once again been imported into Europe. The
mushroom species of the genus Gymnopilus. microclimate essential for the mushroom's
As far back as May 1887, a new species of growth had been created by mixing liquid pig
mushroom was found growing on a tree fern trunk manure with the discarded wood chips. A
in the botanical gardens at Kew, England (also see powerful composting process results from
p. 30, bottom right). The discovery eventually led to pouring the liquid manure onto heaps that are
the publication of these mushrooms as a new species up to 20 yards long and several yards tall.The
named Flammula purpurata Cooke & Massee. In process is designed to eliminate both types of
this context, we must credit Mordecai Cooke (1825- refuse. Measurements inside the heaps revealed
1914), a mycologist of outstanding competence and temperatures of about 176 Fahrenheit.
expertise, who studied a vast number of mushrooms Consequently, the Gymnopilus species were
species, including Psilocybe semilanceata. He was able to thrive on the top layers of the heaps,
the first to formulate a hypothesis about the nature along with other species from Asian and South
of the bluing phenomenon and to point out its American countries with warm climates.
physiological significance ( also see p. 16, bottom There is, of course, the question of just
right). He discovered Inocybe haemacta as well as how the Gymnopilus species got to Europe in the
several Panaeolus species and classified the first place. In the late 1970s, large amounts of
Flammula species mentioned above. Remarkably, feed grain were imported from Argentina. Thus,
one of his first publications was a book of popular it appears likely that some mushroom spores may
folk tales entitled "The Seven Sisters of Sleep" have stuck to the grain from where they passed
(1860), which just happened to be an unharmed through the pigs' digestive systems and
interdisciplinary investigation of narcotic plants. Did went on to colonize the compost heaps.
he himself, perhaps, sample one of the psychotropic Even though the compost heaps are
mushroom species? Most likely, we will never know plowed at least twice a year and shipped as
the answer to this question. Eventually, the fertilizer to surrounding fields after about two
Flammula species came to be recognized as being years of storage, the mushrooms continue to grow
native to Australia and South America (Chile), on wood piles in new locations whenever its
where the mushrooms fruit on dead tree trunks spores have reproduced (see Figure 30, p. 40).
during the month of May. Later on the mushroom's However, in the wake of changes in economic
name was changed to Gymnopilus purpuratus conditions and growing ecological awareness in
(Cooke & Massee) Sing. Eastern Germany, it is likely that this composting
process will soon be discontinued so that this
mushroom species may disappear in Europe once
Mushrooms on Compost Mixture of again.
Wood Chips and Pig Manure The following description characterizes
the Gymnopilus species that does not have a
bitter taste:
In 1983, a conspicuous mushroom was Cap: 15-42 mm broad, occasionally
observed growing on discarded bark and wood chips larger sizes up to 20 cm in diameter. Flesh thin,
near a particle board factory in RibnitzDamgarten broadly convex without an umbo. Evenly covered
on the Eastern German seaboard. with pointy scales, purplish to ruby on yellow
background, dry. Margin inrolled at first,
incurved later, occasional blue stains. Table 8 illustrates the unstable nature of
the psilocin molecule: during the one-year storage
Gills: Close, golden yellow at first, time until analysis in 1988, much of the sample's
rusty yellow later on due to maturation of psilocin had already decayed.
spores, edges concolorous with lamellae and Alkaloid concentrations were found to be
bald. higher in smaller mushrooms, as shown in Table 8.
Stem: Not hollow, 6-10 mm x 30-80 Larger mushrooms contained about 0.1 % of both
mm, very rarely up to 15 cm tall, cylindrical psilocin and psilocybin. I am not aware of any
to slightly club-shaped, coarse fibrils, cases of accidental intoxication nor any self
striated, lower stem area and base bruise experiments involving Gymnopilus purpuratus.
grayish-blue to Greenish when injured and
with age, found alone or in clusters of up to
22 mushrooms. Intoxicating Potions of the
Cortina: Sulphur yellow, almost Yurimagua Indians
appendiculate along margin, fibrous at the
apex without forming a true annulus, In light of the discovery of psilocybin as an
disappears with age. active ingredient in a South American Gymnopilus
Basidia: Approximately 35 u long, club species, numerous historic accounts also appear in
a different light.
By 1969, Singer had noted that based on Jesuits of the 17th and early 18th centuries
analyses performed by Cassels in Chile, the who had travelled to the western Amazon (Peru)
mushroom contained an indole derivative and reported that the Yurimagua Indians habitually
that the species may be hallucinogenic prepared a potently intoxicating potion derived
because of the bluing reaction. By 1988, from a tree-dwelling mushroom. The mushrooms
reports from Germany also confirmed the appeared on fallen trees as a kind of reddish
presence of psilocybin in mushroom extracts growth with a spicy taste. The potion was said to
of the same species, as evidenced by the be so potent that nobody who swallowed three
results of thin-layer chromatography testing mouthfuls of the brew was able to resist its effects.
(qualitative detection only). That same year, The mushroom was considered to be Psilocybe
my own quantitative analyses of 26 yungensis Singer & Smith. However, since
mushrooms also revealed that psilocin and Gymnopilus species are reddish in color (see
baeocystin were present in all fruiting bodies description of Gymnopilus purpuratus, above) and
of the Gymnopilus species. So far, no other tend to colonize dense tree trunks, those strange
European species has been found to contain tree-dwelling mushrooms were most likely a
as much psilocin as Gymnopilus purpuratus: Gymnopilus species. The Psilocybe species, after
all, grow almost exclusively on wood sprigs and
tree bark debris. On only one exceptional occasion
did we discover a specimen of Psilocybe bohemica
TABLE 8 growing on a thoroughly rotted, wet tree trunk (see
p. 31, top right). Most likely, the reddishcolored
Alkaloid Content in Two Collections of tree-dwelling species was closely related to
Gymnopilus purpuratus (% of Dry Weight). Gymnopilus purpuratus. The discovery of
psilocybin in a mushroom of the Gymnopilus
species marked the first time this substance had
Mu sh ro om Psiloc ybin Psilocin Baeocystin ever been found in a member of the family
Sample Collected in 1988 Cortinariaceae.
The Inocybe species who were found to
1 0.29 0.28 0.05 contain psilocybin later on, are also members of
2 0.31 0.29 0.04 this family. Since the alkaloid had previously been
Sample Collected in 1987 found in Psilocybe, Panaeolus and Conocybe
species - which are not closely related
1 0.32 0.03 0.03
2 0.21 0.02 0.02
to each other - the hypothesis postulating species. Taxonomically, the genus has not yet
psilocybin's significance as an important chemo- been exhaustively studied, and mushroom lovers
taxonomical substance had to be abandoned. may want to watch out for occurrences of
Future research should attempt to verify Gymnopilus purpuratus in certain European
the presence of psilocybin and its derivatives in locations, such as botanical gardens or
other tropical and subtropical Gymnopilus herbariums.
CHAPTER 3.6
While studying the magic mushrooms of Mexico The following is an adequate description
during the 1950s, R. Heim described a new of Conocybe cyanopus, because its bluish
species of the genus Conocybe. discoloration is a sufficiently unique attribute to
Conocy allow differentiation of this species from other
be siligineodes Heim was reported to grow up to European Conocybe species.
8 cm (3.25 in.) tall, a beautiful, reddish brown to Cap: 0.3-2.5 cm broad, nearly
orange-colored mushroom that thrived on rotten hemispheric to convex, striated, ocher to dark
wood and which was used as a psychotropic brown without grey-green stains.
species by the Indians as well. However, the Stem: 2-4 cm long, 1-1.4 cm thick,
species did not appear again in the literature, nor whitish at first, equal to slightly curved at the
were the chemical composition or the effects of base, silvery later on, stains bluish-green -
these samples published. Even after decades of particularly at base - in reaction to injuries or with
field research in Mexico, Guzman was unable to age.
find the species there. Similarly, he did not Spores: 7-10 x 4-5 um
discover native usage of any kind of Conocybe
species. Heim's description however, aroused Basidia: 4-spored, pleurocystidia absent,
curiosity as to the chemical composition of this cheilocystidia present, 18-25x6, 5-10 ,um
species. Approximately 55 European species Habitat: On grassy areas or moss, summer
which existed saprophytically were relegated to through fall.
a shadow existence in the older literature. Also, The Conocybe genus is a member of the
the differentiation of these species is very Bolbitiaceae family, which is similar to the
problematic at times. For the most part, the Coprinaceae, a family of dark-spored mushrooms
mushrooms are small and fragile, decay quickly that includes the Panaeolus species.
and grow mostly in grassy and mossy areas, The Conocybe species are very rare in
where they are easily overlooked. Europe. The mushrooms are hardly ever found
Around 1930, J. Schaffer discovered among lists of mushroom discoveries from
numerous Conocybe species growing in European countries. Aside from Schaffer's
abundance on a fertilized grassy area near discovery, the mushroom was reportedly found or
Potsdam. Intrigued by the mushrooms' extra- described only twice (!) within the territory of the
ordinary variety of forms and colors, he was former East Germany over the last 60 years (both
inspired to undertake the kind of taxonomic discoveries were made during the 1980s).
classification that is essential to pursuing However, there are only few mycologists who
mushroom research. One species that he found in specialize in the study of the Conocybe genus, due
Potsdam, Berlin as well as in Germany's Harz to its lack of attractiveness.
Mountains showed bluish discolorations at the Even though the mushroom is very rare, I
base of their stems. This "Galera" species was was able to include one picture of Conocybe
included by Kuhner as Conocybe cyanopoda in cyanopus in this book (see Figure 36, p. 57). 1
his 1935 monograph about the genus Conocybe. also had the good fortune to obtain a dried
Today, this species is referred to in the literature Conocybe cyanopus sample for chemical analysis
as Conocybe cyanopus (Atk.) Kuhn. This species (see Table 9, p. 56).
with a blue base had been previously discovered Psilocybin was discovered for the first
in the U.S. (Ithaca, NY) in 1918 and was judged time in a sample of fruiting bodies of the species
by Kuhner to be identical with the European Conocybe cyanopus which had been collected on
mushrooms. September 4, 1961 in Seattle, WA. No psilocin
however mysterious they may remain. Concentrations of psilocybin were
strikingly similar to those found in samples
In 1977, Repke and his research team collected in the Northwestern United States.
reported the discovery of baeocystin, as well as After several days, spores from one of
psilocybin in a Conocybe species from the United the fruiting bodies germinated on malt agar and,
States and Canada. Once again, no psilocin was compared to other species, proceeded to grow
found in these samples. Finally in 1982/83, very slowly into their permanent forms or
Norwegian researchers confirmed the existence of "sclerotia" (see Figure 35, p. 57). The sclerotia
trace amounts of psilocin, in addition to 0.330.55% showed no blue discolorations, and were found
of psilocybin, an alkaloid that was also reportedly to contain 0.25 % psilocybin when dry, while no
discovered in Finnish samples. Finally, Beug and additional alkaloids were detected.
Bigwood reported 0.93% of psilocybin in samples In summary, it is reasonable to assume
collected in the Northwestern United States. that due to its small size and extreme rarity,
Interestingly, the second sample ever discovered in Conocybe cyanopus is a species that is not a
Eastern Germany was found on July 2, 1989 near significant contributor to intoxications in
Potsdam, where several fruiting bodies of the Europe, nor is it likely to gain such prominence
Conocybe cyanopus species were growing in a in the future. My own analyses of other, non-
grassy area on sand. The original area, however, bluing Conocybe species, such as Conocybe
where Schaffer first discovered the species 60 years tenera (Schaeff.:Fr.) Fayod and Conocybe lactea
ago, lay within the Potsdam city limits and its exact (Lge) Metrod revealed the presence of
location can no longer be determined. physiologically inactive ingredients only.
The sample collected in 1989 consisted of Samples of Conocybe species from
five mushrooms that were found to have warm countries have not yet been analyzed and
concentrations of psilocybin and baeocystin similar may yet yield remarkable results in terms of
to levels found in Psilocybe semilanceata: chemical composition and alkaloid content.
TABLE 9
1 5 0.84 0.15
2 6 0.73 0.12
3 7 1.01 0.20
4 10 0.91 0.16
5 12 0.89 0.14
Figure 35 - Sclerotia of Conocybe cyanopus grown on malt agar.
