Passive Solar Architecture For Mediterranean Area

o
INSTITUTE FOR SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND INFORMATICS

PASSIVE SOLAR ARCHITECTURE FOR MEDITERRANEAN AREA

by

R. Colombo

CEC - Joint Research Centre - 21020 Ispra (Va), Italy

A Landabaso

CEC, Directorate General for Energy DG XVII - Brussels

A Sevilla

Geohabitat - Energia y Media Ambiente . Vicar (Almeria) . Spain

*** I JOINT

* *

I~ II RESEARCH

~CENTRE

.PJ 9L _

:::" , . SSIO OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITES

February 1994

Published for the

Commission of the European Communities by the Joint Research Centre and the Directorate - General for Energy [DG-XVII)

S.P.-!' 94-02

II

Commission of the European Communities

This publication has been prepared through the THERMIE PROGRAM of the Commission of the European Communities Directorate - General for Energy (DG XVII) and the Joint Research Centre's Institute for Systems Engineering and Informatics.

The Working Group

This manual is the outcome of the editors and the Geohabitat team. They had the responsibility for most of the production activities.

Legal Notice

Neither the Commission of the European Communities nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of the information contained within.

II

I 1IIr- ...

~**) REFERENCES

LITERATURE

FIGURES ON PAGES I LITERATURE

(1) Givoni B, "Integroted Passive systems for Heating and Cooling of Buildings by Natural Energies". School of Architecture and Urban Planning UCLA

(2) Givoni B, "Earth Integrated Buildings - An Overview DOE International Expert Graup on Passive Coaling o] Buildings. Miami. April 1980.

(3) Watsan 0, "Energy Conservation Throug Building Design". Me. Grow Hill Book 1979.

60

34

(4) Givoni B, "Man Climate and Architecture". Van

Nostrand Reinhold Co. 1981. 38,44,70

(5) Mazria E, "The Passive Solar Energy Hondbook".

RodalePress 1979. 56, 58, 62, 80, 94, 130

(6) Bolcomb D, "Pcss.ve Solar Design Handbook. Vol. I and II" DOE.

(7) The American Planning Association "Site Planning for Solar Access". U.S.

(8) Chandra S, "A Handbook for designing ventilated Buildings" Florida Energy Center.

90,102,132,134

114,116,118

(9) Niles Ph, Hoggard K, "Passive Solar Handbook". 8, 10, 12, 14,44,46,

California Energy Commission 1980. 48,66,76,78, 100, 120,122,124,126

\l 0) Achord P, Gicquel R, "European Passive Solar Handbook Preliminary Edition". CEC Directorate General XII 1986.

(11) Minne A, "Energy Design Principles in Buildings'. International Energy Agency, Design Information Booklet no. 1, 1988.

(12) Schreck H, Hillman G, Nagel J, "Design Context". International Energy Agency. Design Information Booklet no. 2, 1989

(13) Holtz M, "Design Guidelines: An Internatio al Summary" International Energy Agency-Oe,ign Information Booklet no. 3, 1990.

(14) Anderson D. Blum S, Holtz M. "Design Tool Selection and Use" International Energy Agency. Design Informative Booklet no. 4, 1988

(IS) den Ouden C, Steemers T, "Building 2000. Volumes I and II" Kluwer Academic Publishers

(16) Reynolds J, "Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings". John Wiley and Sons,

1987. 114

26, 36, 64, 138, 139, 141,142,1,,13,144, 145,146,147,148, 149,150,151

84,104

68

20

161,162,163,164, 165,166,167

(17) Aranovitch E, Oliveira E, Steemers T, Ed. "Workshop on Passive Cooling. Proceedings". Joint

Research Centre. CEC, 1990 20

('18) "Passive Design for Desert Houses" Arizona Solar Energy Commission.

(19) Metz E, "Soperhousc" Garden Way Publishing 1984.

(20) Franco J.P., Boillan JP."5000 Maisons Solaire;"

Ministere de l'Urbo usme et du loqernent", 1983. 155, 160

(211 Wright 0, "Natural Solar Cooling". Norlhern California Solar Energy Association 1980.

(22) Kohler J, Lewis 0 "Gloss and MOil" Solar Age 1982.

(23) Janes R, Mcfarland R, "Passive Solar Design Handbook III". DOE 1983.

124) Silvestrini V, "Active and Passive Architecture". Sogesta. Permanent School on Solar Energy

Processes. 90

125) Goulding J, Lewis J 0, Steemers T, "Energy in Architecture The Europeon Possive Solar Handbook"

B.T. Botsford 1992. 18, 20

126) "Climatic Data Handbook for Europe" Kluwer Academic Publishers.

27) T e ECD Partnership. Solar Architecture in

Europe. Prism Press for CEC DGXVII. '91 157

128) Knowles R, "Energy and Form", MIT Press

1979. 50,52,54

129) "Dati Climatici per 10 Proge~acione", Edile ed

l npiosfico". CNR 1982. 169

(30) "Guia Resumido del Tiempo en Espaiia"

lnstitulo Nocioncl de Meteorologia 1965. 168

(31) Climatic Data Handbook for Europe. Kluwer Ac. Publishers. Commission of the European Communities

168,169

(32) G. Cae. "Solar Gain". California Energy Commission' 80.

153

(33) W Me. Adams. "Solar Age: 9 - 83".

156

a

CONTENTS

DESIGN PROCESS

• Organization

• Comfort

• Climate Definition

• Local Climate Modifications

• Solar Access

• Site Analysis

• BUilding Design and Lay-out

• Materials

16

CONTENTS

PAGE

OTHER PUBLICATIONS FROM THE CEC

6

INTRODUCTION

7

DEFINITIONS

• Passive Solar Architecture

8

PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

• Direct Gain

• Indirect Gain

• Sunspace

• Conclusions

74

STRATEGIES FOR MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATES 108

·Traditional and Actual Construction

• Site Configuration

• Natural Cooling

RULES OF THUMB

• Direct Gain

• Indirect Gain

• Sunspace

122

CALCULATIONS

• Shadow Analysis

• Thermal Performance ( Method 5000 )

128

CASE STUDIES

• Climate Definitions

• Designs for Climate A-type

• Designs for Climate B-type

• Detailed Project Analysis

152

USEFUL DATA

• Meteorological Data

• Software Simulation Tools

168

THE ALTAZ -E N, COMFORT AND NNE 1-94 172

PROGRAMS

a

I {"} OTHER PUBLICATIONS FROM THE C.E.C.

*

B. Cross (Ed.)

EUROPEAN DIRECTORY OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SUPPLIERS AND SERVICES 1991

James & James Science Publishers Ltd.

CEC 1991 ISBN 0-907383-6

e. den Ouden lEd.)

PROCEEDINGS OF A WORKSHOP ON DESIGN SUPPORT TO ARCHITECTS Edinburgh, Scotland, UK 19-20 June 1990

CEC Directorate-General XII, 1990 EUR 13130 EN

D. Turrent, N. Baker, IC. Steemers, W. Palz SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY FOR EUROPE

- An Assessment Study Reidel 1983

David Clarke Associates

SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE VIDEO Introduction to solar architecture

Video available in VHS PAL/SECAM

CEC Directorate-General XII, 1988

ENERGY AND URBAN ENVIRONMENT

(A comparative Evaluation of Urban Energy Policies in Europe). CEC 1990

Energy Research Group UCD

THE ENERGY CONSCIOUS TRADITION

An exhibition in the form of 16 posters and a catalogue Available in each of the nine EC languages for educational, professional or public exhibition. CEC, 1989

ENERGY SAVING IN BUILDINGS

Proceedings of the International Seminar held at The Hague, The Netherlands, 14-16 November, 1983

D. Reidel Publishing Company EUR 9150 ISBN 90-277-1770-2

EURO-MED SOLAR

Proceedings of the Mediterranean Business Seminor on Solar Thermal Technologies organised by tile CEC, Nicosia, Cypris, 8-10 November 1990. CEC DGXVII

J Goulding & JO Lewi; IEds.)

PASSIVE SOLAR RESOURCE GUIDE

A guide to publications, design tools and other aids to passive solar design for European Architects On 3.5" computer disc for use on Apple Macintosh with Hypercard. CEC Directorate-General XII, 1989

J. Goulding, JO Lewis & r.c. Steemers (Ed,) ENERGY CONSCIOUS DESIGN - A PRIMER FOR EUROPEAN ARCHITECTS

To be published by B.l Botsford Ltd. in 1992 for the CEe. EUR 13445

J. Goulding, JO Lewis & I.C. Steemers (Eds)

ENERGY IN ARCHITECTURE - THE EUROPEAN PASSIVE SOLAR HANDBOOK

Published by BT Botsford ltd. in 1992 for the CEC. EUR 13446

J. Uyttenbroeck et 01

STUDY FOR A EURO CODE ON THE RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY IN BUILDINGS

Report 2973/111/86 CEC, 1986

J.M. Didier & Assoc.

LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS ON SOLAR ENERGY IN THE EC MEMBERS STATES

CEC Contract No. 85-B-7032-11-001, Final Report, Brussels 1987

II

R. Ferraro & R. Godoy IEds.)

SOLAR HEATING - Performance and cost improvement by design

CEC, 1983 EUR 8948

R. Ferraro, R. Godoy, D. Turrent [Eds.] MONITORING SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS

- A practical handbook CEC, 1983 EUR 8005

R.M. Lebens & H.J Birch

AN INVESTIGATION OF PASSIVE SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING WORK IN EUROPE? CEC, 1979

R.M. Lebens [Ed.]

PASSIVE SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE

- The results of the First European Passive Solar Competition - 1980

Architectural Press, 1981 EUR 7291

R.M. Lebens lEd.)

PASSIVE SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE 2 The results of the second European Passive Solar Competition - 1982

Architectural Press, 1983 EUR 8564

The ECD Pa rtnersh i p

EUROPEAN PASSIVE SOLAR COMPONENTS

- Draft Catalogue - a selection of components and systems used in energy-efficient builcinqs in the European Community CEC Directorate-General XII, 1990 EUR 13055EN

The ECD Partnership

PASSIVE SOLAR BUILDINGS IN USE - 30 European Case-Studies'

To be published in severallanguoges in 1992 for the CEC

The ECD Partnership

SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE BOOK

Prism Press for CEC DGXII, 1991 EUR 12738 EN

The ECD Partnership

ARCHITECTURES SOLAIRES EN EUROPE BOOK Edisul for CEC DGXII, 1991 EUR 12738 FR

Top E (EEIG)

BIOCLIMATIC ARCHITECTURE: A SYSTEM APPROACH This video focuses upon the environmental functions

of individual building elements such as roofs, walls, windows and floors.

CEC Directorate-General XVII, 1990

Tne ECD Partnership & le. Steemers PASSIVE SOLAR ENERGY AS A FUEL 19902010

CEC Directorate-General XII, 1990 EUR 13094 EEC

W. Polz & r.c. Steemers (Eds.) SOLAR HOUSES IN EUROPE

- How they have worked

CEe. Pergamon. 1981

W Polz lEd)

EUROPEAN SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS

Volume 1. Global Radiation on Horizontal Surfaces CEC, 1984 EUR 9344. o/p

W Palz (Ed.)

EUROPEAN SOLAR RADIATION ATLAS

Volume 2: Global on diffuse Radiation on Vertical and Inclined Surfaces

CEC, 1984 EUR 9345, o/p

INTRODUCTION

En una gran colonia griega, K. Kovafis, 1928.

" Y conforme van ampliando su invesfiqccion. descubren un sin fin de casas superfluas, y pretenden suprimirlas aunque a elias no se renuncia f6cilmentel1•

BuUding, Energy and the Environment.

Energy used in buildings accounts for nearly half of the total amount of energy consumed in the European Community today. Almost 85% of the energy used in buildings is for low temperature applications (space and water heating). Appropriate building designs involving clean and efficient technologies are already available and their use may help to reduce future energy consumption as well as provide a better quality of life for citizens.

The environmental impact resulting from the energy consumption in the building sector is considerable. With fossil fuels the principal primary energy source, the building sector currently produces 22% of total C02 emissions in he EC. This is more than that produced by the industrial sector.

The future presents many challenges and energy and the environment ranks very high on the list. There is no single route to be followed to improve living conditions and building performance. Aiming to integrate the building into the sorrounding environment and incorporate into it the most efficient techniques may contribute to the overall strategy. Passive solar energy may have an important role to play. Probably, the decisions on our buildings taken today will have an impact for at least 25 years, one generation.

In producing this handbook I we have aimed to provide some design tools and criteria to facilitate the integration into buildings of best available echniques. We have also aimed to promote cooperation among the specialists involved in the process of building our homes. Data and concepts mainly relate to Mediterranean conditions because of the potential for incorporating passive solar concepts in that region and the need to try to revive know-how and tradition that is being abandoned.

