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Concrete
Strength: The specified compressive strength at 28 days should not be less than 20 N/mm2.
Modulus of elasticity: The modulus of elasticity of concrete, Ec , measured in N/mm2 , may be
calculated from the formula;
= 5000
Poissons ratio: The value of the poisons ratio of concrete is usually taken as zero in the
analysis of thin shells. In those cases where the effect of Poissons ratio is deemed significant, its
value should be ascertained from experiment or, lacking experimental data, it may be taken as
0.20.
Reinforcing Steel
The maximum specified yield strength fy of reinforcing steel should not exceed 420 N/mm2,
unless allowable stress is suitably restricted to preclude large strains. The modulus of elasticity
Es of non prestressed reinforcement may be taken as 210,000 N/mm2.
Loadings
A number of loadings and load combinations need to be considered in the design of a shell
structure. In general, the nature of the loads and their intensity should be as prescribed by the
applicable regulations.
Dead load
In addition to dead loads typical of all structures, consideration should be given to the effect of
the weight of edge members, such as the edge beams in cylindrical barrel vaults, as well as to the
effect of any additional shell thickness which may be provided in some areas of the shell, such as
the valleys of cylindrical barrel vaults or at shell boundaries. In many instances, the effect of
these weights on shell stresses may be greater than the stresses due to weight of shell itself.
Live Load
Typically, shells are not sensitive to partial loading. The reason for this is that, unlike the more
conventional structures such as arches, a shell of a given geometry is capable of transmitting
loads primarily through in-plane stresses for any arrangement of distributed load. Accordingly,
an investigation of the effects of partial loads is not normally required as far as the shell itself is
concerned. However, it may still be necessary to investigate partial load effects on supporting
members.
Snow Load
Where snow might tend to collect, as in the valleys of barrel vaults, due consideration should be
given to the loads due to the added weight of the snow.
Wind Load
In general, the effects of wind load on shells are not severe and can be accounted for by usual
procedures. The possibility of suction over entire shell surface should be recognized.
Earthquake Load
During an earthquake, foundations of the structure of which the shell is a part are subjected to
horizontal and vertical accelerations. In consequence, the shell itself experiences motion and
deformation, and hence internal stresses. The magnitude of these stresses and deformations
should be investigated. Typically, a shell structure is stiffer than a conventional framed structures
and hence is subject to larger earthquake stresses.
Foundations of shell supports should be interconnected by a system of grade beams to minimize
the relative horizontal movement which might occur between the supports during an earthquake.
Similarly, to reduce the effect of the vertical component of the ground motion, the foundations
should be designed to minimize as much as possible the differential vertical motions of supports.
Load combinations (IS Code)
Dead load,
Dead load + appropriate live load or snow
load,
Dead load + appropriate live load + wind load, and
Dead load + appropriate live load + seismic
load
Selection of Dimensions
Shell Thickness
Shell thickness is not always dictated by strength requirements but often by deformation of
edge members, stability, and cover over reinforcing steel. Although shells as thin as 25mm
have been successfully realized, a more practical range of the thickness appears to lie between
50mm and 100mm. This thickness permits a reasonably simple placement of reinforcement
and concrete and allows for adequate cover to reinforcement.
Stress concentrations due to abrupt changes in section shall be considered and, where
necessary, the thin shell shall be gradually thickened.
Shells are usually thickened for some distance from their junction with edge members and
traverses. The thickening is usually of the order of 30 percent of the shell thickness. It is,
however, important to note that undue thickening is undesirable. In the case of singly-curved
shells, the distance over which the thickening at the junction of the shell and traverse is made
should be between
038 (R.d)^0.5 and 076(Rd)^0.5, where R and d are the radius and the thickness, respectively.
The thickening of shell at straight edges shall depend on the transverse bending moment.
Shell reinforcement
Shell reinforcement shall be provided to resist tensile stresses from internal membrane forces,
to resist tension from bending and twisting moments, to limit shrinkage and temperature crack
width and spacing, and as reinforcement at shell boundaries, load attachments, and shell
openings.
Concrete Cover to Reinforcement
In determining concrete cover to reinforcement, a balance must be reached between the need
for protection of bars from injurious and unsightly rusting, and the desire to place the bars as
close as possible to the surface of the shell, so as to reduce the width of the inevitable surface
cracks. Based on these considerations, the following minimum cover to bars is recommended.
Edge members and supporting members: Use minimum cover as recommended in the
applicable regulations for typical concrete elements, except that shell reinforcement which
penetrates into these members may receive the same minimum cover as it does in the area of
the shell itself.
Reinforcement schemes in shells
Reinforcement types; using pre-stressed concrete; local
bending moments
The reinforcement section of spatial structures can be obtained in the same two ways, like for
regular RC ones:
by calculation, but not less than the minimal reinforcement ratio
without calculations (according to constructive requirements) following modern
design codes
The stress trajectories consist of two families of curves which are mutually orthogonal. In
cylindrical shell roofs, one family of these curves represents the directions of principal
tensile stresses while the other family of trajectories gives the directions of principal
compressive stresses.
As we noted earlier, thin shells are usually accompanied by stiffening and / or supporting
members. These elements must be monolithic with the shell so that they can transfer the
internal forces. On the other hand, these members produce a bending field. This bending
field would require extra reinforcement which must be provided in addition to the
membrane field reinforcements.
Tensile stresses in concrete shells tend to cause cracks in the concrete. Figure show
the most probable cracking pattern in a single cylindrical shell. This figure shows the
position as weIl as the directions of the probable cracks.
The transverse cracks appearing in the longitudinal edges of figure (5-8) are due to
longitudinal tensile force. The longitudinal cracks designated by solid and dotted lines
can be caused by transverse bending moment. Finally, the inclined cracks at four corners
of the shell are produced by the diagonal tension, these latter cracks are called shear
cracks. In addition to these global crack field, local cracks may occur at the junctions of
the shell with its stiffening members.
The pattern of shell reinforcement must naturally follow the probable cracking. The steel
reinforcement should, in principle, be placed in the directions perpendicular to the
possible cracks.
N N N N
2
Np x x N x
2
2 2
2 N x
tan 2
N x N
We can thus, determine the principal stresses and the principal directions at each point of the
shell, and plot the stress trajectories for each case.
Figure show the plan of stress trajectories for a uniformly loaded simply supported cylindrical
vault. In this figure, the solid curves represent the directions of compressive principal stresses
while the dashed lines represent the curves that are tangent to the directions of maximum tensile
stresses.
According to the American Concrete Institute (ACI) code of reinforced concrete shell design, the
reinforcement is to be placed in the general direction of principal tensile stresses. This code
allows for slight deviations of reinforcement direction from principal direction. In this code, a
directional error of 5 degrees or less is considered acceptable.
However, due to constructional considerations, it is usually convenient to place the reinforcing
bars in perpendicular directions. The codes have provisions for these cases. In these cases, the
reinforcing network must be designed so that it can absorb the principal tensile stress at each
point.
Figure (a) Principal tensile force acting in some elemental direction, (b) contributions of
perpendicular steel reinforcement to absorb the principal tensile stress
From fig. equilibrium equation can be written as
Tp ds As1 f s1dx cos As 2 f s 2 dy sin
Tp As1 f s1 cos2 As 2 f s 2 sin 2
Where
As1 and As2 are cross sectional areas (per unit shell width) of perpendicularly placed reinforcing
bars fs1 and fs2 are stresses in reinforcing bars;