Within the Pluteaceae family, there are at the base, colors intensify in response to
about 45 European species of the genus Pluteus, pressure.
some of whom also produce psilocybin. There are also mushrooms of this species
Historically, the Pluteus species were that are white in color (see Figure 38, p. 60).
classified as belonging to the Amanitaceae family, However, these albino fruiting bodies have stems
which also include the "death cap" and its relatives, whose bases show a slight grey-green coloration
as well as the fly agaric mushroom, both of which as well, as do the apex areas of their caps.
belong to the genus Amanita. Unlike all the other Pluteus salicinus has been described as being
psychoactive mushrooms mentioned here in this anywhere from "very rare" to "not rare" in the
book, the Pluteus species are classified as light- wet deciduous forests of Europe. The species of
spored mushrooms, because of their rose-colored the genus Pluteus are final wood-destroyers, that
spore dust. is, they grow saprophytically on wood that
No accidental intoxications involving appears rotten and discolored, because it has
Pluteus species have been documented in the decomposed due to the presence of other
literature. mushrooms over the course of many years.
The first description providing qualitative Pluteus salicinus fruits from May to October on
evidence for the presence of psilocybin and psilocin stumps of willows, alder-trees, lime-trees, beech-
was provided by Saupe in 1981, who examined trees, poplars, maple-trees and possibly on the
extracts of Pluteus salicinus (Pers.:Fr.) Kumm. from wooden remnants of other tree species as well,
Illinois. Surprisingly, psilocin turned out to be the The fact that this mushroom has not been the
alkaloid with the highest levels of concentration in cause of any intoxications may be explained by
the samples tested. This mushroom species had its fruiting bodies' occurrence on tree stumps as
previously been described in Europe about 200 single mushrooms or in groups of very few
years ago. Since then, however, it has rarely been mushrooms. Also, compared to other wood-
mentioned in the literature, and only briefly, if at all inhabiting mushrooms, Pluteus salicinus is not
(see Figure 37, p. 59). very attractive in appearance. The mushroom's
Some taxonomic methods of classification habitus is well illustrated by Figure 39 (p. 60).
used earlier can still cause confusion today. For For unknown reasons, Kreisel described
example, Ricken (1915) designated the mushroom all Pluteus species as "non-poisonous" in his
as Pluteus petasatus. 1987 handbook of mushrooms, despite the fact
By way of expanding the description from that psilocybin (0.35 % of dried mushrooms) had
1962 (see Figure 37), Pluteus salicinus is identified already been discovered in samples of this
by the following characteristics: species in 1981 (North America) and 1984
Medium-sized mushroom with a more or (Norway). The alkaloid was also found in
less intensely bluish to bluish-green coloration. mushrooms from Holland, Finland, Sweden and
Older mushrooms are sometimes colored olive France. The latter tests, however, were limited to
green. very few fruiting bodies in each case.
Caps in some cases up to 8 cm in diameter, Whereas Stijve found an average of 0.25
lighter colored around the margin, silver grey, hairy % of psilocybin in dried mushrooms from 20
and felt-like, even hairier and felt-like towards the samples collected in Switzerland from 1984 to
middle of the cap, often scaly. 1986, my own analyses of non-bluing (!)
mushrooms collected in Thuringen, Germany in
Stems up to 10 cm in length, with 1986 yielded much higher alkaloid
spontaneous grey-green or grey-blue discolorations concentrations:
TABLE 10
Psilocybin and Urea Content of Stijve and Bonnard were able to examine
Pluteus salicinus (% of Dry Weight)
original material collected by Saupe in the United
Sample# Psilocybin Urea States. To their surprise, they discovered that the
Cap Stem Cap Stem mushrooms were not identical to those found in
1 1.38 0.48 2.50 Traces
Europe. They also did no longer contain any
alkaloids. These findings show that mushrooms
2 1.57 0.71 2.60 0.00
3 1.57 0.71 2.60 0.00
of the same name from different continents are
4 1.22 1.14 1.40 0.00 not necessarily identical.
5 139 0.64 2.40 0.43
All other Pluteus species tested so far
contained urea, a substance that can also been
found in the Panaeolus species. However, the
Additional analyses of four bluing latter also produce compounds like serotonin,
mushrooms collected in the Dubener which do not occur in the Pluteus species. Hence,
marshlands (Eastern Germany) in 1988, the different species are once again identifiable
confirmed the presence of only about 0.2 - by their unique "fingerprints".
0.7 % psilocybin in those mushrooms. This Other rare Pluteus species with bluish or
sample also contained very small amounts of violet discolorations are mentioned in the
baeocystin. literature, such as a Pluteus cyanopus from
These results indicate that the Europe. However, so far, very small amounts of
variability m alkaloid content in Pluteus psilocybin (0.035% of dried mushrooms) have
salicinus has not yet been sufficiently been found only in Pluteus nigroviridis Babos, an
calibrated. Therefore, more analyses are extremely rare species from Hungary.
needed. In contrast to the findings based on Therefore, additional analyses of this
studies of mushrooms collected in America, fairly neglected genus are urgently needed.
it is certain that the European mushrooms
produce only traces of psilocin at most.
On December 16, 1981, three teenagers noticed a tendency to disregard some of the finer
hunting for psychoactive mushrooms on details in the literature, so that "my mushrooms"
Whidbey Island, WA (USA) collected would better match the descriptions. Naturally, this
specimens of a Galerina species, in the mistaken approach resulted in errors. Luckily, I would quickly
belief that the mushrooms belonged to a discover and correct my mistakes upon consultation
Psilocybe species. All three of them fell ill after with my mycologist friends. In my experience,
eating the mushrooms, but did not report their competence and expertise in the area of mushroom
symptoms or seek medical help for another two identification are skills honed over time through
days, afraid of being prosecuted for using extensive fieldwork, consultations with established
psilocybin. After medical treatment, two of the mycological experts, and careful analyses of samples
teenagers made a full recovery. The third based on information found in appropriate reference
victim, however, a 16 -year-old girl, died on books.
December 24, 1981. The literature clearly indicates that
As presented by Beug and Bigwood, this Psilocybe semilanceata is one species that, at prime
tragic incident underscores the dangers inherent locations, can be easily identified without consulting
is careless or erroneous identification of a diagnostic key. Psilocybe semilanceata is known
mushroom species, especially when a situation is for its uniquely distinctive appearance, so that
complicated by overzealous legislative and microscopic tests are not needed to distinguish this
punitive measures. The psilocybin-producing species from other pasture-dwelling mushrooms.
species as well as culinary mushroom varieties The situation is different, however, for Psilocybe
often share some characteristics with many other species that thrive on wood debris, as illustrated by
species. Casual mushroom hunters and lay- the tragic story at the beginning of this chapter.
persons are especially prone to making Besides, compared to Europe, the North American
identification errors, suffering accidental mycoflora includes a much broader and varied
ittoxications as a result. Previous chapters spectrum of mushroom species to begin with.
included several case histories of such
involuntary intoxications. To be sure, modern
mycological keys are valuable tools when it
Warning: Amatoxins are Lethal!
comes to accuracy in deciding the family and
genus of an unknown mushroom sample. It can The Galerina genus includes a number of
be extremely difficult, however, to identify the poisonous mushrooms. These species are dangerous,
specific species of questionable specimens, because they contain the same deadly amatoxins as
especially if the sample belongs to the vast the "death cap" (Amanita phalloides) and its
category of "LBM"s, or "little brown mush- relatives, "death angel" and "destroying angel". Their
rooms". We currently know very little about the toxins are insidious, with no symptoms evident for
"LBM" species, since their habitats and about 12 hours. During this latency period, the toxins
variations in habitus have not been studied in can cause major irreversible internal damage, which
systematic detail. Not surprisingly, reference is why many cases are fatal in spite of treatment. A
books are often limited by incomplete descrip- common North American species is Galerina
tions that lack the essential criteria for autumnalis (Peck) Singer & Smith, which grows on
differentiating one species from others that are wood debris in parks and forests, just like several of
similar or related. I vividly recall my own first the Psilocybe species. At first glance, Galerina
attempts to identify unknown samples by relying autumnalis resembles Psilocybe stuntzii Guzman &
on what appeared to be precise definitions in Ott, and the two species may grow
standard mycological reference works. I found
many of the listed traits to be descriptive of a
wide range of sometimes very different species.
As I compared my samples with the text, I
side by side at the same location. The Galerina resemblance, either in size or form, to Inocybe
species, however, does not turn blue. I once aeruginascens. Overall, however, these
discovered a grassy area that was home to a cluster unfortunate cases have also contributed to our
of Psilocybe stuntzii specimens entangled with a understanding of mushroom biochemistry.
Galerina species. The mushrooms had grown so In this context, I want to emphasize
entwined that individual fruiting bodies could be once more that the hallucinogenic varieties
identified only by spore analyses. among the Inocybes can easily be mistaken for
Pholiotina filaris (Fr.) Sing. (also known those muscarine-producing Inocybe species
as Conocybe) is another North American species that are extremely poisonous.
known to contain amatoxins. At the same time, As part of his investigation of the
these toxins have not been found in European Psilocybe genus, Guzman noted a common
samples of this species. Thus, Pholiotina filaris trait among the hallucinogenic species, in
(Fr.) Sing. most likely does not refer to the same addition to the bluing reaction: a flour-like
species on both continents. Still, at least one smell or taste. Apart from the inherent
European Galerina species (Galerina marginata subjective nature of our sense of smell and
(Fr.) Kuhn.) contains the same toxins found in the taste, a common odor is a trait that definitely
"death cap" mushroom. This species also grows on does not apply to the European species (also
decaying wood substrate and its fruiting bodies see Chapter 3.2).
contain about one-third of the amount of
amanitines found in Amanita phalloides. Mycophile or Mycophobe?
Incredibly, older mushroom books list Galerina
There are reports from the Western
marginata as an edible species.
United States about people with expert
In a previous chapter on the Panaeolus
knowledge of Psilocybe semilanceata -
species I illustrated the potential for identification
devoted mushroom hunters who can identify
errors associated with commercial cultivation areas
the species with drill and accuracy. At the
that are "invaded" by outside species. Due to their
same time, however, these experts cannot
rapid growth, the Panaeolus species in particular
identify easily spotted common table
will often fruit in artificial growing areas long
mushrooms, nor are they able to differentiate
before the cultivated species that is grown there.
the Agaricus species (champignons) from other
Chapter 3.3 details the 1970 poisoning incident
mushrooms, even when these species grow on
involving Panaeolus subbalteatus from a
the same pasture. Such individuals, then, are
cultivation area in Leipzig. In that case, the
not interested in species other than Psilocybe
intruding species was mistaken for Stropharia
semilanceata. In my opinion, this attitude
rugoso-annulata Farlow (the Giant Stropharia),
reflects a rare combination of mycophilia and
based on information from a mushroom book.
mycophobia.
Apparently nobody realized the glaring differences
A mushroom's spore dust provides
between the book's description and the actual
important information needed to determine
characteristics, except for the assumption that the
identity. A spore print is left by the gills when
sample's small size meant the mushrooms simply
the cap is placed on black or white paper
had not grown as tall as portrayed in the book.
(depending on spore color). As the process
This flawed conclusion illustrates a type of
takes several hours, a glass vessel must be
judgment error common among amateur
placed over the cap to prevent drying. While
mushroom hunters who falsely believe that they
useful, information obtained from spore
are experts. Having been shown a single sample of
analyses has its limitations, For instance,
wild mushrooms, for example, some mycophiles
spores derived from mushrooms belonging to
become convinced they will always be able to
different genera may have the same color, but
recognize the species in the future. That is how one
reveal basic differences under the microscope.
such mushroom hunter accidently ingested Inocybe
There is also a high degree of similarity among
aeruginascens specimens that he believed to be
spores from different Psilocybe species. Thus,
common fairy ring mushrooms. In a similar case of
the only way to prevent grave errors and
Inocybe aeruginascens intoxication, the
potentially deadly intoxications is to rely on
mushrooms had been picked as white
experienced experts for mushroom
champignons, even though this common culinary
identification, a process that must include
mushroom bears no
analysis of available ecological data.