Brussels 1994

The Authors

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:* •. : ITIONS

PASSIVE SYSTEM

ACTIVE SYSTEM

BASIC PHYSICAL PRI CIPLES OF PASSIVE SYSTEMS

II

1111 wlii

• PASSIVE SOLAR AR'CHITECTURE

t\SSIVE SOLAR ARCHITECTURE

Basically, this is architecture which minimizes the impact of climate both in summer and in winter. It is important to understand the key terms in the definition:

1. Architecture

This term refers to all building types and building uses. Elsewhere, passive solar arch itecture has often been thoug ht of as applying almost unequivocally to homes. This limits unnecessarily the possibility of other applications.

2 .. Minimize

Passive solar architecture can never negate, only minimize, the climate impact. In a normal economic situation, passive solar architecture has to be used in conjunction with conventional systems (0 achieve comfort.

3. Summer or winter

Generally speaking, any climate is a fairly complex mixture of simple weather conditions. The Mediterranean climate in particular enjoys a variety of hot, mild and cold periods. Therefore to provide a solution which focussed exclusively on one set of problems would inevitably cause discomfort when contrary conditions prevo i led.

II

• What are passive systems

The word "passive" emphasizes the important difference between two distinct approaches. Solar systems which are mechanically operated by fans and pumps are called 'active'. The term' passive! is used to indicate simple technology and the use of on-site energy in combination with architectural components.

To fully understand what passive systems are, it is important to understand their basic characteristics ( 9 ) .

• Use of on-site energy

Passive systems provide heating and cooling by using natural energy sources and sinks. An energy source is anything in the natural environment which adds heat to a building and a sink is something which will absorb heat.

Solar radiation is the primary natural energy source, while the sky is the main sink. A fact not always properly considered is that the earth receives in one day more energy from the sun than the amount we consume in a whole year. Since the earth's average temperature is almost constant, this impressive volume of heat has to be sent back to the sky, primarily by means of night-time re-radiation.

( .... : DEFINITION'S

***

ON-SITE SOURCES

o

tj

SIN K S

NATURAL SOURCES AND SINKS

SOLAR RADIATION

Solar radiation, reaching the house glazing, acts as a prime heat source.

OUTSIDE AIR

Outside air, when it is warmer than 24°C, can act as a heat source for mo t buildings.

INTERNAL GAINS People, appliances, lights, cooking, all add heat and can be considered heat sources.

SKY AND SPACE

Even under the worst conditions some heat is always radiated to the sky.

OUTSIDE AIR

Outside air that is cooler than 24 "C can act as a heat sink. This is true for most Mediterranean coastal areas.

WET SURFACES

Wet surfaces are acti ve sinks because heat is absorbed during the evaporation process.

II PASSIVE SOLAR ARCHITECTURE

The joint utilization of sources and sinks allows a degree of comfort to be achieved in a building with limited use of traditional energy sources. The benefits from natural energy sources do not come free of charge, however, because these sources have relatively weak flows and densities and are not constant. This forces the planner to design carefully. This is usually difficult o standardize.

Types of natural sources and sinks

The basic natural sources to be used for heating are:

• Solar radiation.

• Outside air, when warmer than 24°C.

• Internal gains and conventional domestic heating

and lighting.

While the main sinks are:

• The sky and outer space.

• Outside air when cooler than 24°C.

• Wet surfaces and vegetation.

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Radiation to the sky

Terrestrial surfaces radiate energy to anything colder than they are. Walls exchange energy with surrounding objects, while roof send energy up ward to space. This energy travels until it meets an opaque barrier essentially water vapour.

When the weather is cloudy or too humid, the roof surfaces exchange energy with droplets, etc., whose temperature is the cloud temperature. When it is clear and dry, the final heat receiver is exterior space,

at something close to absolute zero. This is why deserts are almost always cold at night ( 9 ).

In the Mediterranean region average conditions are not extreme and in general, we can soy that the sky temperature is somewhere between 6°C and 30°C below the ambient temperature.

RADIATION

CO TDUCTION

CONVECTION

NATURAL ENERGY FLOWS

PHYSICAL PHENOMENA IN PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN

TYPICAL INSIDE AND OUTSIDE TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS

..

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II PASSIVE SOLAR ARCHITECTURE

• U.se of natural energy 11'ows

., passive systems, heat is transferred :J radiation,conduction and

c vection, with little or no use of

OJ ps or fans. This results in quieter environments and, in general, greater 'ndoor temperature swings than are :ound with conventional systems,

Even though air temperature swings are bigger than is usual in buildings

" i h conventional air conditioning, this may not have a large effect on human comfort. This is because comfort is

i Auenced, throughly equal

i portance, by air and surrounding surface temperatures.

-hus, when is reached, a state of equilibrium, raising the surrounding surface temperature by 1 DC permits a owering of the air temperature by 1 DC vithout any change in comfort.

•

Since the air inside passive buildings is in thermal equilibrium with interior surfaces, the mean interior surface temperature is close to the mean air temperature, As a result, during the heating season passive buildings with average temperatures of 1 9De offer comfort conditions similar to those of conventional buildings with an air temperature of 21 De whoses surfaces are kept at 17DC. The argument is equally valid for the cooling season, when a passive solar building at 27De average temperature can be as comfortable as a building with a mechanical system supplying air at 24D( to rooms with wall temperatures of 30De ( 9 ).

The basic performance results inicated above assume that the designer is able to achieve a building with yearly average temperature swings between 1 8 De and 27 De ,

I {::: DEFINITIONS

STORAGE

SUMMER

WINTER

Proper site and design building allows the building to use sunlight in cold seasons, and protects the building from overheating by the sun in warm seasons. These techniques can also be used to provide natural lighting, thus reducing energy costs and heat gain caused by artificial lighting.

Site and building design, which allows energy-efficient use and control of airflow can reduce conventional beating and cooling.

System requirements control of air infiltration can reduced the thermal load of the building dunng the heating season. By contrast, during the cooling season efficient use of natural ventilation can meet much of the. cooling load.

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_ PASSIVE SOLAR ARCH1TECTURE

• Making thermal use of buildings

In passive systems, the elements which collect, store, transfer and dissipate heat are an integrate part of the architectural elements, such as walls and roofs. Thus, an architectural component may serve to heat and cool as well as to enclose space and shape the building. This is in contrast to the traditional approach where each element performs only a single function. Combining functions is economical but results in complex energy systems which are difficult to predict.

To summarise, passive systems use on-site energy, natural energy flows and traditional architectural structures to heat and cool buildings. In addition, they meet modern standards of comfort with a reduction in the use of fossil fuels, and do so cost-effectively.

However, in designing a passive solar building, one has to deal with the technical implications of variable energy patterns and greater temperature swings. Calculations are not as routine as they are with buildings with mechanical air conditioning. However, do not give up. The result is worth the effort!.

I '!It"'. '

~**) DESIGN PROCESS

LEVEL a

THE CONVENTIONAL BUILDING

LEVEL 1

ENERGY CONSERVATION

LEVEL 2

SOLAR GAIN UTILIZATION

LEVEL 3

HEATING AND COOLING

CONVENTIO Ai WITH GOOD ENERGY PERFORMANCE BUILDING

BACK UP

SOLAR SYSTEMS

LEVEL 4

THE PASSIVE BUILDING

HIERARCHICAL STEPS TO BE FOLLOWED DURI .G PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN

ORGANIZATION

-he diagram on the left presents the

design process encountered in the development of a passive solar building as a series of hierarchical levels each of which need to be considered by the designer before he moves to the next level.

evel 1. The first requisite of a passive solar building, is that it should contain a good level of standard energy conservation measure, so that its performance is good under all reasonable cond itions.

It might well happen that the economic or urban restrictions will hinder progress beyond this level. Therefore the design process will stop here and the building would be labelled as including energy conservation measures which some

au hors ag ree to i ncl ude under the genera I passive solar umbrella.

Even if the passive solar option is possible, care should be taken to explore all the appropriate conventional energy conservation possibilities before

attempting to make use of Level 2 echniques.

Once the appropriate standard conservation measures have been applied, the solar gain possibilities should be analyzed (Level 2] and, in a final step (Level 3), the solar systems applied into what will now generally be considered to be a passive solar building.

• Design process organization

his process has a clear aim, which is the proper analysis of the possibilities for saving energy through solar energy utilization and the selection of appropriate passive solar techniques.

m

For each possible site, attaining this aim requires careful attention to the following steps:

1.- Obtaining knowledge of climate data and solar access to the site.

2.- Defining the comfort requirements ond the strategies to meet them.

3.- Analyzing the site and selecting the best place on it.

4.- Designing the functional organization of the building and selecting the most suitable materials

5.- Designing the passive systems:

• HEATING

• Direct gain

• Indirect gain

• Sunspace

• Combined systems

• COOLING

• Shading

• Natural ventilation

• Heat go i n control

The first two steps emphasize the need to understand the climate and the relationship of the building to the site and the comfort requirements of the occupants.

Once the climate is understood, it is easy to analyze its potential and the necessities it creates. This will give the guidance needed to fulfil steps 3,4 and 5 and thus achieve the goal of a passive design.

As can be seen, the design process moves from the global consideration (climate, site, etc] to the particular (passive systems). This methodology is important since good site preparation and building organization minimize climate impact, thus reducing the heat loads, which the passive systems have to cope with.

( .... : DESIGN PROCESS -

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Sleeping Reclining Seated, quiet Standing, relaxed

0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2

40 45 60 70

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 45 %

FREE CONVECTTOl'

PERCENT OF BODY HEAT LOSS DUE TO EVAPORATION, CONVECTION AND RADIATlON WITH THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY FIXED AT ~5 '1c

CONDUCTION

MODES OF BODY HEAT LOSS

Sedentary activity

(office. home. laboratory)

1.0-1.4

60 - 80

Light activity

(shopping, laboratory. light industry)

1.4-1.7

80 - 100

Medium activity. standing (house cleaning, machine work)

1.7 - 2.0

100 - 117

Hi gh activity

(heavy machine work. garage work. dancing, tenm )

2.0 - 3.0 2.4 - 4.0

117 - 175 140 - 235

EXAMPLES OF METABOLIC RATES(M)FOR VARIO S ACTIVITIES

CLOTHING 2,:,:=: -E;- _ ~'-IrHERMAL RESISTANCE

m-. KfW cia
Nude 0 0
Sham 0.015 0.1
Typical tropical clothing ensemble 0.045 OJ
Light summer ensemble 0.08 0.5
Light working ensemble 0.11 0.7
Typical indoor winter ensemble 0.16 1.0
Heavy traditional European business suit 0.23 1.5 THERMAL INSULATIO PROvIDED BY VARIOUS COMBINATIONS OF CLOTHING

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. • -;t.jt'... •

_ COMFORT " . _ _,< .

• Biology and comfort

Human beings, like all mammals, possess unique thermal systems which enable them o adapt to a wide range of environmental changes, thanks to some incredibly sensitive control mechanisms.

To start with, we have two heat sensing organs in the skin, one sensing the outflow and the other the inflow, connected to a temperature-sensing center located in the hypothalamus- a gland at the base of the brain, which acts like a thermostat with a set point of 37°C.

Whenever our "thermostat" registers a different temperature it initiates a chain of physiological responses to compensate for the excess or lack of body temperature, until a limit is reached beyond which our body is unable to compensate.Then we begin to feel either too hot or too cold.

• Thermal comfort

Thermal comfort may be defined as the sensation of complete well-being with respect to the thermal environment. The

fu nda mental para meters i nfluenc ing thermal comfort may be divided into personal factors (activity and clothing) and environmental factors (air temperature, mean radiant temperatures, air velocity and air humidity).

From the knowledge of these parameters, architects can create the best possible building environment for the human occupants.

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Comfort equation

The body heat production takes place continuously by the metabolic process which converts food into energy.

This energy is dissipated by the body as heat or used for external work. The sensation of comfort depends on the case with which the body can achieve a balance between energy production and heat gain and heat loss, so that the

i nterna I body temperature is ma into i ned around 37°C. Prof. P.O. Fanger has described this situation by means of the following heat balance equation:

S=M±W±R±C-E

Where:

S = rate of heat storage ( heat balance is reached if the storage s=o ).

M = Energy released by metabolism. W = Mechanical work accomplished. R = Heat loss by radiation .

C = Heat loss by convection

E = Total evaporative heat loss from skin surface.

Activity levels and metabolic rates (M)

The metabolic rate is the energy released per unit of time by the convertion of food. This is equivalent to the amount of energy needed by the body and is influenced by activity level. It is expressed in Watts per sqm of body surface ( 1.8 rnz ] or in "rnets" where 1 met is the metabolic rate of a seated person when relaxing, i.e. 58W/mf

The metabolic values ( met) at different typical activities are given in the table opposite.

