Metal structures Laboratory

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1. IMPERFECTIONS OF THE WELDED CONNECTION

A. Classification of imperfections in the welds acc. to EN 26520 (ISO 6520)
Crack (100) - imperfection produced by a local rupture in the solid state which can arise from
the effect of cooling or stresses.
Cracks can arise as a hot crack in temperature range 1100 1350 C.
Reasons:
large level of carbon C and other impurity (S and P);
large welding speed;
high internal stress level caused a large stiffnes of the structure.
Cold cracks arise in temperature under 300 C, caused mainly by cold shortness i. e. hydrogen
shortness.
Lameral cracks arise mainly on as a result of losing its shape metal sheets in the thickness
direction, at low her ductilities in this direction.

Group No.1 Cracks

Symbol Name Description Schema

crack visible only under the
1001 microcrack
microscope
crack essentially parallel to
the axis of the weld
101 It can be situated:
longitudinal crack 1011 - in the weld metal,
Ea 1012 - in the weld junction
1013 in the heat affected zone
1014 in the parent metal
crack essentially transverse
to the axis of the weld
102 It can be situated:
transverse crack
Eb 1021 - in the weld metal,
1023 in the heat affected zone
1024 in the parent metal
cracks radiating from a
common point
103 It can be situated:
radiating cracks
E 1031 - in the weld metal,
1033 in the heat affected zone
1034 in the parent metal
104 crater crack
crack in the crater at the end
Ec of a weld
105 group of group of disconnected
E disconnected cracks cracks in any direction
group of connected cracks
106
branching crack originating from a common
E crack
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Lecture 7: Classification of imperfections in the welds
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Cavities (200) free space in weld material formed by entrapped gas.
They are created in the result of gas making of metallurgical reactions. The influence on the
creation of cavities have:
moisture of the coating in alkaline electrodes;
polluting welded edges (rust, paint, fat);
too high rate of speed of cooling of the joint (small amperage, too high rate of speed of the welding).

Group No. 2 Cavities

Symbol Name Description Schema

cavity formed by entrapped

gas
201
gas cavity 2011 - gas pore
Aa gas cavity of essentially
spherical form

large, non-spherical cavity

2015 with its major dimension
elongated cavity
Ab approximately parallel to the
axis of the weld

tubular cavity in weld metal

caused by release of gas.
2016 The shape and position of
worm-hole
Ab worm-holes are determined
by the mode of solidification
and the sources of the gas.
uniformly number of gas pores distributed in not to be confused with linear
2012 distributed a substantially uniform manner porosity (2014) and clustered
porosity throughout the weld metal; porosity (2013)

2013 group of gas pores having a

clustered (localized)
random geometric
Ad porosity
distribution

row of gas pores situated

2014 linear porosity parallel to the axis of the
weld

gas pore that breaks the

2017 surface pore
surface of the weld
open crater with a hole
2025
end crater pipe reducing the cross-section of
K the weld

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Lecture 7: Classification of imperfections in the welds
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Solid inclusion solid foreign substances entrapped in the weld metal: slag, flux or foreign metal.
Influence on the creation of the slag inclusion have:
infusible and with difficulty removable slag;
inaccurate cleaning individual layers of the weld;
too low linear energy at welding.

Group No. 3 Solid inclusions

Symbol Name Description Schema

solid inclusion in the form of

slag
301 Slag inclusions can be:
slag inclusion
Ba 3011 - linear
3012 - isolated
3013 clustered.
solid inclusion in the form of
flux
302 flux inclusion Flux inclusions can be:
G 3021 - linear
3022 - isolated
3023 clustered.
solid inclusion in the form of
metallic oxide
303 oxide inclusion Oxide inclusions can be:
J 3031 - linear
3032 - isolated
3033 clustered.
in certain cases, especially in aluminium alloys, gross oxide film
enfoldment can occur due to a combination of unsatisfactory
3034 puckering
protection from atmospheric contamination and turbulence in the
weld pool
solid inclusion in the form of
foreign metal
304 metallic Metallic inclusions can be:
H inclusion 3041 tungsten,
3042 copper,
3043 other metal.