CHAPTER 5
As previously discussed in Chapters 3.1 as air and that solutions of psilocin turn bluish-
and 3.7, the bluing reaction is characteristic green in an alkaline range.
of species that produce psilocybin. Still, for These results provided proof that the
unknown reasons, some species or samples bluing reaction resulted from a mushroom
belonging to a genus that usually turns blue ingredient's breakdown by oxidation. From 1960
may not always change color, regardless of on, Blaschko, Levine and Bocks, as well as
psilocybin content. Among the species that I Horita and Weber performed in-vitro studies of
have examined, Psilocybe bohemica the biochemical reactions of psilocybin and
displayed the most impressive bluing psilocin. They concurred that only psilocin can be
reaction. The caps of this species stain very oxidized into a product of bluish-green color. The
quickly in reaction to pressure. Other species, phosphate group prevents direct oxidation of this
such as Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Sing. alkaloid (see Figure 19, p. 27). However, the
have stems that develop very intensely blue typical bluing phenomenon does occur when this
stains, while their caps do not exhibit the protective group is removed by enzymes, such as
bluing reaction. By contrast, Psilocybe various phosphatases, which are very common in
semilanceata, Conocybe cyanopus and human as well as in mushroom tissue. I also
Inocybe aeruginascens are species whose observed the bluing reaction following removal
stems develop only slight stains m reaction to of the phosphate group from baeocystin.
pressure and only after a relatively long time Observations from in-vitro experiments explain
period has elapsed. With why Psilocybe bohemica displays a strong
respect to time delay and intensity of the bluing reaction, despite the fact that levels of
bluing reaction, Gymnopilus purpuratus is a psilocin in this mushroom are low or non-
species that falls in between these two existent: Apparently, the enzymatic removal of
extremes. the phosphate group from the psilocybin
molecule occurs quite quickly. This is how
A Rich Color Spectrum
psilocin is formed in reaction to injuries to the
fruiting bodies. Immediately afterwards, psilocin
The colors range from green to a deep continues to break down and disappears
blue. Psilocybe cubensis is a species in completely, while a number of blue-colored
which the latter color may also take on a substances are created. In addition, some
blackish-blue hue. 'The mechanisms enzymes were discovered which accelerate the
underlying the color reactions in these breakdown of psilocin. Cytochrome oxidases and
mushrooms has not yet been studied. I have laccases are examples of such enzymes. The
already mentioned Cooke's speculation from latter has also been found in the mycelia of
the early years of the 20th century about the Psilocybe cubensis. Most likely, the enzymes are
significance of the bluing reaction in also formed in those mushrooms that display
Psilocybe Smilanceata (see p. 16). In the bluish discolorations in reaction to metol testing.
1950s, it was Singer and Smith who Trace amounts of Iron" ions accelerate the bluing
emphasized that discolorations observed in reaction as well. The structure of the blue-colored
the psychotropic Psilocybe and Panaeolus compounds has not yet been investigated.
species must somehow be linked directly or Apparently, they are quite unstable and involve a
indirectly to the mushrooms' active type of chemical bond known as chinones. Many
ingredients. Eventually, in 1958, A. pigments are known to have this basic structure.
Hofmann and his collaborators reported the
successful isolation of these ingredients.
They were the first to observe that pure
psilocin grows unstable when exposed to
oxidizing agents such
Figure 40 - Psilocybe cubensis fruiting bodies whose
growth was accelerated with plant hormones.
MUSHROOM CULTIVATION:
CLASSIC FINDINGS AND NEW TECHNIQUES
While conducting research on the During most parts of the year, the
Mexican mushroom species during the 1950s, dikaryotic mycelium grows unnoticed in its natural
R. Heim and R. Cailleux determined the basic substrate and remains purely vegetative, that is, it
conditions essential to the cultivation of various continues to spread and to utilize new nutritional
mushrooms. Before providing additional details, resources without producing mushrooms, provided
I would like to briefly summarize the nutritional there is sufficient moisture and temperatures do not
requirements and characteristics of fungal drop below freezing. ln its dormant state, the
growth, to the extent that these issues are of mycelium can weather droughts and the cold
interest here. temperatures of winter, only to begin to grow
anew. Some species have mycelia with thick
Extraterrestrial or Earthly Organisms? strands that are visible within the substrate (e.g. the
rhizomorphs of Psilocybe cyanescens), while other
In terms of cultivation parameters and species, such as Psilocybe semilanceata, develop
nutrients, the psychotropic species are no comparatively thin strands that are hardly visible at
different from table mushrooms and other all.
common gilled mushrooms. For that reason, Oss
and Oeric's speculations about extra-terrestrial The Secret of "Overnight" Growth
origins of these species clearly belong into the
realm of fables. In addition, psilocybin and Every mushroom collector knows that
psilocin are substances that can be derived from there are years of maximum mushroom yields.
tryptophan by means of discernable reactions; Other years, mushrooms are scarce and dry periods
indeed, the amino acid tryptophan in its free may pass with no apparent crops of gilled
form has been found in a large number of mushrooms or boletes. For the majority of
mushroom species. mushroom species, the specific conditions required
The natural propagation of higher to reach the fruiting phase have not yet been
mushrooms is linked to their basidiospores, determined.
which are produced on the gills of developing The saprophytic species (including the
fruiting bodies and which are eventually cast hallucinogenic ones except the Inocybe species:
off. Once the spores have been dispersed - by mycorrhiza with trees) generally fruit after optimal
the wind, for example - they will germinate mycelial growth has been induced by appropriate
when conditions are favorable (nutrients, nutrient substrates, as long as the following
temperature, moisture, lack of competing environmental conditions are maintained:
organisms) and finally, they gradually colonize 1) Decrease of the temperature until time of
available substrates. Initially, a monokaryotic optimal fruiting.
mycelial thread (i.e. a mycelium with only one 2) Increase of the humidity to 95-100%.
nucleus per cell) grows out of the spore and 3) Decrease of carbon dioxide concentration
superficially penetrates the nutrient substrate. through increased air circulation.
When two of these hyphae meet, they form a 4) Exposure to light may be necessary for
mycelium with two nuclei, or a dikaryotic fruiting.
mycelium ("mycelial network"). Later on, these The last two items already touch upon the essential
mycelial strands go on to differentiate into requirements for mushroom cultivation, since these
sporeproducing fruiting bodies ("fruiting"). conditions are always present in
Eventually, their spores disperse and germinate
once again.
Nature, but often need to be specially created for control procedures in place, the spore solution is
mushroom cultivation inside glass containers or germinated on nutrients of various compositions
enclosed rooms. that have been thickened with agar. One
It is no coincidence that the saprophytic commonly used nutrient medium contains 3-6
species almost always fruit during the fall. Plant malt extract along with 1.5% agar. It induces
substrates such as twigs and leaves fall to the spores from many different species to germinate
ground during this time and they are in a matter of several days. Prior to germination,
immediately colonized by available mycelia all substrates are placed in autoclaves and
from mushroom spores as part of the natural sterilized with steam. The simultaneous
cycle. The concurrent drop in temperature and germination of a large number of spores will
increase in humidity are preconditions for result in the growth of monokaryotic mycelia
fruiting. The proverbial rapid growth of which spontaneously combine and go on to form
mushrooms "overnight" is a function of mycelia dikaryotic mycelia. Alternatively, one can attempt
that have previously massed together into knots, to systematically fuse selected monokaryotic
followed by a differentiation process into strands in order to develop vigorous strains for
primordia, with progressive divisions into caps cultivation (criteria: rapid growth, high yield).
and stems. The whole mushroom is then ready to This is a standard technique that is widely used in
develop very rapidly, given sufficient moisture the cultivation of champignons (Agaricus
and ideal temperatures. Figure 42 illustrates a bisporus).
comparable in-vitro fruiting process that took At the same time, such cross-breeding
about a week, with mycelia from Psilocybe experiments enable the grower to determine
cubensis (Earle) on an agar substrate. whether mushrooms from different locations
belong to the same species. Using this method, I
was able to establish that mycelia obtained from
Cultivating High Yield Strains Psilocybe bohemica and from Psilocybe
cyanescens (collected in the U.S.) can never be
fused together, which means that these two
Artificial cultivation is an attempt to mushrooms are not of the same species.
imitate and optimize the natural conditions The second method of cultivation
essential for mushroom growth, and may even requires cutting a piece of tissue from the inside
result in the discovery of additional nutrient of young, unopened fruiting bodies, using a
substrates on which these species cannot grow in disinfected knife in a sterile environment. The
Nature. From the outset, this method of piece of tissue is then placed onto nutrient agar
cultivation requires a sterile environment, in medium. In most cases, visible mycelial growth
order to eliminate often fast-growing organisms will occur within a few days. This method has the
such as bacteria and molds. For this purpose, advantage of all mycelia being genetically
laminar flow hoods are used in mycological identical to the mushroom from which they
laboratories. A small sterile space is created originated, unlike mycelia grown from spore
inside these containers by installing a filtration samples. Therefore, this method makes it easy for
system that removes germs from a stream of air. the grower to reproduce high yield strains of
The sterile space is used for the performance of saprophytic species. Some wild strains obtained
tasks such as isolation of strains, and the from various species do not fruit at all when
production of sterile cultures and spawn for cultivated, or else, they do so very late, with a
fruiting experiments. Antibiotics such as yield of fruiting bodies that is sparse at best.
gentamycin (0.01%) are often added to the Such differences in response to attempted
nutrient media, especially in the early stages of cultivation were also observed by R. Heim with
this process. various strains of Psilocybe mexicana Heim. As
Two methods are used to produce sterile early as 1956, he took spore sprints from a
cultures of fungal mycelia. number of fruiting bodies in Mexico. Later on, in
The first method mimicks the mushrooms' Paris, he was able to germinate the spores and
natural reproductive process. Spores that fell off isolate mycelial cultures of five different species.
or were removed from the gills are suspended in In collaboration with R. Cailleux, Heim
sterile water. With microscopic
Figure 42 - One-week growth progression of Psilocybe
cubensis cultivated on a malt agar (2%) substrate.
succeeded at growing fruiting bodies of the tissue while cultivating Panaeolus subbalteatus on
species Psilocybe mexicana, using compost malt agar.
substrate as a medium. This type of substrate is Initially, he believed that his nutrient
the most widely used nutrient soil for commercial substrates had been contaminated by molds,
mushroom cultivation (champignons). The because Panaeolus subbalteatus is a species that
fruiting bodies grown by Heim and Cailleux almost never spontaneously turns bluish-green.
provided the dried material that A. Hofmann and Figure 47 shows a distinct sclerotia formation of
his collaborators used to isolate psilocybin and the species Psilocybe semilanceata. The formation
psilocin for the first time. In Basel, it was also of these permanent structures with Conocybe
possible to cultivate mycelia from different cyanopus has been described in a previous chapter
species on liquid solutions of malt extract. The (see Figure 35, p. 57).
mycelial tissue was found to produce psilocybin Heim and Cailleux primarily described the
without having to go through the fruiting process. fruiting of Psilocybe mexicana and Psilocybe
This important discovery became the basis for cubensis on agar (0.05-2% malt extract) and on
harvesting large amounts of alkaloids. Unlike the compost. During their experiments, Psilocybe
fruiting process, which yielded five harvests over mexicana produced the highest yields, while
the course of several months, a species' mycelial Psilocybe cubensis fruited quite vigorously as
cultures produced much larger amounts of well. At about the same time, R. Singer had also
mushroom tissue in only four weeks (see Figure started mycelial cultures derived from six
41). The cultures were grown on stationary malt mushroom species. Singer and his co-workers soon
extract (4-6%) with 0.2% agar added for concentrated on Psilocybe cubensis in their efforts
increased viscosity. to induce fruiting. Soon after, in the early 1960s,
This kind of saprophytic surface R. L. Kneebone reported that this robust
cultivation can be easily adapted for growing mushroom species, which thrives across
species which are difficult to fruit under in-vitro subtropical climate zones, can also be induced to
conditions, such as Psilocybe zapotecorum Heim, fruit on a rye-grain medium.
permitting cultivation of these species for
alkaloid production. Even though the mycelial
tissue grown from the Mexican species contained
Counter-Cultural Expertise Gains
only half as much psilocybin (0.1-0.2% of dry
weight) as the mushrooms did, high yields Mainstream Acceptance
(approximately 20g/1) along with easy and rapid
cultivation of mycelial tissue more than In the mid-1960s, Psilocybe cubensis
compensated for the lower psilocybin content. It became the species of choice for experiments that
is interesting to note that mycelia from the North made use of submersed fermentation to investigate
American species of Psilocybe cyanescens will the biosynthesis of psilocybin from tryptophan and
turn blue and accumulate psilocybin when grown other precursors. We should note in this context
on a medium of solid malt agar, while both of that around the same time, this technique was also
these traits disappear completely when the same used to obtain mycelial pellets of the species
strain is cultivated on the type of liquid medium Psilocybe baeocystis Singer & Smith, providing
described above, even if levels of nutrients are the material for the first-ever isolation of
identical. The reasons for this inconsistency baeocystin from mushroom tissue.
remain a mystery. From the 1970s on, a growing number of
When mycelial cultures are kept in the books were published in the United States that
dark, the mycelial forms may become partially distributed information acquired by members of
permanent (sclerotia). Sclerotia may be hardened, the counter-culture on the cultivation of
are largely dark to black in color and they contain psychotropic mushrooms. The scope of these
psilocybin as well. The formation of sclerotia was books soon narrowed, with a primary emphasis on
initially observed as part of the firstever attempt Psilocybe cubensis, which may be explained by the
to cultivate psychotropic mushrooms on an agar fact that, initially, only R. Heim's research results
medium. In 1935, H.J. Brodie reported permanent were published, thus making them available to a
formations of bluish-green larger audience.