I {::: DESIGN PROCESS

30 50
~ I I I U~co~FohAI;SLE I I I IIi
~ I I W.W\I I I -~
WJ 26 I I I i .\0 ! I
z c;
0 I ! I I I I 1 ! I
0.. 2? f- ]0
:;;:: , I I z 1 J I I ' i I
0 WJ
u I I I I :;;:: I I I I ! I
0 IS l!.J
> 20 I
Z I I I I 0 I I I r I
is ~
--' I -e, I I I !
~ [~ "" [0 ,
cc UNco~TO~r,'I1lLE I I <: 1 i ! I 1
u,
0 10 I COLD I I I u I I i ! I I I
- , ,
12 16 20 2~ n 3~ I' 16 20 1.1 28 31
INDOOR AIR TEMPERATURE t 'C u\iDOOR AIR TEMPERATURE I·C ;,12 80 i-I----t--t-t-t---T--II'I.-" I~+-M ---t-I

>-

f-

~ 6oc-----t----t-t1_----t-, ---j--t-t---t--I

:::0

~ 40 r'"

>

12 16 20 "4 28 12

INDOOR AIR TEMPERATURE I 'C

%
80
~ 60
o
<
HO
Zr~1 40
~;=
U~ 30
~~
~H
~< 20
Oif.l
'"'l~
HO
U~ 10
80
~ 8
~ 6
~ 5 b I I I I I
~ I L r--
<, /r t--
r-,
"'-I /
I 1\ I V
L
I i\ V
I
I I ~ I l_ I
"- I /
I ......... _I/ I
I I I
- - -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -D.) 0 D.) 1,0 1,) 2.0

COLD SLIGHTL¥ COLD NEUTRAL SL<\IGHTLY HOT HOT

PREDICTED MEAN VOTE

Mechanical work (W)

surface, transporting the heat through the clothing by diffusion, and heat radiation ( R ) from the surface of the person ( skin - clothing) to the surrounding surfaces ( windows,

walls .. ,,). In addition, the clothing surface and skin surface exchange heat by convection ( C ) as a result of both air temperature and air velocity. In other words, clothing is man thermal insulation against his environment. The thermal resistance of some typical clothing combinations ore shown on page 1 8.

The energy released by the human body when performing mechanical work is generally considered to be zero for most activities taking place in residential buildings

Clothing (Clo)

Heat loss by evaporation [ E ) generally takes place by water vapour diffusion through the skin surface, evaporation at the skin

Air Temperature

More than half the heat lost from the human body is lost by convection to the room air. Therefore, room air emperature is important to thermal comfort.

Mean radiant temperature

The mean radiant temperature is the average surface temperature of the surrounding surfaces such as walls, ceiling, floor and windows. It influences he effect of heat lost by radiation from

the body to the surrounding surfaces,

and has repercussions on human

comfort. To maintain comfortable thermal conditions for people in sedentary activities ( 1.2 met), the temperature difference between the internal surface of the windows and cold vertical walls must be less than 10°C and the wind velocity less than 0.15 m/s during heating

period ( ISO 7730 ).

Air velocity

The convective and evaporative heat transfer from the body is affected by the surrounding air movement. Due to

natural convection, a minimum of 0.1 m/s air velocity al~'mys exists. However, air velocities above 0.2 m/s ( for a sedentary person) will be sensed as cold air if the air temperature is below the comfort range.

Relative air humidity

Air humidity has a little effect on thermal comfort during heating season, when variations of 10% in relative humidity

have the same effect as an increase in air temperature of 0.3 degrees. However, during the warm season ( > 32°C) high relative humidities ( from 70% to 90% ) have a considerable effect on thermal comfort. Variation between 30% and 60% are acceptable for the temperature range 10 - 23°C.

• Thermal comfort indices

The first condition for thermal comfort is that there is heat balance (5=0) in the heat balance equation.

The Predicted Mean Vote ( PMV ) and Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied ( PPD 1 are indices that can be used to check whether a given thermal environment provides thermal comfort. The PMV index predicts the mean comfort response vote of a large group of people exposed to the same environment.

The PMV and PPD indices are suggested by ISO 7730 as a means of evaluating thermal environments for various combinations of clothing, activity, and four environmental variables (air temperature, radiant temperature, air velocity, and humidity).

For design evaluation using comfort indices, it is necessary to estimate the activity and clothing levels of the occupants first, taking into account the use of the room.

The PMV and PPD values can then be calculated using a computer program based on the Fanger equation, (see page 174).

i . T,OO DRY

I ,-<

40-
U
Q
LlJ
a:
~
~
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a. 15-
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LlJ 10-
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5-
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-SJ TOO HUMID

---.~~---

/'

I -,

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COMFORT

HEATING

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

RELATIVE HUMIDITY %

BIOCLIMATIC DIAGRAM

MACRO SCALE I MESO SCALE j MICRO SCALE
REGIONAL DOMINANT IMPORTANT LESS
PLANNING IMPORTANT
URBAN ~ IMPORTANT DOMINANT LESS
PLANNING i IMPORTANT
I , I
BUilDING DESGN I IMPORTANT I IMPORTANT DOMINANT
AND SITE SELECTION I I RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE SCALE IN THE PLANNING PROCESS

CLIMATE DEFINITION

• Climate analysis

The first step to be taken is to study the local environment, paying as much attention to this as you would give to the planning and other urban legislation related to the site.

From the passive solar- point of view, understanding the environment requires a working knowledge of the site's climate. This can be considered on three different levels:

• Macro-scale

• Meso-scale

• Micro-scale

which have the following basic definitions.

• Macro-scale: This covers the general characteristics of the region, the similar places in continental and latitudinal positions, which may be thousands of Km apart.

• Meso-scale: The general climate is modified by the local topography such as bodies of water. This can have a significant effect on the local climate fluctuations.

• Micro-scale: On the site itself, minor variations of vegetation, land configuration, etc, have the strongest influence.

These three scales will be present in every climate analysis, although their relative importance may vary.

The table shown on the left indicates the relevance and importance of each of the three climatic scales, to different stages of the architectural process.

For passive solar design, climate may generally be considered on two levels, macro/meso-scale and micro-scale.

The first is easily obtained from meteorological stations, climate atlases, etc. Data on the microclimate (which may substantially modify the general data) has to be picked up on site.

_-


R

o

M

IE

°C 45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10 MONTH

J F M AM J J AS 0 N D

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- o AVERAGE MAXIMUM AVERAGE

I AVERAGE IvITNIMUM

......... DESIGN

• ABSOLUTE

YEAR'S SUMMARY CHART FOR ROME SHOWING MONTHLY TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS

II

I. CUMATE DEFINITION -_" - -~:

Necessary data

The most important data to be collected are:

• Temperature.

• Humidity (absolute, relative,

vapour tension) .

• Wind (direction, velocity ).

• Precipitation.

• Cloud level.

• Degree-day to different bases.

• Solar radiation levels.

To help us understand these variables, we can show them in a number of standard ways. The following charts show a selection .

• Annual summary chart

This chart plots for each month the average maximum temperature, the average minimum temperature, the mean temperature, the absolute maximum, the absolute minimum and the maximum and minimum design temperatures. The design temperature is the mean of the average and absolute temperatures.

From this chart, we can see at a glance when the temperature leaves the comfort zone (20-27°C) and by what amount.

This chart may be improved by adding wind, rain and other important factors. It is quick and easy to draw and

serves as an approximate, but useful tool.

II

50

40

A-) ZONE REQUIRI G WIND B-) COMFORT ZONE

C-) ZONE REQUIRING RADIATION D-) ZONE REQUIRING MOISTURE (glkg. dry air)

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::----------------='80

========================350

_- ~~O

4YO

RADL~TlON (Sun altitude: 45") (IV/m 'I

20

40

60

so

IJ

RELATIVE HUMIDITY %

Bioclimatic chart developed by Olgyay, showing the comfort zone for a person wearing typical indoor clothing carrying out medium activity, and the influence of extemal wind and solar radiation.

CLOTHING (m-. K/W)

-.J J\1ED1U.1

100 ;::.-.

t:

>

6

«

HIGH

150

>t:

;: LIGHT

u

<

SEDENTARY I

so

CLOTHING (do)

The optimum operative temperature as a function of activity and clothing. The shaded or unshaded bands indicate the comfort range (± i1t) around the optimum, within which 80 % or more of the occupants are expected to find the thermal conditions acceptable.

100

II CUMATE DEFINITION

I. Dry bulb temperature and relative humidity charts

Another way to help us understand the climate is to plot the meteorological data in relation to the comfort zone; the latter may be achieved by an appropriate combination of dry bulb temperature and humidity.

From the available diagrams, two have been selected.

The first chart was originally developed by the Olgyay in the 1950s and has been recently revised and updated. It is very helpful in the study of the influence of exterior conditions and on how we can expect them to behave in providing interior comfort (10).

The chart plots temperature versus humidity and deliniates the comfort zone for a person wearing typical indoor cloth i ng for the heoti ng season ( 0.8 clo ) engaged in moderate activity (household work 1.3 met) inside a room with negligible air movement, average humidity and away from direct sunshine.

Round the comfort zone are given contour lines which predict the increasing levels of radiation, air velocity or evaporative cooling which are necessary to achieve comfort.

Perhaps the most i nteresti ng part of the chart is the lower middle section showing the combination of solar radiation and external temperatures which together would provide a feeling of comfort. No other chart considers this.

The second diagram has been developed by Milne and Givoni based on the standard psychrometric diagram widely used in air conditioning (4).

The information has been laid out in the form of a variable comfort zone. Around the zone with standard comfort conditions, the chart shows other areas which indicate that conditions inside the building will remain in the comfort zone if the appropriate strategies are applied to the building design.

This, is a useful tool for focusing designer onto the type of system to be selected early in the design process.


" CONVENTIONAL HEATING e ACTIVE SOLAR

e PASSIVE SOLAR

E) INTERNAL GAINS

G VENTILATION

HUMID BULB TEMPERATURE

-5

a

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

20'%

10%

5

10 15 20 25 30

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE °C

G HUMIDIFICATION

45

40

35

CD HIGH THERMAL INERTIA

o THERMAL INERTIA + VENTILATION

o AIR CONDITIONING

., EVAPORATIVE COOLING

PSYCHROMETRIC DIAGRAM

THE MILNE-GIVONI DIAGRAM DEFINING THE STRATEGIES TO BE FOLLOWED WHEN OUTSIDE THE COMFORT CONDITIONS

• CUMATE DEFINITI'ON

How to use the Milne-Givoni dilagram

first, monthly average temperatures

c d the corresponding average relative u idities must be obtained for each +o h of the year. This information

~. uld be available from the local

. eo her bureau or climatic atlas.

10 ing the monthly values will give a op which crosses the different zones

a d maps out the temperature/humidity co di ions wherein a certain strategy

ill be effective. They are:

Comfort zone: No strategy necessary, except to prevent further solar heat gain slim mer [or loss in wi nterJ.

. - Conventional heating This zone is so cold

hat only fossil fuel systems can be used.

B.- Active solar

The heat needed can be supplied by solar collectors or any

other active solar system supported by back-up conventional

energy supply.

c.- Passive solar heating

Direct gain, indirect gain, hybrid systems, combined with infiltration and heat-loss control, will provide the heat required.

D.- Internal Gains

The conditions are so close to comfort, that electrical and other appliances in the building and human metabolism will provide the heat requirement.

E.- Ventilation

Though temperatures and humidities are high, comfort may be obtained through the direct evaporation of sweat, if enough air movement is available.

F.- Humidification

Moisture must be added to the air for comfort.

G.- Thermal mass

Usually found in hot dry climates with dry, cool nights .

Radiant cooling and night-flushing of the internal air with cool outside air, will store "coolth" for the next day.

H.- Thermal mass plus ventilation

Typical in most Mediterranean areas. Temperatures do not drop enough at night to cool the building and some active or passive internal ventilation is required to extract heat.

1.- Air conditioning

As in A, the available natural systems cannot provide the required comfort and conventional systems have to be applied.

J.- Evaporative cooling

Low-energy /I swamp-coolers" can be used under conditions of low humidity.

{::: DESIGN PROCESS

o CONVENTIONAL HEATING e ACTIVE SOLAR

e PASSIVE SOLAR

e INTERNAL GAINS

e VENTILATION

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

HUMID BULB TEMPERATURE °C

-5

45

NICE

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE 0 C

• HUMIDIFICATION

o HIGH THERMAL INE TIA

CD THERMAL INERTIA + VENTILATION o AIR CONDITIONING

• EVAPORATIVE COOLING

o CONVENTIONAL HEATING G ACTIVE SOLAR

e PASSIVE SOLAR

e INTERNAL GAINS

e VENTILATION

RELATIVE

HUMID BULB TEMPERATURE 0 C

45

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE 0 C

ATHENS

G HUN IDIFICATION


CD THERMAL INERTIA + VENTILATION o AIR CO DITIONING


PSYCHROMETRIC DIAGRAMS DEVELOPED FOR NICE AND ATHENS SHOWING MONTHLY AVERAGE CONDITIONS ACROSS THE YEAR

20%

10%

• ,CLIMATE DEFINITION

Although very useful, this method should be used with the clear understanding that it is only a preliminary guide and applies best to buildings which react readily to the external environment and have low internal heat gains. Standard energy conservation strategies should be used in connection with the primary strategies indicated.

Also, when analyzing the climate and strategies, one must keep in mind the limits most people have in accepting certain conditions.

For instance, ventilation is a key strategy for the Mediterranean climate and active systems may solve most cooling problems. However, fans should be designed to keep room air velocities below 1,5 rn/s.

