Architecture of India

The architecture of India is rooted in its history, culture
and religion. Indian architecture progressed with time
and assimilated the many inuences that came as a re-
sult of India's global discourse with other regions of the
world throughout its millennia-old past. The architectural
methods practiced in India are a result of examination and
implementation of its established building traditions and
outside cultural interactions.[1]
Though old, this Eastern tradition has also incorporated
modern values as India became a modern nation state.
The economic reforms of 1991 further bolstered the ur-
ban architecture of India as the country became more
integrated with the worlds economy. Traditional Vastu
Shastra remains inuential in Indias architecture during
the contemporary era.[1]
lization was unsurpassed at the time and for many future
centuries.
The mature phase of this civilization is called the Harap-
pan Civilization, as the rst of its cities to be unearthed
was located at Harappa, excavated in the 1920s in what
was at the time the Punjab province of British India (now
in Pakistan). Excavation of Harappan sites has been on-
going since 1920, with important breakthroughs occur-
ring as recently as 1999. To date, over 1,052 cities and
settlements have been found, mainly in the general region
of the Ghaggar-Hakra river and its tributaries. Among
the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa,
Lothal, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site),
Dholavira, Kalibanga, and Rakhigarhi.

2 Post Maha Janapadas period

1 Indus Valley Civilization (3300 (600 BC200 AD)
BC 1700 BC)
Further information: Indus Valley Civilisation

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age

civilization (33001700 BC; mature period 26001900
BC) in the northwestern region of the Indian subconti-
nent, consisting of what is now mainly modern-day Pak-
istan and northwest India. Flourishing around the Indus
River basin, the civilization primarily centred along the
Indus and the Punjab region, extending into the Ghaggar-
Hakra River valley and the Ganges-Yamuna Doab. Ge-
ographically, the civilization was spread over an area of
some 1,260,000 square km, making it the largest ancient
civilization in the world. The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th1st century BC). The dome
shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument
The Indus Valley is one of the worlds earliest urban civ-
associated with storing sacred relics.
ilizations, along with its contemporaries, Mesopotamia
and Ancient Egypt. At its peak, the Indus Civilization
may have had a population of well over ve million. In- Further information: Hindu temple architecture,
habitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Buddhist architecture,
techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol prod- and Indian rock-cut architecture
ucts, seal carving) and produced copper, bronze, lead,
and tin. The civilization is noted for its cities built of The Buddhist stupa, a dome shaped monument, was
brick, roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses. used in India as a commemorative monument associated
The baths and toilets system the cities had is acknowl- with storing sacred relics.[2] The stupa architecture was
edged as one of the most advanced in the ancient world. adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it became
The grid layout planning of the cities with roads at ex- prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining
act right angles is a modern system that was implemented sacred relics.[2] Fortied cities with stpas, viharas, and
in the cities of this particular civilization. The urban ag- temples were constructed during the Maurya empire (c.
glomeration and production scale of this particular civi- 321185 BC).[3] Wooden architecture was popular and

1
2 4 LATE MIDDLE AGES (1100 AD1526 AD)

rock cut architecture became solidied.[3] Guard rails Mru-Gurjara temple architecture originated somewhere
consisting of posts, crossbars, and a copingbecame a in sixth century in and around areas of Rajasthan. Mru-
feature of safety surrounding a stupa.[3] Templesbuild Gurjara Architecture show the deep understanding of
on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans structures and rened skills of Rajasthani craftmen of
were constructed using brick and timber.[3] The Indian bygone era. Mru-Gurjara Architecture has two promi-
gateway arches, the torana, reached East Asia with the nent styles Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara. According
spread of Buddhism.[4] Some scholars hold that torii de- to M. A. Dhaky, Maha-Maru style developed primarily
rives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of in Marudesa, Sapadalaksha, Surasena and parts of Up-
Sanchi (3rd century BC 11th century AD).[5] aramala whereas Maru-Gurjara originated in Medapata,
Rock-cut stepwells in India date from 200400 AD.[6] Gurjaradesa-Arbuda, Gurjaradesa-Anarta and some ar-
eas of Gujarat.[12] Scholars such as George Michell, M.A.
Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550
625 AD) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850950 AD) Dhaky, Michael W. Meister and U.S. Moorti believe that
Mru-Gurjara Temple Architecture is entirely Western In-
took place.[6] The city of Mohenjo-daro has wells which
may be the predecessors of the step well.[7] As many as dian architecture and is quite dierent from the North
Indian Temple architecture.[13] There is a connecting link
700 wells, constructed by 3rd millennium BC, have been
discovered in just one section of the city, leading schol- between Mru-Gurjara Architecture and Hoysala Tem-
ars to believe that 'cylindrical brick lined wells were in- ple Architecture. In both of these styles architecture is
vented by the people of the Indus Valley Civilization.[7] treated sculpturally.[14]
Cave temples became prominent throughout western In- The South Indian temple consists essentially of a square-
dia, incorporating various unique features to give rise to chambered sanctuary topped by a superstructure, tower,
cave architecture in places such as Ajanta and Ellora.[3] or spire and an attached pillared porch or hall (maapa,
Walled and moated cities with large gates and multi- or maapam), enclosed by a peristyle of cells within a
storied buildings which consistently used arched win- rectangular court. The external walls of the temple are
dows and doors are important features of the architec- segmented by pilasters and carry niches housing sculp-
ture during this period.[3] The Indian emperor Ashoka ture. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is
(rule: 273232 BC) established a chain of hospitals of the kina type and consists of an arrangement of grad-
throughout the Mauryan empire by 230 BC.[8] One of ually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Each story is
the edicts of Ashoka (272231 BC) reads: Everywhere delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the
King Piyadasi (Ashoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, corners and rectangular with barrel-vault roofs at the cen-
tre. The tower is topped by a dome-shaped cupola and a
hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where
there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he crowning pot
ordered that they be bought and planted.[9] Indian art North Indian temples showed increased elevation of
and culture has absorbed extraneous impacts by varying the wall and elaborate spire by the 10th century.[15]
degrees, and is much richer for this exposure. This cross Richly decorated templesincluding the complex at
fertilization between dierent art streams converging on Khajurahowere constructed in Central India.[15] In-
the subcontinent produced new forms that, while retain- dian traders brought Indian architecture to South east
ing the essence of the past, succeeded in the integrating Asia through various trade routes.[16] Grandeur of
selected elements of the new inuences. A long tradition construction, beautiful sculptures, delicate carvings, high
of art and culture was already established well before the domes, gopuras and extensive courtyards were the fea-
beginning of 20th century in India. Indian painting can tures of temple architecture in India. Examples include
be broadly divided into two categoriesMURALS and the Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneshwar in Odisha, Sun
MINIATURE. Temple at Konark in Odisha, Brihadeeswarar Temple at
Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu.