In 1971, new results were published
about the champignon's ability to fruit on a rye- authors of two outstanding books that deal with
grain medium, provided a cover layer was added all the technical and practical aspects of
on top. It wasn't long before these findings were mushroom cultivation. The psychotropic species
applied to the cultivation of Psilocybe species. are included along with information about many
By 1932, J. Sinden had already kinds of culinary mushrooms. Still, I would like
published a patent for a cultivation process that to make special note of the fact that Psilocybe
involved the inoculation of mushroom mycelia cubensis cultures benefit when horse or cow
derived from champignons into horse dung dung is added to the original nutrient mixtures,
compost (a medium widely used for cultivation as evidenced by the mushrooms' relatively faster
purposes) but only after the mycelia had already growth rate and the development of
grown to permeate a medium of sterilized grains. comparatively more robust specimens (see
Since that time, this process has mainly been Figure 45, p. 71 and Figure 49, p. 74). Before
used in the production of table mushrooms, adding the dung to the nutrient mixture,
specifically, for manufacturing the spawn to be however, it must first be suspended in water and
placed onto the compost without inducing autoclaved, which considerably reduces the risk
fruiting on grain. Psilocybe cubensis fruits after of contamination. Only then should the
about three to eight weeks on this substrate. suspension be added to the rye grain substrate
If a moist cover layer is added (e.g. a and sterilized once more.
peat moss/lime mixture, 2:1), the yields may In spite of numerous claims in the
double. However, this process is risky, because popular literature, most attempts by laypersons
over-saturation can render the containers non- to cultivate fruiting bodies of Psilocybe cubensis
sterile and invite contamination from bacteria and on rye grain substrate are thwarted by the
molds. Most authors prefer a mixture of rye and presence of contaminating agents such as
water that has been inoculated with mycelia from bacteria and molds. Even though mushrooms are
an agar culture. Still, rice, barley, wheat and organisms that do not perform photosynthesis
other grains have also been used with varying and thus are no longer thought of as plants, some
degrees of success. Figure 52 shows that, after mushroom species, including Psilocybe cubensis,
about five weeks, small mushrooms even grew are heliotropes, meaning they will grow toward
on wet pages of a newspaper that used to be the stationary sources of light. All Psilocybe species
official print medium controlled by the former examined to date require light to promote the
East Germany's SED Party ("Sozialistische biochemical process in the mycelia that will
Einheitspartei Deutschlands" or "Unified induce fruiting. Additional exposure to light is
Socialist Party of Germany"). needed, if the fruiting bodies are to develop into
normal shapes and produce spores.
Apart from a series of interesting
physiological experiments performed by E.R.
Some Recent Findings Badham during the 1980s, there are a few other
noteworthy substrates for cultivation of
Today, Psilocybe cubensis is clearly one Psilocybe cubensis fruiting bodies. For instance,
of the most easily cultivated mushroom species we were the first to discover that a new type of
around and it can thrive on a large variety of plant hormone (brassinosteroids) will accelerate
substrates. Naturally occurring specimens are fruiting of the mycelia (Figure 40, p. 64). During
most often found growing on cow dung. these experiments, we were also able to
Generally, the species tends to grow on dung and completely suppress the formation of psilocybin
straw as a primary decomposer, but the and psilocin through high concentrations of
mushrooms can also utilize nutrients previously phosphate. It is now possible to design future
converted by other organisms, such as various physiological experiments to study different
types of compost, among others (see Figure 53, hallucinogenic mushroom species under these
p. 77). conditions.
Within the scope of this book, it is In recent years I have also succeeded at
impossible to discuss all details pertaining to the cultivating the European hallucinogenic
fruiting process of psychotropic mushroom mushroom species.
species. P. Stamets and J.S. Chilton are the
Figure 44 - Psilocybe bohemica on a
Figure 43 - Gymnopilus purpuratus
rice substrate.
fruiting on wet rice and saw dust.
In 1961, V.E. Tyler became the first Psilocybe semilanceata has the reputation of being
investigator to report the detection of psilocybin in one of the most potent species without generally
Psilocybe pelliculosa (Smith) Singer & Smith, causing unwanted physical side effects (also see
a North American mushroom species. One year Chapter 3-1). As indicated in previous chapters,
later, two research groups, working independently, recurrent claims about different types of effects
discovered psilocybin, as well as psilocin, in from different psychoactive species should be
samples of Psilocybe baeocystis Singer & Smith systematically studied, including comprehensive
from the Pacific Northwest region of North biochemical analyses. These research efforts will
America. Additional chemical and taxonomic likely uncover new biodynamic ingredients.
findings on that region's mycoflora have been Another factor that accounts for different
published up to the present day. This area includes types of effects is the variability in levels of
the states of Washington (USA), British Columbia alkaloid content. In the course of casual
(Canada) and western Oregon (USA). The region experimentation it is also not uncommon for a
is considered a major center of psychoactive number of expectations to become self-fulfilling.
mushroom use in North America. Some areas The assumption that Psilocybe baeocystis (see
along the U.S. Gulf states have acquired similar Figure 72, p. 119), a strongly bluing species,
reputations. causes a comparatively larger number of physical
In 1966, Heim and his colleagues problems than other species is undoubtedly rooted
reported that an unknown Psilocybe species had in the mushroom's "reputation" as being the only
been confiscated in Canada. The mushrooms Psilocybe species to date responsible for the only
appeared to be very similar to Psilocybe known fatality involving Psilocybe baeocystis - a
semilanceata. Shortly thereafter, A.H. Smith child who died after eating some of these
determined that the same mushroom species was mushrooms (see Chapter 8 for more details on this
popular among students in Vancouver. It wasn't incident).
long before Psilocybe semilanceata was Psilocybe baeocystis primarily grows in
recognized as a species quite common throughout inland areas of the Pacific Northwest, on top of
the Pacific Northwest. Moreover, the mushrooms wood debris and on lawns in parks. It is a species
turned out to indistinguishable from European that can often be found and collected on school and
Psilocybe semilanceata samples. university campuses. Psilocybe pelliculosa, a
mushroom mentioned in previous chapters, is a
The Spread of Psilocybe semilanceata species also known as "Liberty Cap".
Macroscopically, it is extremely difficult to
From the late 1960s onward, Psilocybe distinguish from Psilocybe semilanceata. Unlike
semilanceata usage increased, particularly in areas the latter species, however, Psilocybe pelliculosa
between the Pacific Ocean and the Cascade will grow in forests on wood chips and sawdust.
Mountains that range from Southern Oregon north Beug and Bigwood were able to furnish
to British Columbia. It is likely that during these analytical proof in support of the claim that
years, Tom Robbins's popular book "Another Psilocybe pelliculosa is weaker in its psychotropic
Roadside Attraction " significantly contributed to effects than comparable species. Psilocybe
the mushroom's increasing popularity. Today, pelliculosa contains about 30-50% of the amount
Psilocybe semilanceata is the most widely used of psilocybin found in Psilocybe cyanescens (slang
species in the Pacific Northwest, and its habitat is names: Blue wavy, Cyan, Grandote), a species
expanding into pasture lands east of the Cascade common across the Pacific Northwest. It fruits
Mountains. primarily in parks, forming partial fairy rings. This
As in Great Britain, the mushroom is species did not become popular
referred to as "Liberty Cap" in the United States.
among users until the mid-1970s. species still fruits most abundantly in the fall.
Several additional Psilocybe species have In 1977, J. Ott estimated that several
been found in the Pacific Northwest, even though tens of thousands applied dosages of
the taxonomic classification of most of these psychotropic mushroom material are harvested
species remains inadequate, despite the fact that and used each year, particularly in the Pacific
monographs such as those by P. Stamets offer quite Northwest. Despite these quantities, there have
detailed descriptions of the psychotropic never been reports of fatalities or serious
mycoflora. In the mid-1970s, Guzman and Ott physical damage as a consequence of using the
reported a rather spectacular event concerning the Psilocybe or Panaeolus species. Local papers
spread of a "new" mushroom species. During the merely mentioned occasional panic reactions
fall of 1972, large numbers of a strongly bluing that subsided as soon as the acute effects of the
gilled mushroom with a distinct ring pattern were mushrooms had worn off.
found at the University of Washington in Seattle. The usage of psychotropic mushrooms in
The fruiting bodies were found growing on bark the United States tends to cluster geographically
mulch, which came from a central distribution in areas that are considered mushroom Eldorados.
point and which had been spread widely across the For example, the city of Redmond, WA used to be
campus by gardeners. Due to the bluing reaction, known as the "bicycle capital". Since 1978,
students at the university assumed that the several newspapers have renamed this city the
mushroom contained psilocybin, a belief that was "psilocybin capital".
confirmed later on. The sudden appearance of Since the late 1960s, the usage of
massive numbers of fruiting bodies quickly Panaeolus cyanescens and its closest relatives has
inspired students at the university to use the become fashionable in Hawaii, even though the
mushrooms as a hallucinogen. taxonomic differentiation of the Panaeolus
In my opinion, it is still uncertain if the species from each other is extremely difficult.
mushroom really appeared spontaneously, or There were initial attempts to preserve the fresh
whether it fruited on bark debris simply because the mushrooms by freezing them with dry ice (solid
substance had previously been mixed with spawn carbon dioxide) for export to the Pacific
derived from fruiting bodies that originated Northwest and Southern California. Apparently,
elsewhere. these entrepreneurs were unaware of the fact that
In any case, in 1976, the mushrooms were psychoactive ingredients will remain stable, as
named Psilocybe stuntzii Guzman & Ott (slang long as the mushrooms are dried and stored at
name: "blue veil" or "stuntzees", (see Figures 54 temperatures below 50'C (122'F). Such export
and 71). Today, the species can be found growing efforts were soon abandoned, because freezing the
on bark and on lawns in parks, on golf courses, mushrooms turned them to mushy pulp that was
football fields and gardens in numbers so large that difficult to transport. In addition, several local
it is considered the second most important species species had been discovered in the Pacific
in terms of usage, after Psilocybe semilanceata. In Northwest. During the early 1970s, fruiting bodies
addition, Panaeolus subbalteatus is another of the Panaeolus species preserved in honey
regionally important mushroom species (slang began to appear on the black market in Hawaii
name: "red cap"), even though its users believe it to and, on occasion, in North America. Again, this
be slightly more poisonous than the Psilocybe method fell short, because mushrooms could be
species. Still, the mushroom is used quite preserved for only short periods of time.
frequently, because it begins to fruit during the Panaeolus subbalteatus grows in several
spring. The Psilocybe species, on the other hand, do areas in the Hawaiian Islands, but it is used less
not appear until fall and continue to grow into early frequently than other Panaeolus species. Even
winter, when temperatures consistently drop below though one often hears about "Hawaiian strains"
freezing, which inhibits further fruiting of the of Psilocybe cubensis, the species is not native to
species. Under favorable conditions, only Psilocybe The Islands and should grow there only under
stuntzii can fruit year-round, even though this conditions of artificial cultivation. Any spawn
used for cultivation, however, must have been
isolated from fruiting bodies that originated with Nature. Across North America, the total
elsewhere. In Hawaii, the extent of adverse number of magic mushroom consumers is likely
reactions was also limited to a few panic close to one million, quite possibly higher.
reactions observed in recreational users who had By the early 1980s, prominent experts in
ingested mushrooms of the species Panaeolus the field had estimated that the number of
cyanescens. In 1972, an apparent fatality was hallucinogenic mushroom users in the United
definitely not caused by ingestion of States outnumbered LSD users for the first time,
mushrooms, but instead was most likely the a trend that went hand in hand with a rise in
consequence of a heroin overdose, as reported environmental awareness. In this context it is
by J. Allen, who has researched this incident interesting to note that the Drug Abuse Warning
extensively. Network (DAWN), which collects data from
The legislatures in North America and throughout the United States, documented only
Hawaii do not pay very much attention to the 31 cases of clinical interventions for usage of
usage of psychoactive mushrooms. The psilocybin-containing mushrooms in 1982. In
identification of species is often quite difficult, some of these cases, the mushrooms were used in
so that police enforcement activities primarily combination with other substances, confusing the
target misdemeanors such as parking violations pharmacological picture. In comparison, LSD
and the willful destruction of fences around was involved 1,498 times, while marijuana was
pastures. The latter is not uncommon during cited in 5,295 cases. It should be noted that the
attempts to force entry into areas where high number of marijuana cases cited appears
Psilocybe semilanceata can be found. inflated and suspect, in light of data from other
In December 1979, the High Court of studies.