Acceptable daily swings in temperature are tied to the relative humidity. The accepted top value to guarantee the strategy with work is 17 mmHg. According B. Givoni, mixing temperature and humidity to achieve comfort is described by the equation d = 8 °C + 1.5 mmHg.This limits the strategy's usefulness to temperatures up to 34°C ( 4 ).

III

Another important concept is the so-called balance temperature, defined as the temperature which, supplemented with the internal heat gain, gives the 20°C comfort temperature.

In most standard homes, the balance temperature is 18 °C since lights, appliances and people raise the temperature by about 2 "C.

Therefore we may consider that our home is comfortable, if air temperature does not drop below 18°C. At the balance temperature the monthly internal gains just balance out the monthly thermal losses with the internal temperature at the thermostat setting. The balance

tem peratu re therefore depends on the following parameters:

1.- Heat gain produced by people, lights, activity level and equipment.

2.- Heat losses due to conduction and venti lotion or infiltration.

3.- Incoming solar radiation.

{~:: DESIGN PROCESS

I

A

c

A

0
2
4
6
8
10
CIJ
p::; 12
:::>
0
:r: 14
16
18
20
22
24 N

T

E

MONTHS

J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
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....... .. .. .... ..... .' ..... ~ ..
_ .......
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II
\ I SUN RISE

SUN SET

TIMETABLE OFBIOCLIMATIC NEEDS FORALICANTE

o CONVENTIONAL HEATING e ACTIVE SOLAR

e PASSIVE SOLAR

e INTERNAL GAINS

o VENTILATION

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

10%

HUMID BULB TEMPERATURE °C

45

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE °C

ROME

.. HUMIDIFICATION


40 THERMAL INERTIA + VENTILATION o AIR CONDITIONING


PSYCHROMETRIC DIAGRAM FOR ROME

• CUMATE DEFINITION . . .. '

Should the designer want to lower the balance temperature, he can do this by playing with the various parameters.

1.- Increasing solar gains. This strategy needs a few warning words in our Mediterranean climate. Solar gain is relatively easy to design for winter but difficult to control in summer time. A bit of incoming energy through each window ( especially when there are many windows), may cause discomfort in the summer months.

2.- Reducing heat losses. The method of reducing conductive and infiltration thermal heat loss, avoiding thermal bridges insulating glazing materials, and so on, may lead, at the extreme to a super-insulated building, a modern "igloo" of aerodynamic design, with ultra-high insulation, heat recovery and almost zero heating requirements. Do not forget the costs when studying the heat loss reduction possibilities.

3.- Increasing internal gains. This approach is specially effective in non-residential buildings. In many Mediterranean areas, some non-residential buildings with high internal gains, such as restaurants or shopping precincts, do not require additional heating. Even solar gains are not always desirable in such buildings ..

The final diagram opposite presents bioclimatic needs in terms of hour by hour temperatures for each month of the yeor..

Preparation of such diagram requires knowledge of additional meteorological data, such as the hourly average temperature.

This additional effort is worthwhile, however, because the diagram provides a valuable picture of how the theoretical solar gain may be used to supply heating and how resolute we have to be in fighting the unwanted summer gains.

The diagram shows, for instance, that during the worst summer conditions, there are less than four hours when the outside temperature falls under comfort conditions, suggesting that an active ventilation system has to be considered in order to speed the interior cooling process.

ED

I

. f"": DESIGN PROCESS

~ *.*

- -_'f _ - - - __ -

COASTAL AIR MOVING AND THE COOLING EFFECT DUE TO THE ALTITUDE DIFFERENCE

AIR CIRCULATION TN VALLEYS DUE TO THE DAY !NIGHT INFLUENCE

LOCAL CLIMATE ODIFICATIONS

Unfortunately, the situation at the site may not correspond to the foregoing climate analyses,not only because of

he distance of the site from the weather bureau, but also because of the local topography.

The climate modifiying elements may be of natural origin, [ such as vegetation), or purely artificial [ such as urban settlements), some elements may induce large-scale modifications, and their influence therefore be mentioned in maps; others may affect only a small area.

Whatever the scale of the element, some kind of analysis has to be made and this chapter aims to offer practical help in this.

• Impact of natural elements on the climate

1.- Hilly landscape

On a large scale, mountains and hills create barriers to the air flow thus modifying air conditions and wind direction ( 3 ).

Close to the sea, the mountain barriers induce a cooling eHect which causes condensation and arid conditions, on the landward hillside. On the seaward side, humid air rises as it encounters the barrier and experiences a temperature drop of 0,5 °C every 130 m in winter and 0,5 °C every 100 m in summer.

As the warm or humid air cools, condensation clouds form and rain may fall, creating humid conditions on one side of the barrier and dry situations on the other side.

This effect modifies the climate and, consequently, the type of vegetation.

Also, hills are natural obstacles to, and even creators of, wind.This tends to blow one way or the other in daily cycles. For instance, in valleys the wind blows up the valley during the day and down at night. Fluctuations are created by the different ground temperatures resulting from the overage from day to night or from sun to shadow.

-

,I {~:: DESIGN PROCESS l>

MORl~ING: BREEZE RlSES UP OF SLOPE DUE TO SURFACE WARMING.

NOON: AIR POOL IN VALLEY HAS BEEN WARMED AND CREATES UP-VALLEY BREEZE.

I~

AFTERNOON: UP-VALLEY BREEZE PREDOMT JATES AS SURFACES REACH MAXIMUM TEMPERATURES.

EVENING: SURFACES COOL AND START A DOWNWARD FLOW.

MIDNIGHT: COOL HEAVY AIR COLLECTED IN VALLEY BEGINS TO FLOW DOWNSTREAM.

PRE-DAWN: DOWNSTREAM AIR-FLOW PREDOMINATES.

CYCLE OF AIR FLOWS IN A VALLEY DURING 24 HOURS

2.- Vegetation

Plant cover, filters and absorbs solar radiation and modifies the effect of wind by guiding, blocking or filtering air-flow. Therefore, vegetation is a key element in climate control and modification. There is a direct relationship between plants and daily or seasonal temperature swings.

The effectiveness of vegetation in climate modification, depends on the plant type and characteristics.

Providing a good evaluation of climate modification due to vegetation is complex. The amount of measured data in this area is limited. However, the impact of plant-cover cannot be underestimated. According to local conditions, vegatation can ( 3 ):

• Absorb up to 90% of solar radiation.

• Reduce wind speed up to 10% of the free air velocity.

• Reduce air temperature to 7°e below the bare groynd ,conditions and, stabilize or even increase night temperatures.

3.- Combined effects of topography and vegetation

There exist very few studies dealing with these two combined effects. Therefore, it is almost impossible to give general rules.

Should you be lucky enough to find documents on this matter, before applying their results, please remember that both vegetation and land are dynam ic forms that respond differently for different seasons.

4.- Water

Wherever the water body is, water plays an extremely important role in climate creation. The least one can say is that extreme climate values are greatly influenced by the presence of water.

The moderating effect is due to the water's physical properties. Water absorbs the majority of the available solar thermal radiation. However,

due to the heat storage capacity of water, the average temperatures of the big water bodies (seas, big lakes, or oceans) do not vary by more than

1 ooe throughout the year. This contrasts strongly with the big fluctuations found in ground temperatures.

{:} DESIGN PROCESS

HOT AIR RISES-UP DURING THE DAY

NOTICEABLE EFFECT UP TO 2 Km. FROM THE SEA

COOLAIR

SUM IER BREEZE CIRCULATION

HILL CRESTS INCREASE WIND VELOCITIES. IN ALL BUT HOT, HUMID CLIMATES. THESE SITES SHOULD BE AVOIDED.

TOPOGRAPHIC MODIFICATION OF WIND CONDITIONS

II

The constant temperature of the sea allows the latter to act as a huge air conditioning system. The air, passing over the water is heated up or cooled down so that relatively warm air is sent over the land in winter and relatively cool air is sent in summer. It is during the summer that this action is even more noticeable because the air-flow goes twice a day from the sea to the land and viceversa producing the well known sea-breeze effect.

But it is not only in the liquid form that water is so essentially involved in Earth's climate. The water vapour present in the atmosphere absorbs most of the incoming solar radiation and the ongoing re-radiation ( 4 ).

In most Mediterranean areas, summer conditions are affected by the presence of water as much as winter ones.The presence of large amounts of water vapour, will reduce the potential for night cooling in summer on the other hand, in winter the same principle will produce mild night temperatures.

• Impact of artificial elements

Historically, from the caves era to the village, man tried to use any available technology to modify the climate in his favour. He continues to do this, but increasingly irrationally and thoughtlessly, especially in urban areas.

Man not only alters the land surfaces and the atmosphere, but continuously dumps huge amounts of heat, which alters the energy balance.

This atmospheric modification results from the smoke, dust, aerosols, gases and particles which are being continuously emitted. Their effects can be measured by the differences in solar radiation reaching ground level. The denser the filter, the lower the incoming radiation, which causes the now infamous light-scattering effect.

Land surface are modified by altering the original forms. Paving big surfaces with concrete or asphalt interferes with ground reflectivity (usually reduced by 10% inside the cities) and thermal conductivity.

TYPICAL WIND FLOW CREATED BY THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND

In the countryside, the earth receives heat during the day through the plant cover which acts as an effective filter in both directions. During the sunny hours, some of the solar energy is used for the biological activities of plant community. Some evaporates the water that plants release through their leaves and some is reflected back into the atmosphere. Obviously, a part is also stored, but the presence of the plant layer helps to reduce the flow of energy back to the atmosphere at night.

The newly produced surfaces of our cities do not work as nicely as vegetation: Their effect can be specially felt during the summer, when most of the Mediterranean cities suffer unbearable night temperatures.

CLIMATIC ALTERATIONS PRODUCED BY THE CITY

Element

Compared to rural environs

Contaminants:

• Condensation nuclei 10 limes more

• Particulates 10 times more

• Gaseous admixtures 5-25 times more

Radiation:

• Total on horizontal surface 0-20% less

• Ultraviolet winter 30% less

• Ultraviolet summer 5% less

• sunshine hours 5-15% less

Cloudiness:

• Clouds 5-10% more

• Fog winter 100% more

• Fog summer 30% more

Precipitation:

• Amounts 5·15% more

• Snowfall 5·10% less

• Thunderstorms

10-15% more

Temperature:

• Annual mean

• Winter minimum

0.5-3 cC more 1-2 DC more

Relative humidity:

• Annual mean Winter

• Summer

6% less 2% less 8% less

Wind speed:

• Annual mean

• Extreme gusts

• Calm

20-30% less 10-20% less 5-20% more

JIIIIII Umiilll • IIIIIII~II I ... ~IIIIIII

_ lOCAl,CUMATE MODIFICATIONS -I

he high conductivity, high thermal opacity and high absorptivity of oncrete-asphalt constructions collect

and store most of the incoming solar e ergy efficiently. At night, when the (vir temperature drops below the ground temperature, the surfaces start a powerful heat emission process which stops only when the air lemperoture goes up in the early

orning and the cycle starts again as e sun rises.

his man-produced heat enters into heat balance in such a way that average temperatures can rise by 1°C.

Obviously, all these modifications will affect the climate; the extent of the influence will depend on the city location, size, main activity, etc.

Coastal cities influenced by winds off he sea or urban settlements affected by other dominant atmospheric phenomena will notice the effect of the man made influences to a lesser extent.

In many modern cities, especially if their population is over 100.000 the inhabitants will be affected by changes in three main factors, radiation, temperature and wind.

II

Radiation

This is proportionably reduced according to the city's pollution levels. Some recent studies have found between 10 and 30% reductions in global radiation, a 40% reduction in direct sunlight, and a similar percentage increase in diffuse sunlight. This gives most big cities a sky of a characteristic whitish colour.

Temperatures

This factor is the best known because it is simple to measure. From most of the monitoring projects, it is possible to discern the existence of an "Urban Heat Island", where temperatures are consistently higher than in surrounding non-urban areas.

Wind

The wind is another complex factor which affects modern cities in two basic ways.

Overall, an average wind speed reduction due to the uneven surfaces can be measured. In addition, the air flow is channelled by the buildings, so that at street level local winds are created, which are usually gusty, often very strong, and always unpredictable.

: (<>": DESIGN PROCESS

***

ANGLES USED TO DETERMINE SUN POSITION

21 JUNE

rv 0- -- 21 MARCH V . - -'-.~ -- ~ SEPTEMBER

/ .> I*"\. '\ <,

/ .: ----'V \--'\"

/ /.// \ \\

/ / ./ \ \ \ 21 DECEMBER

/ / S \ \

I I f I I /

/ / /

j'iJ>

w

APPARENT MOVEMENT OF THE SUN

N

w

<,

-- - ------------

SUN ANGLES AND SUNPATHS FOR ONE LOCATION THROUGHOUT THE YEAR

o

N

1 = ZENITH

2 = SOLAR ALTITUDE 3 = AZIMUTH

-

• SOLAR ACCESS [

• Apparent movement of the sun

It is well known that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. If the only

hing we expect from the sun is a good vocation time, this statement is practically all we need to know about he sun's movement.