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Lack of fusion and penetration - lack of union between the weld metal and the parent
material or between the successive layers of weld metal.
Influence on the lack of fusion have:
too low linear energy at welding;
wrong technique of welding (e.g. one-way lowering the electrode);
presence of difficult-fusible oxides at joined surfaces.

Group No. 4 Lack of fusion and penetration

Symbol Name Description Schema

lack of union between the weld

metal and the parent material or
between the successive layers of
weld metal
401
lack of fusion It can be one of the following:
Ba 4011 lack of side-wall fusion;
4012 lack of inter-run fusion (also
referred to as cold laps),
4013 - lack of root fusion,
4014 micro-lack of fusion.

incomplete difference between the actual

402 penetration and the nominal penetration
4021 incomplete root penetration;
G (lack of (one or both fusion faces of the
penetration) root are not melted)

extremely non-uniform
penetration occurring in
electron-beam and laser
403 spiking welding giving a sawtooth
appearance.
This can include cavities,
cracks, shrinkages, etc.

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Lecture 7: Classification of imperfections in the welds
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Imperfect shape and dimensions imperfect shape of the external surfaces of the weld or
defective joint geometry.
Causes of the uprising of such defects are different, out of most frequent it is possible to exchange:
Inability to weld;
Welding in compulsory positions;
Wrong parameters of the welding (amperage, speed of the welding).

Group No. 5 Imperfect shape and dimensions

Symbol Name Description Schema

irregular groove at a toe of a run
in the parent material or in
previously deposited weld metal
501 5011 continuous undercut;
undercut
F 5012 - intermittent undercut,
5013 - shrinkage grooves,
5014 inter-run undercut,
5015 - local intermittent undercut.

excess weld reinforcement of the butt weld on

502 metal the face is too large

excessive reinforcement of the fillet is too

503 convexity large
reinforcement of the butt weld on
excessive the root side is too large
504 penetration 5041 local excessive penetration;
5042 - continuous excessive penetration,
5043 - excessive melt-through.

incorrect weld too small an angle () between

505 toe parent material and weld surface
5051 incorrect weld toe angle;
5052 - incorrect weld toe radius.
excessive weld metal covering the
parent material surface but not
506 overlap fused to it
5061 toe overlap;
5062 - root overlap.
misalignment between two
welded pieces such that they are
linear
507 misalignment
not in the same required parallel
plane, even though their surface
planes are parallel
collapse of the weld pool
510 burn-through
resulting in a hole in the weld
excessive
Excessive unequal leg length
512 asymmetry of
explanation not necessary
fillet weld
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Miscellaneous imperfections all imperfections which cannot be included in groups 1 to 5.

Group No. 6 Miscellaneous imperfections

Symbol Name Description Schema

local damage to the surface of the
parent material adjacent to the weld,
601 arc strike stray arc
resulting from arcing or striking the arc
outside the joint preparation
globules of weld metal or filler metal
expelled during welding and adhering
602 spatter to the surface of parent material or
solidified weld metal.
6021 - tungsten spatter.
surface damage due to the removal by
603 torn surface fracture of temporary welded
attachments
604 grinding mark local damage due to grinding
local damage due to use of a chisel or
605 chipping mark
other tools
reduction in the thickness of the
606 underflushing
workpiece due to excessive grinding
imperfection resulting from defective
tack weld tack welding, e.g.
607 imperfection 6071 - broken run or no penetration,
6072 - defective tack has been overwelded.
difference between the centrelines of
misalignment of
608 two runs made from opposite sides of
opposite runs
the joint
lightly oxidized surface in the weld
zone, e.g. in stainless steels
temper colours 6101 discolouration.
610 (visible oxide film) visibly tinted surface layers in the weld
metal and heataffected zone caused by the
weld heat and/or by lack of protection,
heavily oxidized surface in the weld
613 scaled surface
zone
flux residue that is not sufficiently
614 flux residue
removed from the surface
adherent slag that is not sufficiently
615 slag residue
removed from the surface of the weld
incorrect root gap excessive or insufficient gap between
617 for fillet welds the parts to be joined
imperfection due to a burning on
welded joints in light alloys resulting
618 swelling
from a prolonged holding time in the
solidification stage
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Lecture 7: Classification of imperfections in the welds
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2. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS OF WELD JOINTS