British Columbia ruled that the Canadian It is interesting to note that T. Leary's
Narcotics law prohibits psilocybin only in its psilocybin experiments during the early 1960s
pure form, whereas mushrooms containing the provoked severe reactions of a moralistic-puritan
alkaloid as a natural ingredient are exempt from nature, while medical reports about prolonged
the law. This decision seems both realistic and psychoses and other such side effects did not
reasonable, considering the substantial, appear until the "LSD era" some years later.
uncontrollable spread of these mushrooms and North America's mushrooms offer many
an ongoing battle against truly addictive drugs opportunities for additional taxonomic work and
that requires all available efforts and resources. many more still remain to be discovered. To
Even though the extent of prosecution of illustrate, a new mushrooms species was recently
drug law violators in Canada and the U.S. varies reported from Oregon. The mushroom, Psilocybe
from state to state, psilocybin-containing mush- azurescens Stamets & Gartz is unusually large
rooms are only a minor factor in the overall "war and very potent due to its high psilocybin
on drugs". In California, however, mushroom content. North America's rich mycoflora,
cultures are illegal, as well as spore prints (!) particularly in regions of wet climates in the
from the Psilocybe species. Spore prints, eastern and midwestern United States is wide
however, are impossible to control. Psilocybe open for further research efforts that may well
cubensis is common across the South, and yield valuable and amazing new results.
Panaeolus subbalteatus grows across the As early as 1909, Murrill described
Southwestern U.S., where the mushrooms are "Inocybe infida", a mushroom with "narcotic"
used extensively. By one estimate, there were effects from New York. In 1911, Ford named
100,000 "Magic Mushroom People" in the state "Inocybe infelix" as a species that also caused
of California alone, a number likely to be much strange effects, without inducing symptoms of
higher today. The demand created by this muscarine poisoning. These descriptions
growing market is probably being met through immediately bring to mind the psilocybin-
cultivation of Psilocybe cubensis. These users producing fibreheads, even though visionary
ingest psychotropic mushrooms as a form of experiences are not expressly mentioned.
recreation, or incorporate them in the ritual In the future, we should expect an
practice of natural mysticism. Other users prefer increase in usage of local, psychoactive species
mushrooms as an aid to meditation or to attain from locations across the U.S. and Canada.
communication with the realm of the divine.
Regardless of motivation, users tend to lead
secluded, self-sufficient lives in close proximity
CHAPTER 7.2
Compared to the time of Wasson and Participants who had panic reactions did little to
Heim's discovery, recent decades have brought ease tensions among the local population. Finally,
significant changes to several regions of Mexico in the police and the army were called in to put an
terms of how local Indians relate to the end to the resulting turmoil. Mushroom tourism
psychotropic Psilocybe species. In many remote in Mexico dropped off rapidly, especially after
parts of the country, mushroom cults still exist in similar species were discovered in other
their specific contemporary forms which combine countries. Despite legal prohibitions, however,
Christian views with elements from pagan and pre- various Psilocybe species are still being sold to
Christian Nature religions. tourists in some areas of the country today. This
By contrast, in other parts of the country, phenomenon is not limited to Mexico. In the mid-
mushroom rituals have fallen into disuse in the 1970s, Lowy reported from Guatemala that
wake of interaction with Mexico's "modern life" Indian children near the capital city were offering
and its tourism industry. When Guzman Psilocybe mexicana Heim for sale to foreigners, a
investigated the taxonomy and geographic trading practice that has been observed in other
distribution of Psilocybe aztecorum Heim in 1978, parts of the country as well.
he noted that several active "curanderas" had been Experts on bluing gilled mushrooms, who
the focal point of sacred mushroom worship 20 travelled to South America and the Caribbean,
years earlier. Today, the next generation of Indians discovered several psychotropic species (e.g.
no longer ingest the mushrooms and consider the Panaeolus cyanescens in Jamaica), even before
hallucinogenic species to be nothing but a popular mycological research established the existence of
trading commodity for Western tourists. these species. According to those few scientific
Starting in the 1960s, large numbers of publications on taxonomic identity, the two most
young people from industrialized nations commonly used species are Psilocybe cubensis
("hippies") began to visit the centers of mushroom and Panaeolus cyanescens. Around 1970, tourists
worship as tourists, favoring the state of Oaxaca. who had previously been looking for Psilocybe
They came mostly from the United States, and species in Mexico learned that they are abundant
initially their main destination was the village of among Colombia's mycoflora as well.
Huautla de Jiminez, to visit Maria Sabina, who Consequently, knowledge about these
guided R.G. Wasson during his first mushroom mushrooms spread quickly among Colombian
session in 1955. To the extent that magic youngsters, possibly as a result of Central
mushrooms have been labeled "fool's mushrooms" America's Indian tradition. Thousands set out in
or "joker's mushrooms" in Europe, it is interesting search of these species in and around their areas
to note here that Maria Sabina herself repeatedly of residence. Special communes were formed,
referred to the mushrooms as "clowns" and called situated in idyllic regions of the Andes
herself "chief of the clowns" or "lord of the Mountains. The most famous among them was
clowns". In Mexico, magic mushrooms are also known as La Miel ("honey"). Psilocybe cubensis
known as "mushrooms of pure laughter". and the Panaeolus species were also found to be
Today we know that this run on Mexico's common across those regions of Amazonia where
mushrooms helped destroy the cultural identity of Colombia, Peru and Brazil share common
the native Indians, causing discontent and rising borders. The archaeological park at San Augustin
crime rates in several villages. Self-appointed near Bogota has been dubbed "heart of the magic
"curanderas", with no traditional roots, presided mushroom land". These species have also been
over mass ceremonies with magic mushrooms. used in Peru. During the 1980s, road side signs
proclaiming "No To San Ysidro Drugs!" were a
common sight. The slogans referred to Psilocybe
cubensis under an old name. South America's vast challenge of uncovering additional clues
problems, however, cannot be solely blamed on about ritual usage among early cultures, coupled
the ingestion of indigenous, non-lethal with efforts to trace and analyze more recent
mushrooms. Socio-economic problems are kinds of uses. Chapter 3.5 already included one
rooted in poverty and destitution, epidemics, historic account of magic mushroom use several
civil warlike conditions in some parts, as well as centuries ago. A large number of golden pendants
the rampages of the cocaine mafia. Today, in a variety of mushroom shapes have been found
Argentina and Brazil are two countries where in Colombia, suggesting that magic mushrooms
magic mushroom use is still common. In 1975, have been used there for centuries. At the same
Pollock reported the practice of mixing a drink time, research into the taxonomy and chemistry
from milk, honey, bananas and magic of South American psychotropic species has
mushrooms. barely just begun.
In terms of interdisciplinary research in
Central and South America, there remains the
CHAPTER 7.3
EUROPEAN CUSTOMS
The first report ever published in a that the mushrooms were well-known within the
scientific European journal about usage of hippie subculture of Manchester. Thirty to forty
Psilocybe semilanceata in Europe was written by Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms were
M. Carter and appeared in New Scientist in considered an appropriate dose to attain a fully
September 1976. hallucinatory state.
According to British users, the effects of
Psilocybe semilanceata include intense visuals
"Mushrooms Are Mushrooms" without any of the negative feelings that may be
caused by LSD. British colloquial names for the
The mushrooms quite suddenly emerged mushroom are quite poetic, such as:
in the spotlight of public attention in 1976, when
Judge Blomefield of Great Britain's High Court - Liberty Cap
handed down a verdict of "not guilty" in the trial - Magic Mushroom
of a man accused of possession of psilocybin in - Blue Legs
the form of dried fruiting bodies from the species - Pixie Caps
Psilocybe semilanceata. According to Carter's
report, the acquittal was justified as follows: Contrary to common opinion, "liberty
"Psilocybin is a chemical and mushrooms are cap" is not a new name, since M.C. Cooke
mushrooms". In the wake of this decision, mentioned it in his writings that date back to the
however, a few individuals in Britain were 19th century.
nonetheless sentenced for possession of Due to the widespread distribution of this
psilocybin, because the British legal system is Psilocybe species across England, particularly
based on the principles of common law, which Scotland and Wales, Psilocybe semilanceata
means that the High Court decision was not appears to be more popular in England than in any
necessarily binding in cases that went to trial in other European country, with the possible
lower courts after the man had won his acquittal in exception of Norway. This is an opinion echoed in
the High Court. numerous scientific and medical articles published
Despite its Celtic ancestry and the practice on the subject in Great Britain. In my opinion,
of Nature religions, England is among those these publications contain the most detailed
countries whose population has traditionally been descriptions of casual use of psilocybincontaining
quite mycophobic in its attitudes toward mushrooms species by laypersons anywhere in the
mushrooms, which have always been thought of as world.
poisonous, slimy and moldy. It is therefore quite One analysis by P.R. Mills and his
remarkable that these values appear to be changing collaborators described seven Scottish patients
with the current younger generation. Could it be with symptoms caused by ingestion of Psilocybe
that England's Celtic heritage is making a semilanceata mushrooms during the fall of 1978,
reappearance after centuries of dormancy? when the species fruited abundantly in the
In 1978 , C. Hyde and his collaborators Glasgow area after heavy rainfall. Four of the
reported several cases of voluntary intoxications seven men had eaten no less than one hundred
with Psilocybe semilanceata from a medical mushrooms each, which meant they had taken
perspective, describing symptoms experienced by about 50 mg of pure psilocybin a person. It is not
mushroom collectors that range from typically surprising, then, that such dosages should cause
visionary experiences to the manifestation of visions that lasted several hours, along with
acutely delirious states. The authors emphasized marked somatic symptoms.
fruiting areas that are easily accessible!
Mega Mushroom Festival
This is a baffling and incomprehensible
While there is talk about "hippies" in the proposition - to acutely endanger all residents of a
report from Manchester, a 1980 newspaper article certain area by exposing them to poison, simply
from Wales describes a "new kind of gypsy", because there were a few mild cases of mushroom
whose exploits included a mushroom celebration intoxications, with symptoms that soon
near Cardiff with 100 participants. The occasion disappeared. If anyone is to blame, it is the users
was the discovery of yet another bumper crop of for their carelessness and recklessness.
Psilocybe semilanceata in that area. Nineteen of Fortunately, these crypto-schizophrenic proposals
the revelers felt so seriously ill they had to seek were never implemented.
medical treatment. On the other hand, there are interesting
It appears that in the early days of statistics available from the poison center in
mushroom usage in Great Britain, massive London, about reported cases, where medical
amounts of Psilocybe mushrooms were consumed attention was required following ingestion of
on several occasions, which caused a higher Psilocybe semilanceata. The numbers below
number of panic reactions than elsewhere in the show how many people received therapeutic
world. treatment in Great Britain in a given year:
However, it is clear from articles published 1978 33
in medical journals that these cases were merely 1979 47
"the tip of the iceberg", that is, they were a small 1980 96
group of users whose reactions to the acute stages 1981 142
of mushroom intoxication attracted attention
because they included clinically relevant
The average age of the mushroom collectors was
symptoms such as states of pathological depression
between 15 and 19 years. Reports mostly came in
with no recognition of surroundings.
during September and October of each year,
In an attempt to describe patterns of usage
which corresponds to the mushroom's fruiting
of the Psilocybe species in the Tayside area near
period. Cases that were reported during other
Dundee, Scotland, N.R. Peden and his
months of the year had been caused by ingestion
collaborators found that the typical user was much
of dried mushroom material.
younger there than in Manchester or Wales. The
In 36% of these individuals, the
authors examined 27 patients, whose ages ranged
mushrooms caused significant visual distortions
from 12 to 24 years. I have previously cited
and visions. Five people acted aggressively
accounts about accidental intoxications indicating
without experiencing perceptual alterations.
that children can have abnormal reactions to
Dosage varied from half a mushroom (effects?) to
psilocybin, such as cramps or loss of
up to two or three pounds. If the latter amounts
consciousness. Teenage use of hallucinogens and
have been reported truthfully, those individuals
other psychoactive substances, including alcohol
ingested about 1 to 1.5 g of pure psilocybin,
and nicotine can have disastrous consequences.
assuming an alkaloid content of 0.1 % in fresh
The results of a survey at two Scottish
mushrooms. However, in cases where whole
schools of 59 children aged 14 to 15 years revealed
mushrooms had generally been eaten according to
that 66% of them had already heard about the
the Mexican tradition, liquids removed via
mushrooms' effects. Also, a paper published by
stomach pumps largely contained whole
R.E. Young and his research team in 1982 found
mushrooms. Failure to carefully chew the
that the mushroom users in the Glasgow area as a
mushrooms before swallowing means that only a
group are quite young. In 1981, these researchers
fraction of the available amount of alkaloids is
treated 49 children and adults aged 12 to 28 years.
extracted from the mushrooms and absorbed by
These authors are correct in pointing out that the
the body.