However, for solar building purposes the situation is more complex and it is fundamental that we have on understanding of the sun's position throughout the day and for the whole year.

Simplifying the problem and assuming the medieval concept of a static earth, the apparent sun movement will be as shown in the figure opposite, with the sun appearing to rise over the eastern horizon and set, over the wide western one.

On only two days during the year, (March 21st. and Septem ber 21st., the Equinoxes) the sun rises in the true east and sets at the geographic west giving 24 hour period of equal day and equal night. On the other three hundred and sixty three days, the length of the day and the night are diHerent.The shortest day is the winter solstice

[ December 21 st. ) and the longest, the summer solstice (June 21 sf. ).

Aport from giving days of different durations, the sun varies in the altitude it reaches at noon. It reaches its lowest noon altitude on December 21 st and its highest on June 21 st.

The sun position is determined by two basic angles. The altitude is the angle connecting the sun, the observer and the horizon. The azimuth is the angle between the sun-observer line projection and the geographic south.

I ; - {::: DESIGN PROCESS

CONDUCTION CONVECTION RADIATION

INDUCE
c.:: SOlAR GAINS
L.L.J MINIMIZE EXTERNAl
I-
Z WIND HOW
~
MINIMIZE
MINIMIZE
TRANSMISSION lOSSES INfllIRAilON

MINIMIZE MINIMIZE
0<:: INFIIJRAfIONS SOlAR GAINS
L.L.J
~
~
~
U) INDUCE INDUCE INDUCE INDUCE
GROUND lOSSES VENTILATION RAOIATIVE COOUNG EVAPORATIVE COOUNG APPROPRIATE BUILDING GROUPI G PROTECTS SOME AREAS FROM PREVAILING WINDS AND MAY HELP COOLING BY SHADING COMMON AREAS.

ATMOSPHERE

GROUND

ATMOSPHERE

SUMMARY OF STRATEGIES TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN TRYING TO MODERATE THE BUILDING THERMAL CO DITIONS

II

SITE ANALYSIS

.1 Strategies for passive solar design

Once the site climate characteristics are understood, the design objectives have to be set to create the building for these climatic conditions. In winter time there will be need for solar heat gains and heat loss reductions; in summer time, the objectives will be precisely the opposite.

The designer's task is to use the natural elements to create a microclimate favourable to the building's thermal requirements and also to reduce the impact of any undesirable elements.

• Winter - reduce the air flow

This is a main goal. It will affect both the building exterior by bringing it closer to the comfort zone, and the interior by reducing convection and infiltration losses ( 4 ).

The site analysis should consider what type of wind conditions will affect the building and if any of the potential climate modification arrangements will have a chance to operate. Given a free hand in siting the building, the designer must look for calm zones, or make use of vegetation to create such areas. Hill crests should be avoided in all but hot, humid climates. Similarly, extremely flat or slightly depressed places, where ponds are likely to occur, should be avoided. Ideally, building sites should have slopes with a 2 to 4% gradient.

Normally, however, such flexibility is almost a dream.There is usually no other possibility, than the existing plot. Under these circumstances, the designer's role is to know how the building will be affected and to make use of the buildinq components and their placing to reduce the impact of negative factors.

, {::: DESIGN PROCESS

SOLID FENCES CREATE AIR TURBULENCE WHILE POROUS BARRIERS, SUCH AS A COMBINATIO OF BUSHES AND TREES,

I CREASE THE CALM ZONE.

5h

IhlL ~
41/4 h

JI ~
3314 h Jh

3 h ====~=>

.~

4h

WINDBREAK AS A FUNCTION OF THICKNESS AND SHAPE

INFILTRATION REDUCTION CAPABILITIES OF VARIOUS WINDBREAKS PLACED IN FRONT OF PREVAILING WINDS

II

• Windbreaks .

Besides using building components to control air flow, the designer may also control it by means of vegetation barriers ( 10,13 ).

Fences, bushes, trees and other objects acting as wind barriers create areas of relative calm on their leeward side. Open windbreaks such as trees or bushes, offer a maximum reduction in wind velocity of about 50 % at a distance equivalent to roughly 5 times thei r heig ht.

The barrier size and form strongly affect the protection perf.ormance. Generally, the thinner the adjacent element, the larger the protected area downwind. As a rule, the barrier thickness should not exceed 0.1 times its own height.

If an existing windbreak is too thick, consider shaping the top surface as indicated in the figure on the left.

Another important property of barriers is their density. Solid fences provide very calm zones but at a very close distance, since the wind pattern will recover quickly, after it has passed the barrier.

ED

Porous barriers of trees and bushes allow some air to pass through, which creates minor turbulence and a bigger calm zone.

Some analyses performed at Wisconsin University, using elaborate simulation programs, show the following:

• The most desirable wind breaks from the point of view of reduction of wind speed, are those with porosities between 25 and 60%.

• Barriers with porosities of 50% give their best protection at distances from 5 to

20 times their height. Wind speeds are reduced to 30% .

• Using 25% porosity, maximum protection is achieved at a distance from the barrier of 4 times the height. In the zone at a distance from the barrier of 4 to 20 times its height, wind velocities will be reduced to 60%

{::: DESI'GN PROCESS .'

GLARE FROM NEARBY AREAS CAN BE CONTROLLED BY SELECTING APPROPRIATE REFLECTIVE MATERIAL. WHITE PAVING TO THE SOUTH WILL INCREASE THE REFLECTED FRACTION AND SOLAR GAh\fS NOTICEABLY.

DARK PAVING WILL CREATE A TEMPERATE AREA AROUND THE BUiLDING INFLUENCiNG THE EXTERNAL MICROCLIMATE, PROPERLY DESIGNED AND SHADED IN SUMMER, THIS CAN CREATE VERY PLEASANT ZONES.

_ SITE ANALYSIS

• Land treatment: improvement of solar gain

There are two main strategies when working with the land surrounding the building. The first choice aims to improve and control the solar gain within the building.

The second does not consider an additional amount of solar energy to be important but, aims to improve the building's interior performances by altering the microclimate outside. Selection the type of paving around the house is important to both strategies.

A white gravel or something similar placed along the south side will increase the amount of reflection from the paving and reflect some of the solar energy falling onto the house wall. This effect is difficult to quantify because it depends on the reflective properties of the gravel.

Theoretical studies using materials with re,~ular reflection show that the energy falling on a vertical surface is increased by 50-60% during December-January.

The second approach is to use a dark surface round the building, protected from the wind. This will create a high radiant temperature zone, which is very attractive during winter.

• Urban zones: guaranty of solar gain

In urban zones, a common problem is the reduced solar access caused by shadows from surrounding buildings.

Where the building site is already established, there will probably be no other option than adjusting the existing conditions and, then probably only by changing the level of insulation.

However, even in the city, there may be found adjacent blocks of different heights which are for mixed use - say, residential and non-residential.

Then the appropriate strategy will be to use the zones with poorer solar access for applications which give higher internal gains and the best solar areas for applications generating lower internal gains.

, {::: DESIGN PROCESS· . , .

WINTER

SUMMER

IDEAL SOLAR ACCESS. WITHOUT LAND RESTRICTIONS, THE BUILDINGS ARE PLACED OUTSIDE THE INFLUENCE OF NEARBY SHADOWS.

DOD 1----..

DOD DOD

DOD DOD DOD

DOD

SOLAR ENVELOPE

GREATEST VOLUME OF BUILDING WHICH CAN FILL A SITE WITHOUT SIGNIFICANT OVERSHADOWING.

Such a building will progressively match the area of glazing to the available solar gain and the type of building use, i.e. the amount of internal gain, and adjust the supplementary heating accordingly.

When thinking of the future possibilities of "solar towns", idealistic solutions where there is free solar access must be set aside and truly realistic approaches be considered. Apart from the strategy mentioned above, there is also the solar envelope approach developed by R. Knowles, which is tied directly with the urban planning of new settlements.

In the Mediterranean regions, the solar envelope concept has its prime applicabilitions in the development of tourist areas, where solar site planning is not only cost-effective but also easy to implement because the development predictably occurs along a specific orientation (along the coast) and on a south-facing slope.

• Urban solar envelope

Solar passive systems cannot operate well if overshadowed. Therefore, ensuring solar access means protecting the south aspect from the shade of new buildings.

In planning an ideal solar access one would need to apply the concept shown on the left where street or lot sizes are selected according to projected length of the shadowing neighbouring buildings.

The solar envelope approach is, by definition, rather different. The term "solar envelope" refers to the greatest volume which a building can filion a site without causing significant overshadowing on adjacent sites. This, is calculated for a specific time period building utilization and the existing environment ( 28 ).

Therefore, the solar envelope approach takes the existing allowable building volume and tries to fit the design and energy constraints to this to achieve an affordable compromise.

II

(~} DES\GN PROCESS

9AM 3PM

ALTITUDE W ALTITUDE 140

AZIM _TH ~.~ ~IMU~TH ~2°

iii

J ' ' '----..'

I I I I

W----,t--E ' iii

Iii i

i j i j

'----..

S AZIMUTH

MQRNlNG SUN ANGLE

hfTERNOQN SU:--lAl''>IGLE

COMPLETED SOLAR ENVELOPE

VIEW FROM NORTH-WEST

~---/i IV!

i i

I j

i i

i j

COMBlNED MORNING AND AFTERNOON SUN ANGLES

I I I

,

I

1 __ -

1 I I I ___ J

RlDGE

EXAMPLE OF A SMALL CORNER BUILDING ENVELOPE AND

ITS POSSIBLE DEVELOPMENT

Solar envelope design

Once the shape and orientation of the site have been established, the geometry of the solar envelope is determined for the time period during which solar access must be maintained. For example, to construct a solar envelope for a site at 40° north latitude that provides solar access to adjacent sites between 9 AM and 3 PM all year, select the month when the sun is lowest in the sky ( December) to determine the slope of the north part of the envelope and the month when the sun is highest in the sky (June) to determine the slope of the south part of the envelope. Assuming that before 9 AM and after 3 PM shading of adjacent sites is permitted, the sun positions at 9 AM and 3 PM on December 21

and june 21 define the maximum size of the solar envelope. At 40° north latitude the sun positions at those times are:

Dec. 21 st. at 9 AM and 3 PM altitude 14°, azimuth ±42° June 21st. at 9 AM and 3 PM altitude 49°, azimuth ±80°

II

The diagonal line at the northwest corner is defined by the suns's angle at 9 AM; the crosspoint of the

morning and afternoon diagonals forms one end of a potential ridge line. Because the sun at 40° north latitude between 9 AM and 3 PM doesn't get to the north of east or west, it never casts a shadow to south. Therefore, it is assumed that the south face of the solar envelope rises vertically from the edge of the site. If we were on a site where the sun could reach north of east and west at the cutoff times, then the southwest and southeast diagonals would be defined by the suns's angle at 9 AM and 3 PM. The ridge line is formed

by the intersection of either the winter diagonals or the summer diagonals, whichever is lower in height. The completed envelope defines the maximum building height at any point on the site that will not shade an adjacent site from 9 AM 3 PM from December 21 to June 21.

RIDGE HEIGHTS OF SOLAR El VELOPES ORIENTATED N-S AND E-W

EAST-WEST NORTH - SOUTH
U PLAN VIEW U
! I Y Lfl
I
NORTH ~- --
x
x
48,S'
43° NORTH L<ZJw 0.23 y 0.14 x
LATITUDE
1225
47j'
37" NORTH L<ZJ
LATITUDE I ,10 0.39 y 0.21 x
, I
~- ---
14
Q [xI
y
I ,
- I
x
x RIDGE HEIGHTS OF SOLAR El\TVELOPES ORIENTATED AT 45°

0.25 y

PLAN VIEW

NORTH

/' i5~

43'\ORTH / :;; '""

LATITUDE ~

-,

0.16 x

0.16 y

37'. 'ORTH

LATITUDE ~ I~~

-,

0.25 x

RIDGE HEIGHTS FOR DIFFERENT BLOCK CONFIGURATIONS ORIENTED N-S A D E-W AT 4SO; LOCATED AT LATITUDES 37° AND 43°

To construct the solar envelope with solar access from 9 AM to 3 PM for a rectangular block with 0° or 45° street orientations:

1.- Determine the latitude.

2.- Determine or assume the dimensions of the site; the street width or any open space may be included.

3.- Find the plan angles of the solar envelope for the local latitude from the table ( or extrapolate). Draw these angles on a plan of the block.

4.- Connect the points of intersection of the plan angles; this represents the ridge.

50.- For N-S or E-W orientations: if the ridge runs north-south find its height in the table as a function of the "x" or east-west dimension of the site; if there is no ridge or the ridge runs east-west, find its height in the table as a function of the "y", the north-south dimensions of the site.

<,

5b.- For 45° orientations: find the ridge height in the table as a function of the shortest d i men s ion.