3 Early Common EraHigh Mid- 4 Late Middle Ages (1100 AD

dle Ages (200 AD1200 AD) 1526 AD)
Further information: Architecture of Karnataka, Kalinga Further information: Hoysala architecture and
architecture, Dravidian architecture, Western Chalukya Vijayanagara architecture
architecture, and Badami Chalukya Architecture
Vijayanagara Architecture of the period (1336 1565
Nalanda and Valabhi university housing thousands of AD) was a notable building style evolved by the
teachers and studentsourished between the 4th8th Vijayanagar empire that ruled most of South India
centuries.[10] South Indian temple architecturevisible from their capital at Vijayanagara on the banks of the
as a distinct tradition during the 7th century AD[11] Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka.[17] The ar-
5.1 Indo-Islamic Architecture 3

chitecture of the temples built during the reign of the Vi-

jayanagara empire had elements of political authority.[18]
This resulted in the creation of a distinctive imperial style
of architecture which featured prominently not only in
temples but also in administrative structures across the
deccan.[19] The Vijayanagara style is a combination of
the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles which
evolved earlier in the centuries when these empires ruled
and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and
serene art of the past.[20]

Qutub Minar a prominent example of Islamic architecture in In-

Ornate lintel over mantapa entrance, Belur temple. dia.

Hoysala architecture is the distinctive building style de-

veloped under the rule of the Hoysala Empire in the re-
gion historically known as Karnata, todays Karnataka,
India, between the 11th and the 14th centuries.[21]
Large and small temples built during this era re-
main as examples of the Hoysala architectural style,
including the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the
Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Tem-
ple at Somanathapura. Other examples of ne Hoysala
craftmanship are the temples at Belavadi, Amrithapura,
and Nuggehalli. Study of the Hoysala architectural style
has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan inuence while the
impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct.[22] A fea-
ture of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to de- The As Mosque, Lucknow
tail and skilled craftmanship. The temples of Belur and
Halebidu are proposed UNESCO world heritage sites.[23]
About a 100 Hoysala temples survive today.[24] hal, built as a tomb for Queen Mumtaz Mahal by Shah
Jahan (162858).[25] Employing the double dome, the
recessed archwaywever, the depiction of any animal or
5 Early Modern period (1500 humanan essential part of the Indian traditionwas
forbidden in places of worship under Islam. The Taj
AD1947 AD) Mahal does contain tilework of plant ornaments.[1] The
architecture during the Mughal Period, with its rulers be-
5.1 Indo-Islamic Architecture ing of Turco-Mongol origin, has shown a notable blend
of Indian style combined with the Islamic.
Further information: Mughal architecture and Indo- Some scholars hold that cultural contact with Europe un-
Islamic architecture der Manuel I of Portugal (reign: 25 October 149513
Mughal tombs of sandstone and marble show Persian December 1521) resulted in exchange of architectural
inuence.[25] The Red Fort at Agra (156574) and the inuences.[26] Little literary evidence exists to conrm the
walled city of Fatehpur Sikri (156974) are among the ar- Indian inuence but some scholars have nonetheless sug-
chitectural achievements of this timeas is the Taj Ma- gested a possible relation based on proximity of architec-
4 6 EUROPEAN COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE

tural styles.[26] the 2nd century BC, in search of serene and peaceful en-
Taj Mahal in Agra, India is one of the wonders of the vironment for meditation, and they found these caves on
world. Taj Mahal is a symbol of love for some, and bar- the hillsides.
baric brutality to others due to the treatment meted out to
the artisans who built it.
5.3 Sikh Architecture