mushrooms cannot be eradicated due to their large
area of distribution. At the same time, however,
they demand that fungicides be sprayed on
mushroom
had been induced by ingestion of Psilocybe
Panic Reactions semilanceata. At the time, the patient was
experiencing personal stress and had also taken
In cases when intoxications were caused other substances as well. Despite the wide
by eating 'normal' amounts of mushrooms and the distribution of psychoactive mushrooms around
ingestion of potentially deadly species could be the world, there have been no reports of similar
excluded, pumping the patients' stomachs turned episodes.
out to be a procedure that was both too drastic as The usage of Psilocybe semilanceata in
well as unnecessary. In younger, hyper- Norway was first described during the fall of
suggestible patients, the procedure can precipitate 1977, in Sandnes, near the Rogaland area. Up to
extremely aggressive behavior. In addition, it that time, the Norwegian literature had depicted
often doesn't work, because the mushrooms tend Psilocybe semilanceata as merely a small, inedible
to clog the pumping apparatus. mushroom known to grow in grass interspersed
Therefore, panic reactions after ingestion with other, similar, species. Apparently, the
of Psilocybe semilanceata is a condition that, in experiences in England and the United States
some cases, may be aggravated or even induced inspired the use of these mushrooms in Norway,
by improper treatment of the patient at hospitals as well as in other European countries. However,
and clinics. After evaluation of the statistics on it is also possible that a report published in 1976
Psilocybe semilanceata usage in Great Britain, J. about the discovery of psilocybin in Norwegian
Francis and V.S.G. Murray emphasize that there collections contributed to subsequent usage of the
has not been a single fatality among some 318 mushrooms.
poisoning cases - in fact, no severe somatic Knowledge about the mushrooms spread
symptoms were noted, nor have there been quickly around Norway, especially in the fjord
incidents of misidentification of the mushroom areas, were the species fruits most abundantly.
species. According to the authors, intoxication Daily and weekly papers as well as underground
can be a quite unpleasant experience for the magazines dealt with the mushrooms at length.
individual. Panic reactions pose the only Only a small number of panic reactions were
significant hazard, which may endanger the known to have occurred in Norway, with some
individuals as well as their surroundings for the individuals requiring temporary clinical attention.
duration of the mushrooms' effects. Nonetheless, in December 1981, the mushroom
As an ideal treatment, they proposed that species was classified under Norwegian narcotics
patients be moved to a darkened, beautiful room, law as an "absolutely forbidden substance". The
and that they be watched until the effects have same classification applies to the potentially
subsided. If necessary, tranquilizers such as dangerously addictive drugs of the heroine type,
diazepam should be administered. as well as to the pure hallucinogens, such as LSD,
R. Watling mentions a non-fatal case in mescaline and psilocybin, all of which are
Scotland, where Inocybe geophylla (Sow. & Fr.) pharmacologically completely different from any
Kumm., a mescaline-containing species, had been of the heroine-type drugs. By contrast, Figure 57
mistaken for the Psilocybe species. illustrates that other European nations have
In the 1980s, Psilocybe semilanceata was attitudes similar to those found in British
named as the mushroom species that caused by Columbia, which form the basis for my own
far the largest number of intoxications in Great analytical work with mushroom materials.
Britain. Today, usage of this psychotropic species Compared to Norway, there is less
in that country is not quite as popular anymore as information about usage of Psilocybe
it was 10 years ago. Also, mushroom eaters are semilanceata from other countries. The year 1981
no longer prosecuted. has been named as the starting date of usage in
By comparison, a short report by a Finland; by 1984, there had only been one patient
medical student from Manchester was not who required medical attention.
convincing. The report claimed that a 24-year old There are additional countries where the
patient suffered from severe depression with mushrooms are being used and collected, more or
somatic side effects for three months ("persistent less sporadically: The Netherlands, Austria,
psychiatric symptoms") and that these symptoms
Denmark, Sweden, Belgium, Germany, Such deeply moving experiences do
Switzerland, and recently Russia near the St. not appear to be unusual (compare to reports of
Petersburg area. The mushrooms have even been experiences with Psilocybe semilanceata in
found in Siberia. In some areas, where the Chapter 3.1) and should always be studied in all
mushrooms thrive in abundance, a more seriousness.
comprehensive mode of usage can be observed, Only France seems to engage in
without attracting much additional attention over elaborate activities designed to locate collectors
a longer period of time. of psychotropic mushrooms. Despite its grand
Costly measures, such as the deployment of mycological traditions, France is a country that
helicopters over pastures in the Jura Mountains of has a rather absurd prohibition against the
Switzerland to flush out mushroom collectors have exhibition of Psilocybe and Stropharia species
rarely been used and were quickly abandoned. (European Stropharia species do not produce
Switzerland is another country where psilocybin) at scientific conventions. As a
Psilocybe cubensis is being cultivated and used consequence, French mycologists have been
without attracting much attention. Below is an avoiding the use of the genus Psilocybe.
account provided by a Swiss friend about his first Nowadays, at mycological conventions,
ever experience with this species: Psilocybes are exhibited under the old name of
Intense, kaleidoscope-like colors are being Geophila (Quelet), which appears to have gotten
generated. I begin to dive in and out of other around the problem of breaking the law.
realities, followed by the painful loss of ego, death According to my personal commu-
and life. Suddenly I find myself inside a wooden nications with mycologists, the usage of
box. My body is a black mass full of low-level pain. Psilocybe semilanceata in Italy began in about
I have the black plague. I was put inside the box, 1980/1981 and has been rising steadily since
because I was thought to be dead, but I am still then. At the same time, there have been no
alive. I am being carried to and placed on top of clinically relevant cases, nor any legislative
cart so that I can be transported to be burned. Few action on the matter. Towards the late 1980s,
others are being given such a box. At first I usage of psychoactive Psilocybe species began in
am in despair, but then I know that the end is near, the former Czechoslovakia, for instance, around
anyway. Death is a liberation for me. I the region of Brno. It appears that Psilocybe
remember: I see my house in the city center of bohemica is used more often in this country than
Metz, where I used to live until now. Then came the Psilocybe semilanceata, as the former species is
plague. My years of selfish dedication of helping quite common there.
sick, degenerate, stinking, hungry and dying people. Very little is known about European usage
I provide comfort and companionship, as of mushroom species from other genera. In the
well as medication that remains ineffective. I mid-1980s, Spanish youngsters near Barcelona
continuously make house calls, there is no end in were observed using Panaeolus mushrooms.
sight. I become ill myself. At first I deny this The well-known booklet authored by Oss
fact, but now I am inside this wooden box, in a state and Oeric about the cultivation of Psilocybe
of semi-consciousness. I know that the end is here. cubensis has been translated into several European
I know that I am a physician named languages and published in different countries. It
Claudius Vinzen and that the year is 1427. is almost certain that the book is being used as a
I wake up in the reality of winter, 1990. cultivation guide in Europe, however, there are no
Metz, where is Metz? Later on, I locate the city on a available data about the success rate of these
map of France and until this day, I have been trying experiments. In many cases, commonly occurring
to verify if this physician lived there during the contaminants probably prevent fruiting of this
Middle Ages. I am reminded of my long years of subtropical species on rye substrate.
professional work with criminal and drug-addicted I won't risk making predictions about the
youngsters. I sense the common elements of extent of future usage of indigenous European
these two realities (karma?), the sacrifices of psychoactive mushroom species, nor am I able to
selfless helping. predict which species may or may not gain in
popularity. However, it is possible to speculate unintentional intoxications, which, in turn, may
that the increased geographic distribution of result in creating a generally deeper knowledge
species such as Inocybe aeruginascens and base about the attributes of these mushrooms.
Psilocybe cyanescens may lead to more
Figure 57 - A letter from the "Central Bureau of Substance Abuse" in the former East
Germany, detailing some legal restrictions on psychoactive plants. At the time (1983),
Psilocybe mexicana was not a controlled substance and no restrictions applied to its use.
Figure 58 - Woodcut entitled "Cooking Witches" by Baldung Grien (1514). Such cultural practices undoubtedly
included familiarity with psychotropic mushrooms, even though such knowledge was considered pagan at the time.
The practice of "witchcraft" was maligned and accused witches were persecuted, tortured and executed, as the
Christian Inquisition was desperate to suppress pagan beliefs and wisdom.
CHAPTER 7.5
JAPANESE EXPERIMENTATION
Since the late 1960s, the custom of using penalties also modeled after Australian measures
psilocybin-containing mushrooms has been of law enforcement. However, in contrast to
evolving in various countries across Asia and the Psilocybe semilanceata and Panaeolus
Pacific Islands. However, there is no conclusive cyanescens, Psilocybe cubensis is not a species
evidence indicating that mushroom usage was native to New Zealand, and all psychoactive
endemic among native cultures prior to the species are generally referred to as "magic
discovery of the Mexican species. Most likely, mushrooms".
global tourism has been the most significant factor To date, we do not know about all those
behind increasing knowledge about relevant geographic regions where the discovery of bluing
mushroom species among the populations of these mushroom species was an event that did not
countries, especially after searches for strongly attract much attention, yet contributed to the
bluing gilled mushrooms were successful. These mushrooms's growing popularity and an ever-
mushrooms, most notably those found growing on increasing number of "silent" users. Scientific-
pasture land, strongly resembled similar species mycological investigations of a small number of
from other continents. samples provided clues to the identification of
psychoactive species relevant in this context: the
Neo-Mycoflora two dung-inhabiting species Psilocybe cubensis
and Panaeolus cyanescens, as well as Panaeolus
Western amateur mycologists helped tropicales, a close relative of the latter species. In
disseminate information about these species and most cases, the differentiation of the two
published articles on the mushrooms in various Panaeolus species is an extremely difficult task.
publications of their home countries. However,
little or no efforts were made to identify and Panaeolus cyanescens Omelettes
describe specific mushrooms species found
growing in Asia and the South Pacific Islands. During the seventies and eighties, the
There have also been no research efforts to mushroom restaurants of Bali became quite
investigate the overall mycoflora in this part of the famous, since interested tourists could order
world. Thus, during the 1970s, a group of mushroom omelettes made with Panaeolus
teenagers in Samoa discovered the psychoactive cyanescens - house specialties, and all completely
effects of Panaeolus cyanescens. At first, the legal to boot. At first, local children collected the
police took measures to suppress the practice. But mushrooms needed to prepare the dishes. In
persecution by law enforcement agencies was response to increasing demand for this culinary
halted when it became apparent that ingestion of specialty, however, commercial cultivation of the
the mushrooms did not pose a significant health Panaeolus species began, using the method of
risk. According to Cox, the teenagers' parents transferring dung with naturally-grown mycelia
considered their children's mushroom experience onto fresh buffalo manure.
"a foolish, but totally harmless episode and a part Apparently, no major complications
of normal teenage development". In light of such a ensued, and this type of mushroom usage
reasonable frame of reference, the historic label remained unchallenged for a long time. In Bali,
"fool's mushrooms" (Chapter 2) immediately ingestion of mushrooms has been limited, for the
comes to mind. most part, to visiting tourists. In 1992, a German
By contrast, customs of psychoactive tourist reported that, if anything, the number of
mushroom usage in New Zealand evolved around restaurants had increased compared to the 1980s.
the same species found in Australia, with criminal The number of restaurant patrons, however,
Figure 60 - Psilocybe samuiensis on a
mixture of rye and horse dung
appeared to have decreased, indicating an comparatively smaller and its habitat limited to
increasing familiarity with psychoactive tropical regions.
mushrooms species in the tourists's countries of The mushrooms primarily grow in
origin. valley areas with monsoon climate conditions,
Similar stories about mushroom at altitudes of about 3,000 ft. on substrates of
specialties exclusively prepared for tourists have partially decomposed cow manure as well as on
also been reported from Sumatra, Java and The water buffalo dung. While the species fruits all
Philippines. year round, it does so most abundantly in May
Those mushroom species described and June, the rainy months that precede the
above are based on samples collected from monsoon season.
islands; thus, it is quite logical to expect finding Nepal is another country where no
those same species growing on the Asian evidence was found of any mushroom usage by
mainland as well. Soon after Earle published his the indigenous population. Mycophilic Western
description of Stropharia (Psilocybe) cubensis in visitors, however, having discovered the
a 1906 edition of a Cuban agriculture journal, species, soon indulged in usage of the
Patouillard proposed the species name mushrooms for hallucinatory purposes, a
Naematoloma caerulescens for his own samples practice that failed to draw much public
of the same species, which were collected in attention. It appears that a relatively large dose
Tonkin (Vietnam) in 1907. In Thailand and was required to achieve the desired effects,
Cambodia, Heim found fruiting bodies of the since several individuals consumed forty or
species Psilocybe cubensis, providing the first more of the fleshy mushrooms at a time.
sample from outside of Mexico used by Hofmann
and his collaborators to confirm the presence of
psilocybin in the fruiting bodies.