Variables that affect the configuration

of the envelope are the latitude, the period of access, the size of the site, its proportions, slope, orientation, and the nature of the conditions at the edge of the site. Northern latitudes permit less height and therefore less volume than southern latitudes. Reducing the period of solar access will result in a higher but sharper peak. Increasing the size of the site will decrease the area-to-volume ratio of the envelope. If the proportions of the site result in a north-south ridge, there will be less volume to be developed than if the proportions of the site result in an east-west ridge.

On a slope, if the ridge of the envelope runs with the direction of the slope, the ridge height will remain the same. If the ridge runs across the direction of the slope, the ridge height will vary; a south slope will increase the height and all other slopes will decrease the

height.

Changing the orientation of a level site, that is, rotating its alignment to 30°, 45° or 60° from N-S reduces the envelope height and volume.

Finally, the conditions at the edge of the block may be varied to increase the volume of the envelope.

SUMMER

WINTER

~oooo ~oooo

-+0000 ~>oo 90

E/W

NE / NW NORTH

APRIL

12,23

11,37

WNl

19,63

9,97

4,30

2,28

RELATIVE SOLAR RADIATION IMPACTS AT DIFFERENT LATITUDES OVER THE MAIl\f BUILDING COMPONENTS

WINDOW ORIENTATION

SE / SW

HORIZONTAL SOUTH

MARCH

15,59

14,12

13,44

9,80

6,67

3,12

MAY

22,10

7)6

10,89

11,96

SEPTEMBER

NOVEMBER

11,74

5,14

7,20

16,28

DECEMBER

4,38

RELATIVE VALUES OF AVAILABLE SOLAR GAIN THROUGH A SIMPLE GLASS WINDOW PLACED AT 40Q LATITUDE AND ORIENTED AS MENTIONED

8,29

4,14

1,34

• BUILDING DESIGN AND LAY - OUT

• Building configuration

In general, for the Mediterranean climate the strategy must provide both heating and cooling. For heating, the first decision will be to consider solar access and this suggests that orientations ±22.5° from the south will be appropriate.

For cooling, breeze and shading must be taken into consideration. This suggests that the south-west orientation should be avoided even though it would have been appropriate for heating in winter.

Next, the solar access analysis must be carried out to check what type of obstruction, if any, could affect the building between 9 AM and 3 PM solar time ( the most energy useful solar period ).

• Plan shapes

The theoretical solar radiation impact over all the building surfaces is well known and can be used to select which main surfaces should be

\

exposed to or protected from the

sun. For a quickly solar radiation evaluation on a building surface we can use the PC-program suggestied on page 175. From the

figure on the left, it can be deduced that south walls are the best solar collectors during winter time, while the roof and east-west walls are the winners in summer time. Therefore, the following guidelines can be given ( 5 ):

1.- The square plan building is inappropriate, whatever area is being considered.

2.- A rectangular shape with the long axis, running north to south, behaves even worse than the square shape.

3.- The optimum shape in all cases is a rectangular with the long axis running east to west.

This optimum configuration is beneficial in several ways.

a.- Because the south area receives three times more energy than the east or west, incorporation of the maximum number of living units is possible.

b.- The difficult west side is reduced to the minimum and some spaces can be allocated as buffer to protect the rest of the building from overheati ng.

c.- It is possible to achieve appropriate natural ventilation for this shape, as in any other.

II

WINTER

SUMMER

OPTIMUM VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INTERNAL ZONES IN A MULTI-STOREY BUILDING

GEOMETRICAL SHAPE HELPING TO REDUCE OVERALL INFILTRATION

II

• Vertical building distribution

In a good building design, solar gain is intimately linked to building height. Buildings with different numbers of storeys have different thermal behaviour responses ( 5 ).

Generally, a two storey building is preferable to a single one because:

1 .- The roof area is smaller and therefore the summer conditions can be controlled better because of the low heat load.

2.- Similarly, the smaller roof allows better heat loss control in wi nter. Winter heat losses from roofs are important because maximum indoor temperatures are in the upper levels.

3.- The south walls are taller and allow better solar access and heat gain.

4.- Incoming solar radiation can be managed more easily with vertical surfaces.

• Wind protection shapes

Wind affects infiltration and the heat transfer by convection from the building's exterior surfaces. The most effective way to reduce the impact of the wind is to reduce its speed using wind breaks and to reduce the area of the surfaces exposed to prevailing winds.

Generally it is the north wind which is to blame for most of the undesirable wind effects in winter. It follows that generally it will be the north facing wall which becomes coldest.

To alleviate this situation, the building should be shaped so that the roof slopes downward from the south to the north wall. This reduces the height of the north wall, and also gives the building an aerodynamic shape which minimizes turbulence and infiltration.

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
[ik] 0.5

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
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\\
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\ 1\
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1\ \~
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1"-
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I I o 2 4 6 8 10

DEPTH IN METERS

RELATIVE TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS (/I,t/ 6(0) WITH RESPECT TO DEPTH

HUMID ZONES 6.t = e -O.32d 6.to

(UPPER CURVE)

DRY ZONES 6.t

_. _ = e-048d

f..to

GROUND TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS WITH RESPECT TO DEPTH, AS REPORTED BY SEVERAL AUTHORS

1200
co
~
z
Q 800
~
Cl
2
"'i
~ 400
<
,_1
0
C/) 6AM

9AM

12

DAYLIGHT HOURS

REU\T!VE SOLAR RADIATION INTENSITIES FOR ROOF AND 4 WALL ORIENTATIONS FOR 36" N. LATITUDE (IDEALIZED VALUES, DISCOUNTING \VEATHER CONDITIONS), PLOTTED AS A FUNCTION OF TIME

3PM

6PM

-

• BUltD'IN'G DESIGN AND LAY - O'UT - '7'-~

Needless to say, if easterlies or westerlies rather than northerlies are the prevailing winds, then the above mentioned aerodynamic building shape may have no impact at all.

Fortunately, if winds come mostly from east or west and the building runs east-west, the exposed surface is minima! and generous plantings may be used to create wind breaks without influencing the solar gain to any appreciable extent.

Traditional architecture has usually accommodated itself to these climatic factors in several ways. One is by incorporating as much as possible of the building structure underqrour.d. Most basic of all is the use of caves.

An underground home is completely protected from winds. However it is not only the winter conditions we have to consider ( 2 ).

Underground buildings are surrounded by a medium with a very stable temperature. The ground temperature at a 30 cm depth follows the outside air temperature with variations no greater than 5°C. At 60 cm, outside temperature changes take a few days to be felt. At greater depths, the only temperature variations experienced are slight seasonal temperature swings.

From the comfort point of view, underground buildings offer excellent possibilities, especially if modern techniques are incorporated to provide day-lighting and natural ventilation.

However, the most worrisome aspect of earth-sheltered building is dampness caused by ( 19 ):

1. Poor water proofing.

2. Inappropriate selection of roofing material.

3. Punctures and cracks.

4. Flashing failure at a vent stack, chimney or skylight.

5. Shrinking due to thermal change or variation.

6. Decomposition due to ultraviolet radiation.

With care and good architectural practice the first four problems can be avoided. The other two will require use of extra covering.

{~} DESIGN PROCESS '

, ,.

BEDROOM

liVING

KITCHEN· DINING

OPTIMUM SPACE ARRANGEMENT FOR Ol\TE-STOREY BUILDING WITH A RECTANGULAR PLAN

--

• H'UllDI':NG DESI'GN AND, LAY - Q'UT

• Location of indoor spaces

When the location, general orientation and shape of the building are decided, the arrangement of interior space is the next consideration ( 5 ).

Living space should be placed so that areas which have the greatest

heating and lighting requirement and are occupied for the greatest amount of time are arrayed along the south face of the building. Rooms that are used least, closets, storage areas and garages should be placed along the north face where they can act as a buffer between the living space and the cold north wall.

The west side should not be allocated to sleeping areas, unless appropriate night ventilation can be designed. Bathrooms, workrooms or even kitchens can be placed between the hot west wall and the bedroom or living areas.

{::: DESIGN PROCESS

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Density Conductivity Specific heat
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS kg /m3 W/m.K Wh/kg. K
Stone
• Granite 2,600 2.50 (0.25)
• limestone 2,180 1.49 (0.20)
• Sandstone 2,000 i .30 (0.20r
• Marble 2,500 2.00 (0.22)
Brickwork
• Light 1,300 0.49
• Medium 1,700 0.84) (0.22)
• Dense 1,900 1.09
EXTERNAL CLADDING MATERIALS
Window glass 2,500 1.05 (0.5)
Rigid PVC 1,350 0.16
Metals
• Aluminium 2,800 160 (0.25)
• Copper 8,900 200) (0.12)
• Carbon steel 7,800 50] (0.14)
Mastic asphalt roofing 2,325 l.15 (0.28)
FINISHES
Timber flooring
• Strip or block 650 0.14 (0.33)
Tiles
• Burnt clay-quarry 1,900 0.85 (0.22)
Plastering
• Gympsum 1,120 0.38 (0.28)
• Vermiculite 640 0.28 (0.28)
• Sand cement 1,570 0.53 (0.28)
INSULATION MATERIALS
Mineral fibre
• Mat or quilt 25 0.04 (0.27)
• Serni-riqid felted 130 0.036
• Loose, felted slab or mat 180 0.042 (0.28)
Foamed plastics
• Phenolic foam board 30 0.038 (0.39)
• Expanded polystyrene board 150 0.037 (0.39)
• Expanded polystyrene board 25 0.034 (0.34)
• Vermiculite granules 100 0.065
• Cellular glass 175 0.17 [0.28) II

• MATERIALS

MATERIALS

As mentioned in the chapter on definitions, passive systems make thermal use of the building. Therefore the building components are not only structural but also collect, store or dissipate heat.

These functions stem from two main properties, heat capacity and thermal conductivity.

• Heat capacity

Heat storage is usually accomplished by using the sensible heat capacity of materials. Storage media need to have a high volumetric heat capacity to store the most heat in the least volume with the least temperature rise.

\

• Thermal conductivity

Solid heat storage media need high thermal conductivity to allow rapid transfer of heat in and out of the material. High density is a good sign that a material has high thermal conductivity.

It follows that, a heavy wall must have two qualities a high heot capacity and a low thermal conductivity- if it is to smooth out t the effect of the exterior environment changes and keep the internal temperature of a room relatively constant.

This ideal combination of qualities is seldom found in anyone construction material. Hence, the most effective way of maximizing the two qualities is to use two separate materials.

OUTSIDE

INSIDE

SOL - AIR INSIDE

TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE

" "
, ,
THIN STEEL 3CM 1 , , 1
PLATE INSULATION
, " , "
SCM. 3 CM. 1 , , 0.7
,
WOOD ,
INSULATION
, 20 DI'1.

CONCRETE

1

t • 4~ •

~ II • . . . . , , ,.

• •

t ~

.. ' . .. -

.~ .

3CM. INSULATION

3CM INSULATION

2U CM CONCRETE

, , , ,

1 '

0.5

,. ... "'\ I 05

,\-_---->.' ~"-' .. ~I •

"

3CM.

INSULATION

tJ

10 CM. WATER

, , ,

1

EFFECT OF MASS AND INSULATION

II MATERIALS

Ideally, one would chose one material with little heat storage capacity but high resistance to heat flow and another material with high heat capacity and little resistance to heat flow ( 9 ).

By placing the insulation material against the outside of the building, little heat is allowed into or out of the building. With the high heat capacity material installed on the inside of the enclosed space, the heat which enters, cannot alter the temperature rapidly and is stored efficiently.

This approach, however, needs modifying when applied to coastal Mediterranean zones where cooling is important and night temperatures do not drop very much.

If the need for cooling is as important as the need for heating and the daily summer temperature swings are not too pronounced, then we must aim to reduce the mass to be cooled down at night. Therefore a light construction with internal insulation layers is an advisable choice.

• Overall thermal resistance of building envelope

Finally, whatever materials ore used, the building behaves like a bottle which loses or gains heat more or less easily via the different external surfaces.

In deciding where to make adjustments, we must keep in mind the relative impact of the different building elements on overall heat loss/gain. In general, in descending order of importance, there are:

1.- Windows 2.- Roof

3.- Vertical wall

4.- Ground contact areas

{::: DESIGN PROCESS

1.- SIMPLE
CONSTRUCTION
2.- AS IN 1 +
TIGHT DOORS 1
3.- AS I 2+
TIGHT ELECTRIC 200
ENTRANCE
CABLING ~ 2
..c:
'<,
r-,
4.- AS IN 3 + r-
c
-...- 150
TIGHT WINDOW Z
FRAME 0
~
5.- AS IN 4 + e<::
TRIPLE - GASKET ~ 100
ON WINDOWS u,
Z
e:::."
:;:
50 PRESSURE DIFFERENCE (Pa)

AIR INFILTRATION MEASURED IN BUILDINGS WITH DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTION STRATEGIES

HEAT-LOSING SURFACES AND THEIR HIERARCHICAL IMPORTANCE IN TOTAL HEAT GAIN/ LOSS

• MATERIALS

Windows

In a home, most losses are through the window. This not only because of the low heat resistance of glass but also because of air infiltration. The latter accounts for the majority of heat loss in winter and unwanted gain in summer.

Conductive heat loss through glazing is reduced significantly by increasing the number of glass panes.

