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RTh
vTh (t ) + iN (t ) RN
vTh (t ) = iN (t ) RN vTh (t )
iN (t ) =
RTh
RTh = RN
RN = RTh
28V + iN (t ) RN
vTh (t ) 28
iN (t ) = = = 2A,
RTh 14
RN = RTh = 14
RTh
3A 5 vTh (t ) +
vTh (t ) = iN (t ) RN = 3A 5 = 15V
RTh = RN = 5
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 4
1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signal
Sinusoid:
v(t ) v(t ) = Va sin ( t + 1 )
v(t ) = Va sin ( t 2 )
v(t ) = Va sin t
Va
1 2
1
f = , = 2f rad / sec
T
4V
3
4V
4V
5
7
...
o 3o 5o 7o (rad/s)
Figure 1.6 The frequency spectrum (also known as the line spectrum)
of the periodic square wave of Fig. 1.5.
(rad/s)
t0 t 2 t 4 t6 t
v(t )
t0 t 2 t 4 t6
t
+5V
Analog input
signal (Vin ) C
C
Counter
sw R Completer CLK R
n
OPA Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7
OPA
VREF
D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
Latch
Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7
Control Logic
Binary output
Voltage gain
Input Output
vo
Av =
vi
Input Output
Figure 1.11 (a) Circuit symbol for amplifier. (b) An amplifier with a
common terminal (ground) between the input and output ports.
ii io Av
+ 1
vI (t ) RL vo (t ) vi
(b)
(a)
Figure 1.12 (a) A voltage amplifier fed with a signal vI (t) and
connected to a load resistance RL.
(b) Transfer characteristic of a linear voltage amplifier
with voltage gain Av.
P2
1.4.5 Expressing Gain in Decibels Ap log10 (Bel)
P1
log 2 = 0.3 P2
= 10 log10 (dB)
log 3 = 0.477 P1
log 4 = 0.6
log 5 = 0.7
P2 V22 / R2 V2 R1
AdB = 10 log10 = 10 log10 2 = 20log + 10log
P1 V1 / R1 V1 R2
P2 I 22 R2 I2 R2
AdB = 10 log10 = 10 log10 2 = 20log + 10log
P1 I1 R1 I1 R1
I CC VCC
I CC
V+ V+
ii ii
VCC
+ +
vI (t ) v (t ) RL
o
V vI (t ) RL
I EE V v (t )
o
I EE
VEE VEE
PL
(f) = 100% = 21.3%
Pdc
n
L L+
AV AV
L n
L L+ o
vI Figure 1.14 An amplifier transfer
Av Av
characteristic that is linear except
for output saturation.
iC
iC (t ) = I C + ic (t ), ic (t ) = I c sin t
ic Ic
IC
0 t
AV
Vi Vo
Gm
Rm
Ii Io
AI
Ri vi Ri
vi = vs =
Rs + Ri vs Rs + Ri
RL vL RL
vL = Avo vi = Avo
RL + Ro vi RL + Ro
vL vL vi RL Ri Ideal characteristic
Av = = = Avo Ri = , Ro = 0
vs vi vs RL + Ro Rs + Ri
Rs ii Rs
ii = is =
Rs + Ri is Rs + Ri
Ro iL Ro
iL = Aisii = Ais
RL + Ro ii RL + Ro
Ideal characteristic
iL iL ii Ro Rs
= = Ais Ri = 0, Ro =
is ii is RL + Ro Rs + Ri
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 24
.(c) Transconductance Amplifier
Rs ii io iL
+ + +
vs vi Ri Gmvi Ro vo RL vL
Ri vi Ri
vi = vs =
Rs + Ri vs Rs + Ri
Ro iL Ro
iL = Gm vi = Gm
RL + Ro vi RL + Ro Ideal characteristic
iL vi iL Ro Ri
= = Gm Ri = , Ro =
vs vs vi RL + Ro Rs + Ri
Rs i Rs
ii = is i =
Rs + Ri is Rs + Ri
RL v RL
vL = Rmii L = Rm
RL + Ro ii RL + Ro
vL vL ii RL Rs Ideal characteristic
= = Rm
is ii is RL + Ro Rs + Ri Ri = 0, Ro = 0
+ vx
vx
Ro
ix
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 27
ib
+ +
vbe r g mvbe ro vbe r ib ro
Rs
+ +
vs vbe r ro RL vo
g mvbe
vo
T () = , T () =
vi