Such positive results inspired the
proposal that psychoactive Psilocybe and related "Soma": A Psilocybian Species?
species thrive on all continents, a hypothesis that
has been fully confirmed.
Other mushroom species from the genus Within the context of discovering this
Panaeolus have been found in mainland Asia as species, Schroeder and Guzman proposed a most
well. For example, Ola'h's monograph describes interesting hypothesis. They suggested that
"soma", the substance revered as a deity by the
a bluing mushroom named Panaeolus
cambodginiensis Ola'h & Heim, a species - as its mysterious, ancient Aryan civilization, who are
name suggests - found only in Cambodia. said to have developed a soma cult, did not, in
According to Ola'h, all of the species's fruiting fact, refer to the fly agaric mushroom, as initially
proposed by Wasson. More likely, soma was the
bodies contain psilocybin.
name of a psychedelic Psilocybe species, based
on its spectacular psychotropic effects and the
mushroom's geographic distribution pattern.
Monsoon Climate, Manure and An article authored by J.W. Allen and
Water Buffaloes M.D. Merlin concludes that currently Thailand is
the country with the largest consumption of
psychoactive mushrooms.
In 1981, Schroeder reported the results In several areas across Thailand, tourists
of his mycological field work conducted in Nepal can find menus offering mushrooms prepared as
during 1978 and 1979, where his research efforts part of omelettes, soups, teas, pizzas or juices.
established that mushrooms of the Psilocybe Allen specifically studied patterns of usage on
species are wide-spread throughout the area. the two islands of Koh Samui and Koh Pha-
Guzman proposed that these species can quite ngan. Previously, sporadic reports from other
possibly be classified as Psilocybe cubensis and islands off the Thai coast contained descriptions
Psilocybe subcubensis Guzman. Macroscopically, of similar practices there. In January 1990, Allen
the latter species is very similar to the subtropical also confirmed usage of the mushrooms in the
Psilocybe cubensis species, but its spores are northern areas of Thailand.
German Tourist Boom with a synthetic hallucinogen (LSD?) whose
effects lasted much longer than those of
On Koh Samui and Koh Pha-ngan, the psilocybin. This dangerous practice caused
mushroom dishes are enjoyed primarily by unexpected reactions with effects lasting for up to
German tourists. Along with a few other 10 hours. Some consumers experienced
foreigners, some Thai teenagers use the dysphoric side effects which persisted for as long
mushrooms as well, sometimes even attempting as several days. One individual developed an
to smoke them in a bamboo pipe. As a salt-like aversion against all kinds of mushroom dishes for
chemical compound, psilocybin requires several months.
temperatures of about 200C for it to melt and As in Mexico during the sixties, a large
partially break down without sublimation, so that variety of mushroom images and products are
a tobacco pipe will not be effective in achieving marketed commercially in Thailand these days.
the desired psychoactive effects. Among merchandise offered for sale there are
During the fall of 1988, Thai authorities hand-painted and mass-produced T-Shirts (see
distributed warning leaflets at tourist centers, Figure 56, p. 78) with pictures of Panaeolus
providing a detailed description of a bizarre panic cyanescens and Psilocybe subcubensis, shown
reaction experienced by an Australian tourist, together as well as separately, not to mention
who was hospitalized briefly as a result. Allen postcards, posters, lighters and key rings, all
thoroughly analyzed this event by seeking featuring mushroom-motif decorations. Allen
additional information about the circumstances of reported that such goods are available in both
this case, including interviews with all other Northern and Southern Thailand.
individuals involved. Allen discovered that the In coming years, we can well expect a
Australian visitor had used excessive amounts of wealth of new discoveries and insights into the
various pharmaceuticals, including highly ethnopharmacology, taxonomy and natural
addictive substances, which is why he eventually chemistry of Asia's mycoflora.
required hospitalization. Not surprisingly, another new mushroom
Finally, in January 1989, this incident species was discovered in Thailand in August,
was central to justifying passage of a law that 1991 and named Psilocybe samuiensis Guzman,
prohibits usage of psychoactive mushrooms Bandala & Allen (see Figure 60, p. 99). The
("hed keequai" in local language), with harsh species is similar in appearance to Psilocybe
penalties provided for non-compliance. Until that semilanceata, but the fruiting bodies do not
time, many restaurants posted signs advertising contain baeocystin. Psilocybe samuiensis is a
the various types of mushroom dishes on their bluing species that grows on fertilized soil, but
menus. But mushroom usage continued despite not directly on top of dung. We successfully
passage of the law. Specific species still being cultivated this species on a mixture of rye, horse
used were identified as Psilocybe cubensis, dung and water (2:1:2), but found that we needed
Psilocybe subcubensis and Panaeolus to add a casing layer consisting of peat and chalk
cyanescens. It is unknown if a tourist in Thailand (2:1).
has ever been sentenced for usage or possession
of mushrooms. In addition to the collection of
fruiting bodies growing naturally on buffalo
dung, Thai as well as German residents on Koh
Samui and Koh Pha-ngan began to cultivate the
mushrooms, outdoors and inside houses. In
accordance with the "natural cultivation"
approach, rice debris was added to fresh manure
and mixed with dung already permeated by
mycelia. After prohibition, mushroom cultivation
continued at hard-to-reach wilderness locations.
Moreover, Allen found evidence that
some restaurants temporarily served dishes made
from regular table mushrooms apparently spiked
CHAPTER 8
Extensive animal research efforts during limited success. The child died within three days.
the 1950s furnished evidence that both psilocybin
and psilocin are alkaloids of negligible acute The mushroom sample involved in this
toxicity. Specifically, the dosage of incident was identified as Psilocybe baeocystis. P.
psilocybin that caused death in 50% of the Stamets, however, contested this finding, claiming
experimental mice (LD 50) was determined to be the species had been misidentified. He referred to
280 mg/kg body weight. By comparison, noticeable a publication about the incident that included a
effects in humans generally occur at dosages as low picture of the mushrooms, which, according to
as 0.02 mg/kg. Stamets, shows a sample of Psilocybe cyanescens.
Animal tests showed that, on average, This species is wellknown as exceptionally
psilocybin was a substance only half as toxic as potent, due to high levels of psilocybin and
mescaline, and at the same time, turned out to be psilocin. Still, we cannot determine whether toxic
50 times more potent as a psychoactive substance. concentrations of alkaloids were the cause of
For example, up to 2 g of mescaline were being death, or whether ingestion of the alkaloids
administered with no dangerous side effects, while triggered a latent case of epilepsy in the form of
the usual dose of psilocybin ranged from 3 to 30 an acute episode that could not be treated or
mg as part of psychological testing and controlled. If a similar incident happened
psychotherapy sessions. nowadays, fatal outcomes could be easily
As is the case with other psychotropic prevented, since the last three decades of progress
substances, human beings most likely have a more in pharmaceutical research included the discovery
sensitive reaction in response to psilocybin than of new drugs capable of aborting convulsive
mice do. Still, the range of safety in controlled episodes.
experiments comes to several hundred times the Due to publicity generated by the
amount of the active dosage. The same goes for the unfortunate accident in 1960, two alkaloids
consumption of mushroom material, since (baeocystin and norbaeocystin) first isolated from
psilocybin concentrations in mushrooms can vary Psilocybe baeocystis, at times acquired
up to a factor of 10. Consequently, J. Ott reputations of being extremely poisonous as well
speculated that adults would need to eat their own as strongly psychoactive. Both claims, however,
body weight in fresh mushrooms, in order to finally are wrong and unsubstantiated. Specifically, both
reach the dosage limit of lethal toxicity. Despite the baeocystin and norbaeocystin are present in other
hundreds of thousands of voluntary self- mushroom species, such as Psilocybe
experiments taking place every year in the U.S. semilanceata, and at generally higher levels
alone, no fatalities caused by magic mushrooms compared to the alkaloid content of Psilocybe
have ever occurred there. Small children, however, baeocystis.
have abnormal reactions to psilocybin, such as loss Biochemical research efforts accelerated
of consciousness, cramps and danger of death. and large numbers of studies were conducted,
It was in the fall of 1960, that a child from primarily with LSD. These investigators sought to
Milwaukee, Oregon, picked several mushrooms discover the receptor binding sites for
from grassy soil below a cluster of conifers. hallucinogenic compounds in the brain and to
Having eaten the mushrooms, the child understand the mechanisms underlying the
experienced cramps and a high fever. Similar to a genesis of psychedelic visions. Today, we still
condition described as "status epilepticus ", the lack a sound theoretical framework able to
symptoms were treated by medications, with explain the relationship between chemical
compounds and the manifestation of their
psychoactivity. Even though basic research is the 1960's has disparaged "psychedelics" as
certainly important, its methods, unfortunately, are excessively glamorous and too positive a label, as
often a function of a rather one-sided the term was popular among Timothy Leary's fans
pharmacological approach to investigating the and supporters.
effects of psilocybin, LSD and mescaline - an When used in low doses or for the first
approach that is, in fact, too narrow to address the time, these substances are most likely to bring
remarkably unusual nature of these substances and about a kind of magical transformation of
their effects. surroundings, with a heightened ability to perceive
Misunderstandings between pharma- subtle differences along the color spectrum -
cologists and toxicologists on the one hand and effects an individual often takes in with a great
psychiatrists and psychologists on the other can sense of wonder and awe. Based on these types of
often be traced all the way back to the 1950's, experiences, the label "psychoesthetica" has been
creating a legacy of disputes and arguments that used as well.
have yet to be resolved. S. Grof undertook the During the 1950's, those experiments of a
tedious task of analyzing 5,000 experimental LSD purely pharmacological nature revealed that,
protocols in an effort to isolate "absolute" within a specific low dosage range, the effects of
symptoms that are reported or occur all of the psilocybin and LSD were largely similar, except
time. His results were negative. According to Grof, for the shorter duration of the psilocybin
hallucinogenic substances are non-specific triggers experience. That is why there are numerous
causing a sequence of altered states of comparisons in the literature of 10 mg of
consciousness, which do not fit the syndrome psilocybin with 100 ug of LSD as equivalent
labeled "toxic psychosis". Rather, it is the dosages.
individual's personality, along with the There are several authors, however, who
experimental setting that significantly shape the focus on the more visionary and metaphysical
nature of the psychedelic experience. This view is nature of the psilocybin experience compared to
shared by a majority of experts with considerable other hallucinogenic substances. A. Hofmann
experience in conducting psychedelics-assisted conducted self-experiments with both substances
psychotherapy. Even "real" somatic symptoms, and found the altered state of consciousness
such as nausea or vomiting, can often be controlled induced by psilocybin to be both deeper and
through psychological intervention techniques somewhat gloomier than those produced by LSD.
administered by trained professionals. Other investigators have portrayed
psilocybin as "friendlier" - a substance that is not
as fierce as LSD in exposing possible traumas
A Plethora of Names hidden within the subconscious mind (see Chapter
3.2). Such differences in comparative evaluations
of psilocybin and LSD are likely linked to a
The broad range of possible experiences variety of factors, such as dosage differences,
inspired the use of labels other than research protocols less than comprehensive and
"hallucinogens", with widely differing semantic exhaustive in scope, as well as personality and
connotations: entheogens, psychedelics, environmental variables.
illusionogens, psycholytics, psychomimetics,
psychodysleptica, psychoemetics and others.