Although it is more expensive than single glazing, double glazing should be adopted in all Mediterranean buildings. Triple glazing is, however, an unreasonable choice at present costs.

The air infiltration heat losses will depend on how well, or badly, the windows have been made. Wood and aluminium frames can both offer good results depending on the craftsmanship involved.

Roofs

The second worst point of trouble is the roof, due to the effect of conduction. In winter, any warm air present in the building tends to rise and, if it meets a cold ceiling or badly insulated roof, will cool quickly and fall again as cold air. Thus a heat loss cycle is set-up.

In the south Mediterranean climate, the summer situation is even worse. Roofs can get hot and sooner or later this heat can enter and affect the whole building.

The following strategies are recommended to prevent this:

a.- Always use pale colours on flat roof-top.

b.- When building sloping roofs, make sure there is a vented gap between the roof and the ceiling insulation.

c.- If possible use some kind of shading, preferably vegetation, over the roof.

· ..

. ' .

· . ' ' . . , ,

, .

. ..

· ' 4.' ...

· -

- ..

. ' -

f-::--,-------,--'-=i' •

GROUND

CONCRETE SLAB : .•. :~-";'---:':

CONCRETE SLAB

· . . ' .

· .. - . . , . , .

. ..

· . ...

~-I, ~.

, _.

"

f---___l_----;' •

INSULATION ~~g~~d~'j GROUND

CONCRETE SLAB

GROUND

HEAT DISSIPATION ALONG THE BUILDING PERIMETER

THE THERMAL BRIDGE IS AVOIDED BY INSULATING A 30 TO 40 em. BAND CLOSE TO THE BUILDING FOUNDATION

THE SAME EFFECT AS ABOVE IS ACHIEVED BY INSTALLING THE INSULATION LAYER OVER THE EXTERNAL \VALL OF THE FOUNDATION

....... - .

· .. . .

'. , , .

, ..

· . .. .

~.

- ..

· ,_'

f----::-::------'--=i' •

EFFECT OF THERMAL INSULATION ON HEAT DISSIPATION ALONG THE BUILDING PERIMETER

Walls

The third building element to be considered regarding heat transfer is the wall. Wall insulation is well understood and does not require much comment. In the Mediterranean climate, super insulation is unnecessary and uneconomic. However, selective insulation of west walls can make sense and deserves special consideration.

• Ground contact zones

This is the fourth area of concern. At ground contact points, heat is transferred by conduction to a medium with a relatively constant temperature and, if it is dry, a low thermal conductivity ( 4 ).

Building foundations have two ways of losing and gaining heat:

1.- Via the perimeter 2.- Via the central part

The second is of limited concern. For our purposes, it is only necessary to consider how to solve the heat transfer problem through the perimeter. This can amount to 15% of all heat losses from a building.

Foundation insulation using foam board on the inside face of the foundation wall is recommended because in this position the foam protect both during construction and during the life of the building ( 22 ).

The other arrangement is to place the foam board on the outside of the foundation structure, so that it forms a continuous and unbroken blanket or envelope around the house.

floor slab insulation is not cost-effective for Mediterranean climates. In addition, even in hot, dry zones, it will prevent the needed amount of cooling during the hot summer months.

111

~ . - {~:: DESIGN PROCESS

EXAMPLE OF DIFFERENT TIME LAG NEEDED BY BUILDING FACADES TO COMPENSATE FOR THE EFFECT OF SOLAR RADIATION AND EXTERNAL TEMPERATURE

~
>-
0
c::: AVG
w
z
!.Ll
~
,
~
..:!:
>-
0
c:::
!.Ll
Z
ll.l
, >~ !-----':'".;; J,l.l

z !.Ll

THERMAL PERFORMA CE OF WALL 11 TERM OF U-VALUE, TIME LAG AND DAY- IGHTTEMPERATURE CHANGE FOR 36 HOUR CYCLE.

• MATERIALS

• Thermal performance

Since mass is hard to control, the consequences of mass construction have to be evaluated. From the previous considerations, we can conclude that heat will come in and out and that, because of the time lag, this heat gain and loss will have an effect on the building.

The thermal performance of a material will depend on a number of properties, including its thermal storage capacity, its thermal conductance ( U-value ),

and its thermal diffusivity.

In a real building, a wall will reach a particular temperature which will cycle around a certain average temperature

(42 ).

Assume that this average is neutral from the energy consumption point of view. Then when the temperature is in a part of the cycle above this average energy must have been added, and when it is in the lower part, energy IS needed.

This cycle is constrained by the wallis U-value. In addition,the thermal capacity and diffusivity cause a line delay in energy input and energy demand.

Another issue to consider in wall behaviour is the change in indoor temperature due to the energy stored during day time which at night radiates outwards.

All these issues must be borne in mind when designing external structures.

For residential applications, in California, Burt et 01 have suggested the time lag shown opposite for different house facades ..

These figures will not be entirely current for our conditions but illustrate the point that, because each building facade responds differently to the climate falling on it, use of the same materials, however good they are, for each facade does not necessarily produce a building with a good thermal performance.

TH1 {::: PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

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DIRECT GAfN SYSTEM

, II DIRECT GAIN

DIRECT GAIN

This chapter is concerned with the three basic passive solar concepts from which most others are derived.

The direct gain system is the simplest way of achieving passive heating. In it, sunlight enters through windows, clerestories or skylights and is absorbed by the inside surfaces.

The three systems considered are:

• Direct Gain

• Indirect Gain

• Sunspace

• Components

• The collector area (glazing)

• The storage area: ( walls, ceilings, and floors)

The direct gain system has two main components:

Basically, in a direct gain system, thermal collection, dissipation, storage and transfer take place within the habitable space. Characteristics are (5):

1.- Direct gain is the most effective of all passive concepts from the point of view of energy collection because the latter works best at lower temperatures. In a direct gain system, the allowable temperatures are the comfort temperatures ( 1 8-27°C ).

II

'--~i {::: PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

oJl

GLARE IS A COMMON PROBLEM WITH DIRECT GAIN AND CAN BE REDUCED BY BRINGING IN LIGHT FROM SEVERAL DIRECTIONS, ALTHOUGH THESE WINDOWS ADD A LITTLE TO THE HEAT LOSS

SKYLIGHT

CLERESTORY

DORMER

SEVERAL POSSIBILITIES FOR GLAZING FOR DIRECT GAIN SYSTEMS

~

• !D'IRE'CT GAIN

2.- Direct gain is the least efficient of passive systems from the point of view of energy storage because there is often not much heat to store.

3.- Because of their low storage capacity, direct gain systems are considered to react quickly to the presence of sunlight. This is an advantage in buildings (such as schools) requiring early morning heat.

4.- Direct gain systems tend to have large daily temperature swings and can present some control problems, especially in the intermediate seasons such as spring or autumn.

5.- Due to the large areas of glazing, direct gain systems have to be designed carefully to avoid the possibility of glare.

6.- Incoming sunlight throughout the living space, may cause deterioration of certain materials ( especially carpets, wood varnishes, etc. ).

7.- Furniture and other items must be located with some care to avoid shading the heat storage areas.

II

8.- This system companions well with natural ventilation because it offers plenty of freedom for design of open areas.

9.- This system has very low added cost.

The direct gain system allows use of glazing other than the conventional window, such as clerestories and skylights. These behave as collectors in a similar way as the windows but:

• Offer a real possibility to enhance day lighting for upper floors or north oriented spaces.

• The thermal losses through these components are always larger than that through windows, because they tend to be located in the hot places where the differential temperature is greatest.

{::: PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

VENTILATION

THE MULTIPLE WINDOWS AND OPENINGS USED IN DIRECT GAIN ALLOW EASY CROSS VENTILATION

..._

90%

/

".

~ 80%

\

SUMMER SHADING IS A MUST AND CAN NOT RELY ONLY ON TREES AND VEGETATION. OVERHANGS HAVE TO BE INCORPORATED EVEN WITH THEM 10 TO 20 % RADIATION WILL ENTER TIIE BUILDING

---

II DIRECT GAIN . '"...-:

_;;;0- ~ .. ,,~~,._--::,... _..:.."""'C _-

• Collector area design

In collector area design, one is looking for maximum solar thermal radiation gain with minimum heat loss.

Selection of U value for such area is crucial to system performance. From the existing possibilities, the recommended solution is often the double-glazed window. Although the second layer of glass reduces to some extent the incoming solar radiation, the insulation effect is much.

However, it has to be said that the cost of double-glazing, especially of larger areas, is an important factor to consider, especially if there is night insulation. Further, in a considerable portion of the Mediterranean zone, the energy balance for double glazing, may be the same as single glazing plus night insulation.

However, the manual effort-required in using movable insulation day to day will probably end in it not being used at all and then it will not be the user who is blamed for poor results but the system or the designer. It is suggested, therefore, the decisions should be made for the long-term.

Type of glass

When the view is not of great importance, translucent glass may be used in place of clear glass. Surprisingly, the former has similar solar radiation transmission but diffuses the light throughout the inside space. This offers some improvement in the efficiency heat storage because it enables energy to be absorbed evenly by most of the storage surface.

I' (::: PASSIVE SOlAR SYSTEMS

SOLAR COLOUR U - VALUE OF SPEC]{llC I'
TRANSMISSION REPRODUCTION GLAZING GRAVITY:
(%) INDEX ( %) (W/m2K) (Kg~~m3 )
I .. ,"
GLAZING TYPE
I
CLEAR GLASS I
--=
- Single 82 99 8.9 1 10
- Double 71 99 3.0 20 - 30
ANTlSUN GLASS
- Absortion glass 20 - 64 90 - 96 3.0 <35
- Reflecting glass 40 - 63 90 - 96 1.7 - 2.2 30
\ LOW - e - GLASS 65 - 80 94 - 96 1.7 - 2.2 20 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT GLAZING TYPES

WINDOW SIZING FOR DIFFERENT CLIMATES

AVERAGE WINTER REQUIRED m? OF
TEMPERATURE WINDOW PER m 2 OF
(DEGRE - DAY / MONTH) FLOOR
1.5 °C (500) 0.16 - 0,25
4.5 °C (417) 0.13 - 0.21
7.0 °C (333) 0.11 - 0.17 • VALID FOR BUILDINGS WITH U-VALUES FROM J.9 TO 2.4 W/m" °C

• DEGRE - DAY FOR DECEMBER OR JANUARY.

APPROXIMATE WINDOW-SIZING FOR TEMPERATE CLIMATES

-

.' Dt'RECT GAIN I

Special Glass

The research to improve the insulation properties of glass is going ahead at high speed. Thus, advanced glazing is being produced with special coatings which modify the glass's original properties by electric or photochromic impulses.

These new construction materials, referred to as transparent insulation materials, will soon be commonplace. As a result designers will have to modify much of the information above.

Among the new types of glazing now widely available low emissivity glass deserves especial mention. This when properly made, reflects back up to 85% of the long wave energy falling on it and behoves thermally almost as well as double glazing window.

• Window insulation systems

Until the fancy transparent insulation materials arrive at an acceptable price, heat loss and gain will have to be controlled using some type of thermal movable barrier.

The available equipment ( storm windows, drapery, folding shutter, roll-down shutters, insulated panels, etc. ) can be simply divided into

interior and exterior systems. Their effectiveness will depend on the U-value. In general, it can be said that external systems are usually the most appropriate for hot summer conditions while internal systems should be selected if heat loss in winter is the basic problem.

Window dimensions and size

The first constraint when considering the collector area is the total amount of surface required by the calculation process.

Common sense and the ordinary daylight needs of a building, will act as natural guides in placing windows in the walls. However, some additional tips can be given.

• If the thermal mass has to be located in particular areas, then the glazing serving this mass will have to be located close to it.

• Windows placed as high as possible allow a better light distribution inside the building. This also helps the natural ventilation

s trateg i es.

• Aesthetics have to be considered properly. Good design also has also to be good looking.

II

.!I :"-T ("~: PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

*.*

POSSIBLE LOCATION OF THERMAL MASS

-

• DIRECT GAI'N

• Thermal mass

The effectiveness of thermal mass depends mainly on material, location, thickness and surface area exposed to solar radiation.

Location

Mass located in direct sunlight for the entire solar day has approximately twice the effective thermal storage capacity as mass located in a sunlit room but not directly irradiated. This, in turn, is approximately twice as effective as mass more remote from the sunlight. ( 23 ).

A common practice is to insulate the basements of passive solar homes on the outside. This makes sense if the basement is part of the living area and includes a large amount of south facing glass ( 22 ).

If for some special reason, the thermal mass has to be placed outside the living space, the stored heat must be forced in using mechanical ventilation. In such cases, this happen keep in mind that heat exchange efficiency under such conditions is very poor.

As a rule, it is suggested that the bulk of the heat storage capacity is placed on the floor, close to the windows.

Colour

When applying the heat storage equations, do not forget that the store is charged by solar energy and that the store rncteriols's absorptivity of the solar spectrum has as much influence on the heat storage property as density and specific heat. Dark colours are good absorbers and

rough un-polished finishes help gain energy. Following Balcomb's suggestions a minimum average absorptivity of 0,5 ( 6 ) is advisable.