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 29
20log T ( )
Bandwidth
1 2
R2 1/ jC2
+
vo = vi
R2 + (1/ jC2 )
vi (t ) + C2 vo
vo 1
=
vi 1 + jR2C2
T ( )
T ()
T ( j )
20log (dB)
K
3dB
6dB/Octave
or
20dB/decade
(log scale)
2
2 >> T () 90o
2
( )
5.7 O
(log scale)
2
45o
45o /decade
90 o 5.7 O
C1 R1
vo = vi
+ R1 + (1/ jC1 )
vi (t ) + R1 vo
vo 1
=
vi 1 + (1/ jR1C1 )
1 1 1
T () = = tan (1 / )
1 j1 / 1 + (1 / ) 2
T ( )
T ()
T ( j )
20log (dB)
K
+6dB/Octave 3dB
or
+20dB/decade
(log scale)
1
>> T () 0o
1
( )
90o
5.7 O
45o /decade
45o
5.7 O
0o
(log scale)
1
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 36
Transfer Function K K Ks
=
T (s) 1 + ( s / 2 ) 1 + (1 / s ) s + 1
Transfer Function K K
(for physical frequencies)
T ( j ) 1 + j ( / 2 ) 1 j (1 / )
Megnitude Response K K
T ( j ) 1 + ( / 2 )
2
1 + (1 / )
2
Transmission at = 0 (dc) K 0
Transmission at = 0 K
0 = 1/ time constant
3-dB frequency
= RC or = L / R
RS // Ri ii Ro io
+ + +
Ri
vs Ci vi vo RL vL
Rs + Ri vi
RL RL Ri 1
vo = vi = vs tan 1 ( /106 )
Ro + RL Ro + RL Rs + Ri 1 + ( /106 ) 2
1k 100k vs
= 144 tan 1 ( /106 )
1k + 0.2k
100k + 20k
1 + ( /106 ) 2
100
100 vs
vo = tan 1 ( /106 )
1 + ( /106 ) 2
1
AV = 100 , AV = tan 1 ( /106
1 + ( /106 ) 2
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 39
(a)Vs = 0.1sin102 t (V ) (c) Vs = 0.1sin108 t (V )
1 100
AV = 100 AV = 1
1 + (10 /10 )
2 6 2
1 + (10 /10 )
8 6 2
(b)Vs = 0.1sin106 t (V )
1
AV = 100 70.7
1 + (10 /10 )
6 6 2
40 20dB/decade
20
5 7
0 1
10 10 2
10 3
10 4
10 10 6
10 10 8
10 9
( )
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
45o / decade
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 109
(1 + ( s /10) )
1
(1 + ( S /10 ) )
3 1
100
1 + ( s /103 )
1
1
1 + ( s /10 )
(
+ 20log 1 + s /10 )
4 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
7s
7p
7d
7f
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 47
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 48
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 49
(In)49
pn nn = ni2
ni2 ni2
pn = (1.29)
nn ND
ni2 ni2
np = (1.31)
pp NA
P, As, sb
( , , )
B,Al,In
( , , )
+ Holes
Electrons
x
+
V
+ + +++ +
+ + ++
++ + ++ +
+ + + ++ +
+ + + + + x
++
0 x
Concentration gradient Diffusion current
Electron-current density J p ( J n )
dp ( x) q = 1.6 1019 C
J p = qD p
dx 2
D
p : hole's diffusion constant are 12cm /s
dn( x)
J n = qDn Dn : electrons diffusion constant are 34cm 2 /s
dx
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 59
The total current in semiconductor
(1) The net hole current density
dp
J p = q p pE qD p (A/m 2 )
dx
drift
diffusion
drift
diffusion
drift
diffusion
Dp Dn
= = VT
p n
KT
VT = 25mV(300o K )
q
Solution:
J p = qD p
dp( x)
dx
= qD p
d
dx
( x/ L
p ( x) = p0 e p )
Dp 19 12cm 2
/s
J p (0) = q p0 = 1.6 10 10 16
/ cm 3
= 192A/cm 2
Lp 1104 cm
I p = J p A = 192A/cm 2 100 108 cm 2 = 192A
p type n type
silicon silicon
I = 0A I = 0A
Barrier
voltage Vo
Figure 1.36 (a) The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).