"Phantastica" (Lewin) is the oldest label LSD "Flashbacks"
ever used to describe this class of substances. This
term successfully evokes dream-like, fanciful R. Fischer conducted a series of
aspects of the experience, as well as the potential experiments designed to study the effects of
for euphoric and dysphoric emotional overtones. psilocybin compared to LSD and mescaline. The
More recent terminology often says more about results confirmed what had already been common
semantic biases of those who use the labels than knowledge among those who used the mushrooms
about any factual, objective characteristics of the in various contexts around the world: "flashbacks"
alkaloids they refer to. Accordingly, official anti- are quite rare, and very mild, if they occur at all,
drug propaganda since nor do abnormal symptoms persist
once the effects of the alkaloid have worn off. Thus, detailed analyses comparing the effects of
Widespread reports of LSD-induced "flashbacks" LSD and psilocybin must await results from future
spawned biochemical theories which falsely research efforts, assuming researchers will be able
postulate that LSD is stored inside the body and to conduct these types of studies.
can be released at a later time to induce short By contrast, relatively high doses of LSD
periods of visions and other "psychotic" as well as psilocybin typically "bypass" the initial
manifestations. Such conjecture about the body's phases of experience, propelling the individual
"storage capacity" persisted despite prior evidence directly into the realm of transpersonal
to the contrary that established LSD as a substance consciousness. The natural scientist's first
rapidly metabolized and eliminated from the body. experiment with Psilocybe bohemica or the
The assumption of a prolonged storage incidents of accidental intoxication with Psilocybe
period following ingestion of LSD had already cubensis in Africa both illustrate these kinds of
been debunked by LSD-assisted psychotherapy transpersonal experiences.
during the 1960's. According to M. Hausner, who Aside from psilocybin's psychotherapeutic
worked in the former Czechoslovakia, several applications as detailed in Chapter 9, there are
patients who went through a series of LSD sessions other interesting phenomena and potential uses for
did experience "flashbacks" in between sessions. psilocybin as well as those mushrooms whose
However, the therapeutic administration of active ingredients can be analyzed and measured
hallucinogens was continued in these cases and accurately.
those flashback episodes that did occur were far The investigation of frequent symptoms
less spectacular than expected based on some of such as compulsive laughter, yawning and the
the more dramatic descriptions of the phenomenon. flow of tears without dysphoria may reveal
Within the context of M. Hausner's studies, interesting neurophysiological mechanisms,
flashback episodes turned out to be merely provided we can isolate and separate the influence
temporary manifestations of issues that had of psychological factors in the manifestation of
reached the conscious mind. Moreover, flashbacks these symptoms.
disappeared as therapy progressed with continued
administrations and did not recur after conclusion Psilocybin as a Research Tool for Study
of the therapy program. These observations are at and Diagnosis of Brain Damage
odds with the biochemical theory which predicted
that repeated administrations would increase The benefits of diagnosing brain-damaged
storage of the substance inside the body, causing patients with psilocybin were investigated in the
increasingly powerful flashback episodes. former Czechoslovakia during the 1960s.
Considering the highly variable nature of Psilocybin was the alkaloid of choice for these
psilocybin's effects as illustrated by examples of studies, due to its minimal toxicity and because
unintentional and carefully controlled participants were not expected to develop
experimentation described in this book alone, some additional chronic dysfunctions as a result of
striking parallels with Grof's findings on the effects ingesting psilocybin. Visual hallucinations were
of LSD virtually suggest themselves. Grof noted found to be almost completely suppressed in
the emergence of, in that order, abstract, aesthetic, patients suffering from lesions to parts of the
psychodynamic, perinatal and transpersonal types central nervous system known to mediate visual-
of experiences during hallucinogenic sessions. sensory functions.
With repeated administrations of relatively low On the other hand, the discovery that
doses, participants typically progressed through psilocybin tended to potentiate a variety of
these stages one by one, eventually attaining and neurological processes effectively turned the
lingering at the transpersonal level of analysis. alkaloid into a diagnostic tool used to reveal latent
The accounts of psychoactive mushroom paralyses and other subtle types of damage to the
experiences included in this book are by necessity central nervous system. While LSD could also
limited to only one to three trials over time. have been used for this purpose, researchers
preferred psilocybin, because dosage measurement
was comparatively simpler, its effects were
short-term and patients experienced less fatigue direction in life: Numerous conflicts arise in the
with psilocybin than with LSD. process and need to be dealt with and integrated.
In one exceptionally remarkable case, one Besides inducing altered perceptual states,
of the participants, while under the influence of hallucinogenic substances, including psilocybin are
the substance, clearly saw a brain tumor inside bound to release a stream of new emotions and
her skull - a tumor that was not discovered until conflicts. Such experiences often serve to confuse
an examination that followed the session. teenaged users and to compound existing areas of
R. Fischer (see Figure 61) conducted a conflict, threatening to disturb the youngster's
series of controlled experiments involving the equilibrium, which is rather fragile tc begin with.
presentation of words and sentences composed of Quite likely, the search for a means to escape
incomplete letters, with increasingly larger reality plays an important role in this situation. In
portions of the letters covered in several stages, fact, the escapist aspect of LSD portrayed against a
from the top down. In the end, only the stumps of backdrop of political upheaval fuelled a reactionary
the letters remained in the display, which was no zeal among those determined to control the
longer readable. Under the influence of substance during the 1960's. As a consequence of
psilocybin, however, the ability to "re-synthesize" these restrictive legislative measures, the unbiased,
these characters was observed quite frequently: scientific evaluation of hallucinogenic substances
Participants were able to read a significantly remains an all but impossible task. These examples
larger number of words, with some reportedly from the LSD research literature suggest that
able to see the partial letters, complete and uncut, controlled human subjects research is possible
in a display that showed little more than a white without risking damage or injury to the
background area. participants, while gaining a wealth of new insights
These observations are powerful evidence beyond psychotherapy applications.
confirming that the effects of mushroom Comprehensive investigations of these
ingredients are certainly not just "psychotic" in substances have long ago proven beyond doubt that
nature, a notion preferred by those pharma- psilocybin, mescaline and LSD are not physically
cologists partial to terminology such as "toxic addictive, nor do they cause withdrawal symptoms
psychosis", with all its connotations as evoked by of any kind. Repeated self-experimentation over
the "fool's mushroom" label. Psilocybin and its long periods of time is rare; most long-term users
relatives apparently act as catalysts that initiate eventually reduce frequency of use due to the
new information processing mechanisms and nature of these substances that initiate powerful
patterns of coordination between the different transpersonal processes and facilitate the
interactive areas of the brain. As such, the emergence of personal conflicts. Besides, habitual
substances create the context needed for daily users quickly develop tolerance to the point
integrating emotional and rational processes in of being unable to experience any psychoactive
new ways. Under the most favorable of effects at all. That is why clinical trials are spaced
circumstances, such states of mind are to allow for intervals of at least one week between
experienced not only as a profound, impressive repeated applications.
expansion of one's consciousness, but may also be
reflected in short-term improvements of
performance. I believe, however, that these Ecstasy is More than Entertainment
temporary gains in skills are rarely attained by
casual or recreational users of psilocybin- Renowned pharmacologist R. Siegel
containing mushrooms, because set and setting described hallucinogenic mushroom consumption
are often less than ideal, and alkaloid content in California as merely "experimental use".
tends to be highly variable. Most researchers, According to his definition, almost all users of
including A. Hofmann, strongly advised against psychoactive mushrooms have anywhere from at
usage of hallucinogens by youngsters, even in least one up to 10 experiences, with several
controlled experimental settings. Adolescence is a weeks or months in between repetitions. Or
time of upheaval, a developmental stage when
youngsters struggle with themselves and their
surroundings, searching for a purpose and a firm
consider R. G. Wasson's poetic answer to a trembles. What kind of person would think
question from his banker friends who wanted to nothing of submitting to a sense of pure, absolute
know why he did not eat the mushrooms every awe or of floating through that doorway into the
day: presence of the divine? Those who have never
"There are many who never known ecstasy first-hand, distort the word each
experienced ecstasy and who may think this is time they use it. We must comprehend anew the
entertaining. But ecstasy is not a form of entire, frightening meaning inherent in this word.
entertainment:
PSYCHOTHERAPY
OUTLOOK
Apparently, all of the most important species in use. Perhaps these distinctions are not
psilocybin-producing European mushroom species just the result of different concentrations of
are already well known. Their geographic psilocybin and psilocin. Moreover, among
distribution and migration patterns, however, have European and North American mycophiles, the
not yet been adequately investigated. This vast majority stress the popularity of Psilocybe
knowledge gap primarily applies to recently semilanceata, a species favored over all others,
discovered species outside the Psilocybe genus. In because of its reputation for causing the "richest"
addition, there is a lack of comprehensive sources kinds of experiences. Indeed, analyses of
of information on distribution patterns of Psilocybe Psilocybe semilanceata extracts typically confirm
cyanescens for a number of different countries. the presence of eight indole compounds, whereas
other species, such as Psilocybe cubensis, usually
contain only half as many. Understanding just
how such ingredients interact with psilocybin
may well result in the development of new
More Taxonomic, Ecological and
clinical applications for these substances.
Chemical Data are Needed
The mycological literature includes
information about several rare, if "questionable",
I would like to suggest that, for most species, some of which have been reported to
species, even chemical analysis data should be show blue discolorations. The Mycena and
viewed as merely preliminary in nature. In order to Pluteus genera, for example, include descriptions
learn the truth about these mushrooms and such of such mushroom species. If indole alkaloids
issues as prevalence, migrations into new habitats, were to be found in mushrooms other than the
specific positions within the mycological system as Agaricales (gilled mushrooms), it would mean a
a whole, or chemo-taxonomical concerns, we must sensational discovery. Future chemical analyses
first acquire more taxonomic, ecological and are bound to identify additional psilocybin-
chemical data from the study of relevant producing mushrooms among the European
mushroom species. While further analysis of species, which number about 5,000. There is an
fruiting body samples from known species in order even greater likelihood of discovering alkaloids in
to determine alkaloid content variability remains many nonEuropean species, as the mycofloras of
an essential task, future research must also include most countries have not been researched as
efforts to identify secondary substances, as well as extensively as Europe's.
their structural isolation. Baeocystin, for example,
appears to be an alkaloid primarily found in
Understanding the Mushrooms'
mushrooms from temperate climate zones, and it is
less common in tropical species. Today, there are Powerful Magic
substantial doubts over whether the synthesis of
Baeocystin as described in 1988 is actually Ethnopharmacological research efforts
feasible. There is an urgent need for additional are also bound to generate remarkable results in
research on the synthesis of this substance. the near future. G. Samorini, for instance,
Possibly, a number of different mushroom recently reported that Catalonia, Spain, is a region
ingredients may have psychotropic effects. As where Psilocybe semilanceata has traditionally
such, they could act as modifiers of psilocybin's been known by the unusual name of "sorgin
primary effects in various ways. For instance, zorrotz", or "witches' tread". This label strongly
accounts of mushroom usage from ancient Mexico suggests early ritualistic usage of Psilocybe
already included observations about different types semilanceata in that area. Interestingly, Catalonia
of effect associated with the various mushroom is also known as
Europe's only region where traditional usage of exploring and enhancing our understanding of
Amanita muscaria has been confirmed. In addition, mushrooms at the biochemical level. But increased
there is growing evidence that other world biochemical knowledge does not permit us to draw
religions, especially in Africa, have embraced the any sort of conclusion about other aspects of
usage of psychoactive mushrooms as well, an psychoactive substances, such as psychedelic peak
intriguing possibility that calls for further study. experiences, exploring the realms of the
While the number of psychotropic subconscious mind, as well the development of
mushroom species has risen dramatically all across therapeutic applications based on these effects.
Europe, the pace of progress in developing medical Certain hypnotherapy techniques are
uses for mushroom ingredients has not followed known to induce experiences similar, but not
suit. However, hallucinogens, including psilocybin identical to, those caused by administration of
have a history of therapeutic usage, a practice that hallucinogens. Recent studies have demonstrated
is documented by a great deal of information, that hypnosis can benefit the immune system, a
experiences and insights. finding that suggests psilocybin and related
Given the lack of alternate methods to compounds may have potentially similar
study these substances, the revival of medical and properties. Meditation and dreaming are additional
interdisciplinary research efforts is a more crucially examples of states of consciousness with
important issue now than ever before. After all, a interesting parallels to psychedelic experiences, yet
better understanding of psychotropic substances very little is known about these links, due to the
may well benefit a vast number of patients, scarcity of research efforts in this area.
possibly by contributing to the processes of mental In recent years, the non-medical use of
and psychic healing. A glimmer of hope for the psychotropic species has become an increasingly
revival of large-scale research comes from the popular pastime. I agree, however, with the
United States, where a very small number of assessment of Swiss toxicologist R. Flammer, who
investigators have, on occasion, succeeded at has written about the possible problems linked to
securing government permission to conduct studies this practice:
on the medical aspects of hallucinogens, including "....There is no need to panic, considering
psilocybin. The conceptual approach behind the the severity of existing problems with alcohol and
design of these research projects suggests that hard addictive drugs, which make the Panaeolus
virtually no reliable pharmacological data is in mushrooms and their close relatives appear
existence. In fact, these substances have undergone harmless by comparison. "
extensive study over the course of several decades. In order to guard against being dazzled or
To the extent that relationships of dosage and overwhelmed by the mushroom's powerful magic
effects have already been determined, current and we must embrace the pursuit of in-depth research
future research efforts should build upon existing into hallucinogenic mushrooms, a method that can
knowledge, instead of neglecting or ignoring protect us from jumping to conclusions, and in the
previously published results. High-tech metho- process, from hampering the advancement of
dology may well yield new results - techniques for beneficial applications.
Figure 66 - Psilocybe semilanceata cultured on a mixture of grass seeds, dung
and grains of rice.
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