A. Visual inspection
Visual inspection is probably the most underrated, and often misused, method of welding
inspection. Because of its simplicity, and the absence of sophisticated equipment, the potential of
this method of inspection is quite often underestimated. The control consists in the visual
observation and measurements of joints. Visual inspection can be carried out as pre-weld
inspection, inspection during welding or post-weld inspection. They enclose:
Inspection, or all welds were carried out and correctly situated;
Visual inspection weld surface and shape;
Measurement of the thickness and lengths of the welds;
Detecting surface defects (of e.g. undercuts, spatters or chips).

With visual inspection of the weld surface is

possible to detect:
Surface and shape defects (e.g wrong
dimensions of the welds, undercuts, toe
defects, craters or swellings);
Lack of fusion and excessive penetrations
one side butt welds;
Cracks in the weld material or in the heat
affected zone detecting of such defects
is possible to confirm by inspection of the
effective segment through the magnifying
glass or with penetrative surveys.

For checking dimensions of fillet welds is
applying weld gauge (special calipers). Weld
gauge simplified measurement of thickness of
the fillet welds or heights of the spure of butt
welds.

To visual inspection internal surfaces of the pipes or small tanks (eg. Penetration quality), the
endoscope can be used.

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B. Radiographic Testing (RT)

Method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the ability of short wavelength
electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons) to penetrate various materials.
Either an X-ray machine or a radioactive source, like Ir-192, Co-60, or in rarer cases Cs-137 are
used in a X-ray computed tomography machine as a source of photons. Neutron radiographic
testing (NR) is a variant of radiographic testing which uses neutrons instead of photons to penetrate
materials. This can see very different things from X-rays, because neutrons can pass with ease
through lead and steel but are stopped by plastics, water and oils.
Since the amount of radiation emerging from the opposite side of the material can be detected
and measured, variations in this amount (or intensity) of radiation are used to determine thickness or
composition of material. Penetrating radiations are those restricted to that part of the
electromagnetic spectrum of wavelength less than about 10 nanometres.
To conduct the evaluation of the defectiveness of
welds it is possible with the following methods:
Through comparing the radiogram of the
weld with model radiograms included in
special catalogues;
Through the direct evaluation of the size of
defects (in mm) and of increasing them
(number of defects or their summary length
on the chosen stretch);
With establishing the so-called general
defectiveness expressed in % of loss of a
cross section of the weld as a result of
defects;
Based on the description stipulated in the
contract of defects;

Advantages of the radiographic method:

The method allows for the detection of internal defects;
The film can be recorded and store to confirmation of weld quality.
The defects detected with radiographic method.
description cross-section radiogram description cross-section radiogram
lack of inter run
worm hole
fusion
linear slag longitudinal
inclusion crack
gas pore traverse crack
porosity
radiating crack
(linear)
lack of
root
fusion
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C. Ultrasonic testing (UT)

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a testing techniques based on the propagation of ultrasonic waves in
the object or material tested. In most common UT applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves
with center frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, and occasionally up to 50 MHz, are transmitted
into materials to detect internal flaws or to characterize materials.
In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is passed over
the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the test object by a couplant
(such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. However, when ultrasonic testing is conducted
with an Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) the use of couplant is not required.
There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform: reflection and attenuation. In
reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the receiving of the
pulsed waves as the "sound" is reflected back to the device. Reflected ultrasound comes from an
interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an imperfection within the object. The
diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a signal with an amplitude representing the
intensity of the reflection and the distance, representing the arrival time of the reflection. In
attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound through one surface, and
a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another surface after traveling through
the medium. Imperfections or other conditions in the space between the transmitter and receiver
reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing their presence. Using the couplant increases
the efficiency of the process by reducing the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due to separation
between the surfaces.

Advantages ultrasonic method:

High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part;
High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws;
Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of defects;
Non hazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on equipment and
materials in the vicinity.
Disadvantages ultrasonic method:
Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians. The transducers
alert to both normal structure of some materials, tolerable anomalies of other specimens
(both termed noise)
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Lecture 7: Classification of imperfections in the welds