(b) The potential distribution along an axis perpendicular to the junction.
p( x = x p ) pp
Vo = VT ln = VT ln 0
p ( x = xn ) pn 0
p p : N A (3 46),
0
N AND
Vo = VT ln 2 (1.46)
ni
xp xn x
qN D+
Q+ = qAxn N D
(+)
xp
xn x
()
Q = qAx p N A
qN A
W
xp x
xn
d 1 (0) d 1
= ( qN A ) = (qN D )
dx dx
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 69
Since the net charge must be zero
then
N A xn
q A N A xP = q A N D xn =
N D xP
Q Q+
V : charge density.
G
By Gauss's law = V s : electrical permittivity of silicon.
s 12
= = 11.7 = 1.04 10 F/cm.
G s 0 r 0
d V q
= = (ND N A + N
p n)
dx s s neglect
q
( 0) = N D xn
s
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 70
For x p 0 < x < 0
JJJJG
d ( x) q ( 0 ) JJJJG q 0
= N A d ( x) = N A dx
dx s 0 s xp
q NA NA
(0) = N Axp xn = xp = (W xn )
s ND ND
q q NA NA
(0) = N D xn = N A x p xn 1 + = W
s s ND ND
xn 1 N AW
Vo = ( x ) dx Vo = (0)W xn = (1.51)
xp 2 ND + N A
1q 1 q ND N A
Vo = N D xnW = W2
2 s 2 s N D + N A
2 s 1 1 Typically, W is in the rang
W= + Vo (1.50) of 0.11 m
q N A ND
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 71
Example 1.10 Consider a pn junction in equilibrium at room temperature
for which the doping concentrations are N A = 1018 cm 3 and N D = 1016 cm 3
and the cross-sectional area A = 104 cm 2 .Calculate p p , n p 0 , nn , pn 0 , V0 , W ,
xn , x p , and QJ . Use ni = 1.5 1010 cm 3 , s = 11.7 0 = 1.04 1012 F/cm.
Solution
p p N A = 1018 cm 3
np =
ni2
(1.5 10 10
cm )
3 2
= 2.25 102 cm 3
0
pp 1018 cm 3
nn = N D = 1016 cm 3
pn =
ni2
=
(1.5 10 10
cm )
3 2
= 2.25 104 cm 3
0
nn 1016 cm 3
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 72
18 3
N AND 10 cm 1016
cm 3
Vo = VT ln 2 = 26mV ln = 0.814V
n
i 10
1.5 10 cm (
3 2
)
2s 1 1 2 1.04 1012 1 1
W= + V
o = 19 18 3 + 16 3
0.814
q N A ND 1.6 10 10 cm 10 cm
= 3.27 105 = 0.327m
N AW 1018
xn = = 0.327m 18 = 0.324m
ND + N A 10 + 1016
N DW 1016
xp = = 0.327m 18 = 0.00324m
ND + N A 10 + 1016
N AND 19 10 10
18 16
4 4
QJ = Aq W = 10 1.6 10 18 16
0.327 10
N
D + N A 10 + 10
= 5.18 1012 C = 5.18pC
Zener breakdown
When a heavily doped junction is reverse biased the energy bands
become crossed at relatively low voltages. The it can break
covalent bands. generate electron-hole pairs. the electrons will
be swept into the N side and the holes swept into the P side, thus the
electron-hole pairs constitute a reverse current. ( 106 V/cm)
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 74
Avalanche breakdown
V
0
p n
VR +
I
pn ( x)
n p ( x p )
n p ( x) pn 0
np0
x
xp 0 xn
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 78
1.11.2 The Current-Voltage Relationship of the Junction
Pn ( x) = Pn 0 + [ Pn ( xn ) Pn 0 ] e
( x xn ) / L p
( x xn ) / L p
= Pn 0 + Pn 0 (eV / VT 1) e (1.59)
Is
Dp Dn
I s = Aqn
2
i + (1.65)
L p N D Ln N A
V
Is 0