Ii . - ('"": PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

I I 11-*'"

OPTIMUM SITUATION OF THERMAL MASS

COLOUR REFLECTIVITY

% REFLECTED

COLOUR LIGHT

\~'lIITE 80 - 90

LI OHT PASTEL (yellow, pinic) 80

LIGHT PASTEL (bcig, purpel) 70

L10HTBLUEGREEN 70 - 75

YELO~I 35

LIGHT BROWN 35

BLUE-GREEN 20 - 30

BLACK 10

MATERIAL REFLECTIVITY

MATERIAL

% REFLECTED LIGHT

WHITE PLASTIC PAINT PINEWOOD

MARBEL

RED BRICK

70 - 75 40 S5 25 - 30

REFLECTIVITY TABLE OF COMMON MATERIALS AND COLOURS USED IN CONSTRUCTION

II

Material

Good thermal storage materials have high thermal storage capacities and high thermal conductivities.

A high thermal conductivity makes deeper portions of the mass effective for energy storage.

Concrete is clearly the best choice in terms of cost-performance, particularly for a thickness greater than 10 cm.

Thickness

The effective layer of a thermal mass is relatively th in. Heat penetrates to the deeper regions as the mass is charged during the course of the day.

All of the effective thermal storage is in the first few cm because the sun acts as a heat source for a limited amount of time. Therefore, as a rule, the overall

th ickness of the heat storage should be 10 to 15 cm.

Surface area

Because heat transfer from the mass to the room air is poor, the mass surface area should be large enough to ensure sufficient heat delivery to the room air. (6). A large surface area also helps overcome the limitation on mass thickness, mentiond above. Research conducted by several authors (Balcom and others) has led to a rule of thumb that, for a 10 em concrete mass in direct sunlight, the surface area should be three times the south facing glazing area. When the thermal mass has to be located outside the area of direct solar radiation, the surface area has to be even greater, to guarantee sufficient heat transfer.

I TDIRECT GAIN SYSTEM

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INDIRECT GAIN

A solid wall is placed on the south side of the building and is darkened in colour and glazed to allow the wall to act as a solar collector and storage element. During the day, the wall slowly stores heat. By evening, heat will have been conducted to the inside face of the wall and will radiate into adjacent rooms. If it is properly sized, the wall will continue to radiate until early morning. Often the wall is vented to the interior space at the top and bottom to create a thermosyphon loop. This venting keeps the wall's surface cooler, allowing more efficient heat collection.

This system is sometiems known as the Trombe wall, after its first designer .

• Components

As with direct gain, the indirect gain system can be separated into two main components, the collector and the storage area.

The collecting area can consist of one or more sheets of glazing chosen with respect to their insulation and light transmission properties, and their capacity to withstand high temperatures. In a systems with no vents, the internal temperature may reach 800e and therefore any plastic materials used must be very carefully chosen ( 5 ).

il {::: PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

THERMAL WALL SECTION FOR 45° EAST ORIENTATION

000 00000

THERMAL STORAGE IN WATER TANKS

+-OUTSIDE

GLASS

10 ern. 30 em.

.. ~ ~

CONCRETE WALL

65

60

55

... ------- ---- NOON

50

45

RESULTS OF A COMPUTER A ALYSIS FORA SOUTH FACING CONCRETE TROMBE WALL TO GIVE TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION AS A FUNCTION OF TIME

40

35

30

25 '-------'

_. INSIDE

... IiiiI

.

• rN'DIIRECT GAI'N ~

The storage area of a thermal wall is by definition a massive component with a high storage capacity, painted in a dark colour on the outer surface and plaster-finished on the inner side.

The type of construction defines the system characteristics.

1.- From the collection point of view, it is less efficient than a direct gain system because of the high temperatures reached in the gap between wall and glass. This temperature excess induces high thermal losses and therefore for the same output an indirect gain system would require 50 to 90% more collector area than a direct gain systems ( 6 ).

2.- Because of their good wall thermal conductivity, compared with conventional insulated walls, in cloudy-cold climates thermal walls will lose too much heat during the day to be able to supply the expected heat at night time.

3.- In all climates, but especially in Mediterranean climates, very effective external shading is mandatory to avoid overheating at midday on sunny days.

4.- Because transmission of the stored heat is delayed a number of hours, depending on the wall design, indirect gain systems are suitable for residential buildings where activity starts in the afternoon.

5.- indirect gain systems do not have as many problems as direct gain systems regarding heat storage. Thus offers more freedom in design of the interior.

6.- Trombe walls can be expensive because of the cost of materials and the structural modifications required.

7.- The aesthetics of the indirect gain system is always debatable because of the need to use dark colours on the south-facing wall.

(~": PASSIVE SOtAR SYSTEMS

***

E

N

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W

W

N

W

E

N

s

W

ESTIMATED COLLECTOR AREA INCREASE REQUIRED FOR ORIENTATIONS OTHER THAN SOUTH

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u.l -90 -60 - 30 0 + 30 +60 +90

WEST

EAST

ORIENTATION IN DEGREES

THEORETICAL SOLAR GAIN OF A REFERENCE SURFACE AT TILT OF THE LOCAL LATITUDE AND EAST - WEST ORIENTED

---_- -~- -

• INDIRECT GAIN .

• Collector area design

Before discussing the different types of glazing which can be used, it is worth giving some tips which help the collector performance in a thermal wall. ( 5 ).

The optimum distance between the glass panes and the thermal storage wall is 10 cm.

However, as it is occasionally necessary to clean the inside glass surfaces a bigger distance, of the order of 30 to 50 cm, is usually designed. The bigger the air gap the higher the air turbulence and convection losses.

The choice of window frame is somewhat crucial because standard metallic frames ( such as aluminium ), make effective heat bridges and so can cause thermal losses. If the window frame is in contact with the thermal storage wall, wood or aluminum-wood composites should be selected.

The sealing and weather-proofing materials used around the glass must have high heat resistance. There have been reports of rapid deterioration when conventional materials have been used; the associated leaks may ruin a good design.

Orientation

This indirect gain system oHers ample freedom with regard to collector orientation.

Due south is, as always, the best. Variations of ± 10° produce no significant changes in heat gain oscillation and even 20° east or west will come-up with energy reductions of only about 10%.

Obviously, southerly orientation is only relevant for achieving heating. It has no other purpose and when need in a typical Mediterranean climate, most thought has to be applied to the provision of adequate shading at right in the proper places.

(";': PASSIVE SOtAR SYSTEMS

"**

-- - -

~~~~P~R~~o~s~~~1 ~I ~~~C~O~N~S~~~

• GREENHOUSE EFFECT • EXPENSIVE
- TRANSPARENCY - LIMITED BREAKING
GLASS - INALTERABILITY RRSTSTANCE
- POLUTION RESISTANT -HEAVY
- LO\V EXPANSION • DIFFIClJLT INSTALLATION
COEFFICIENT FOR BIG SIZES
• EASY TO GET
• VERY STRONG RESISTANCE • EASY TO SCRATCH
POLYCARBONATE TO IMPACT • NOT RIGID
• LIGHT WEIGHT • YELLOWING AND BRITTLE
• VERY TRANSPARENT IN LONG RUN
• EASY INSTALLATION • LIMITED TRANSPARENCY
GLASS FIBER • LIGHT WEIGHT • MEDIUM LIFE TIME
• VERY STRONG • YELLOWING
• VERY CHEAP • LIMITED LIFE TIME
• LIGHT WEIGHT • BRITTLE AFTER MEDIUM
POLYETHYLENE AND FLEXIBLE SOLAR EXPOSURE
• GOOD THERMAL
PROPERTIES IF TREATED
• EXCELLENT LIFE TIME • EXPENSIVE
TEFLON • EXCELLENT TRANSMISSIVITY • DIFFICULT TO GET
• LIMITED WIDTHS COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT GLAZING MATERIALS

• IND'IRECT GAIN

Glazing

From the energy point of view, double glazing is highly recommended, although the installation cost will be much more than for single glazing.

A solid double glazed thermal wall will appear black during the day-time, even if it has windows in it. Thus, when considering aesthetics, the designer must work with a large, shiny, black surface on the south facade. Therefore, glazing mullions, facias and plinths take on greatly aesthetic importance and should be carefully composed for visual effect when seen from a distance ( 9 ].

As in the direct gain system, movable insulation which, ( in this case, will be placed in the interior ] is very helpful in controlling the energy performance of the collector.

Cooling

To prevent heating the building during the summer, the thermal wall is shaded, the vent to the interior closed and the outside surface of the wall vented to the outside.

Cooling of the interior space during warm weather may be accomplished by using outside vents to enhance natural ventilation from windows.

All these strategies, however, will only work well in climates with moderate to low cooling loads. For climates with heavy cooling loads, the solid thermal walls should be shaded from both direct and diffuse radiation during the day.

Wall storage capacity

The efficiency of indirect gain systems depends very much on the wall storage characteristics and correct dimensioning.

Wall thickness

The optimum wall thickness depends on the thermal conductivity of the material and the external colour of the wall.

The wall thickness and thermal conductivity are directly relationed. This is because the better the heat transfer coefficient, the quicker the heat will reach the interior of the building.

iii (*w: PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

l * ••

TEMPERATURE rLUCTUATIONS AS A

MAT E R I A L r
FUNCTION OF WALL THICKNESS -c
10 em. 20 em. 30 em. 40 em. 50 em. 60 em.
ADOBE ... 10 4 4 5 ...
BRICK ... 13 6 4 ... . ..
CONCRETE ... 15 8 5 3 3
BRICK (Magnesium) ... 19 13 9 7 5
WATER 17 10 7 6 6 5 MATERIAL THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY RECOMMENDED
(W/m2K) THICKNESS (em.)
ADOBE 0.52 20·30
BRICK 0.73 25·35
CONCRETE 1.16 30 -45
WATER ... 15 or more TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS AND COMMON WALL THICKNESSES IN TROMBE WALL CONSTRUCTION

II

_ INDIRECT GAIN

Therefore the delay factor expected from the thermal storage wall has

to be calculated in conjunction with the material thermal conductivity. But this is not the only factor to be considered. Heat capacity plays

the second most important role. By looking all these properties for different materials, several studies have reached the conclusions on wall thickness shown in the table on the left. ( 5 ).

The optimum thicknesses need to be modified, however, if night thermal insulation is used. In such cases the optimum wall thickness is slightly greater.

The presence of vents in the wall is important for both thick walls and walls with low thermal conductivity. This is because in these cases the convective loop effect of thermo-circulation becomes a major mechanism for heating the

building.

Another way to build thermal moss storage is the use of water in what are known as water walls.

The primary advantage of a water wall is the ability to achieve a very high thermal storage value in a reasonable space-volume.

The second important benefit of using water is an overall efficiency improvement because lower wall temperatures achieved.

The water wall has a more constant temperature. This affects the building interior by creating smaller temperature swings than those found with a solid wall construction.

i - > {::: PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS -

WINTER OPERATION

AIR FLOW IN A THERMAL STORAGE WALL

UPPER AND LOWER VENTS SHOULD HAVE TRAPS AS INDICATED TO AVOID NIGHT COOLING BY RECIRCULATION

_ INDIRECT GAIN

Colour

The greater the amount of energy captured at the wall surface, the more heat will be transferred to the living space.

Therefore black is the first choice for colour. Very dark blue, brown, etc .. comes next.

The important thing about the colour chosen is its efficiency at absorbing heat. Black is best at this. All other colours reflect back some light/heat however dark they are.

• Vents

Heat delivery by thermosyphon vents increases day-time heating but does not raise the minimum night temperature. Thus the usefulness of such vents is greater in colder climates and there is no need for them in a portion of the Mediterranean area.

It vents are applied, night cooling recirculation will occur unless dampers are installed. A flexible plastic sheet, for instance, will allow the hot air to move during day time, but stop the reverse air circulation. This will prevent the air cooled at night from entering the living space via the lower vent.

~

Of much more importance in the

Mediterranean climate is the summer vent. This upper vent between the glass and the outside is mandatory as when it is open to the outside it will release the hot air produced in the gap between the glass and the thermal wall.

: ( ... : PASSIVE SOtAR SYSTEMS .

***

SUNSPACE SYSTEM

SUNSPACE

"Sunspace" rooms that collect solar heat and provide sunny living spaces are among the most eHective passive solar heating systems. They are also highly desirable architectural features.

This system is in fact a combination of the direct and indirect gain systems with the solar collector element separated from the living space.

Like a modified greenhouse which is attached to a house or other

building, this sunspace carries out the thermal functions of collection, storage, and transfer. It acts as a semi-detatched heating system for the main building, besides serving as a greenhouse for growing plants. As a solarium, it provides an intermediate environment. Because it is partially isolated from the main building, larger temperature swings in the solarium can be accommodated than would be possible in a living room.

Sunspaces which effectively combine greenhouse and solarium characteristics are present in many of the existing passive solar homes.

Passive Solar Architecture For Mediterranean Area

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INSTITUTE FOR SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND INFORMATICS

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