5.2 Maratha Architecture Further information: Sikh architecture

Sikh Architecture is a style of architecture that is char-

Shaniwarwada palace fort in Pune, it was the seat of the Peshwa

rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818.
The Marathas ruled over most of Maharashtra from the
mid-17th to the early 19th centuries. Their religious ac-
tivity took full shape and soon the skylines of Maha-
rashtrian towns were dominated by rising temple spires.
Old forms returned with this 'renewal' of Hindu architec-
ture, infused by the Sultanate and later the Mughal tra-
ditions. The architecture of Maratha period was planned
with courtyards suited to tropical climates. The Maratha
Architecture is known for its simplicity, visible logic
and austere aesthetic, made rich by beautiful detailing,
rhythm and repetition. The aisles and arcades, punctured
by delicate niches, doors and windows create space in
which the articulation of open, semi-open and covered
areas is eortless and enchanting. The materials used
during those times for construction were
1. Thin bricks
2. Lime mortar
3. Lime plaster
4. Wooden columns
5. Stone bases
6. Basalt stone ooring
In the August 1604 CE the construction of the Harmandir
Sahibthe holiest shrine of the Sikh religionwas completed.
acterized with values of progressiveness, exquisite intri-
cacy, austere beauty and logical owing lines. Due to its
progressive style, it is constantly evolving into many newly
developing branches with new contemporary styles. Al-
though Sikh architecture was initially developed within
Sikhism its style has been used in many non-religious
buildings due to its beauty. 300 years ago, Sikh archi-
tecture was distinguished for its many curves and straight
lines; Shri Keshgarh Sahib and the Sri Harmandir Sahib
(Golden Temple) are prime examples.
6 European colonial architecture
As with the Mughals, under European colonial rule, ar-
chitecture became an emblem of power, designed to en-
dorse the occupying power. Numerous European coun-
tries invaded India and created architectural styles reec-
tive of their ancestral and adopted homes. The European
colonizers created architecture that symbolized their mis-
sion of conquest, dedicated to the state or religion.[27]
The British, French, Dutch and the Portuguese were the
main European powers that colonized parts of India.[28]
[29]

7. Brick pavements

Maharashtra is famous for its caves and rock cut archi- 6.1 British Colonial Era: 1615 to 1947
tectures. It is said that the varieties found in Maharash-
tra are wider than the caves and rock cut architectures For more details on this topic, see Category: British
found in the rock cut areas of Egypt, Assyria, Persia and colonial architecture in India.
Greece. The Buddhist monks rst started these caves in
6.3 Dutch: 1605 to 1825 5

The British arrived in 1615 and over the centuries, grad- and the Indian quarter (Ville Noire). French styled villas
ually overthrew the Maratha and Sikh empires and other were styled with long compounds and stately walls, lined
small independent kingdoms. Britain was present in In- houses with verandas, large French doors and grills. In-
dia for over three hundred years and their legacy still re- frastructure such as banks, police station and Pondicherry
mains through some building and infrastructure that exist International Port still hold the French presence.
in their former colonies.[30] To preserve Pondicherry an organization named IN-
The major cities colonized during this period were TACH was formed. Authorization is needed from IN-
Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Agra, Bankipore, TACH, to annihilate any original French Architecture.[39]
Karachi, Nagpur, Bhopal and Hyderabad.[31][29] French expanded their empire by colonizing coastal
St Andrews Kirk, Madras is known for its colonial ar- towns, Yanam in Andhra Pradesh, Karaikal in Tamil
chitecture. The building is circular in form and is sided Nadu and Mahe in Kerala with a French atmosphere of
by two rectangular sections one is the entrance porch. quiet towns around beaches. French spelling on signage
The entrance is lined with twelve colonnades and two and trac signs still remains.[29]
British lions and motto of East India Company engraved
on them. The interior holds sixteen columns and the
dome is painted blue with decorated with gold stars.[32]
The staple of Madras was Fort St. George, a walled
squared building adjacent to the beach. Surrounding the 6.3 Dutch: 1605 to 1825
fort was White Town settlement of British and Indian area
Black Town later to be called Georgetown.
The Dutch entered India with the only interests of Trade
Black Town described in 1855 as the minor streets, oc-
in the early 17th Century. During their 200 years in
cupied by the natives are numerous, irregular and of vari-
India, they colonized Surat, Bharuch, Venrula, Ahmed-
ous dimensions. Many of them are extremely narrow and
abad, Malabar Coast, Kochi and Sadras.[29]
ill-ventilated ... a hallow square, the rooms opening into
a courtyard in the centre.[33] Surat a Dutch factory in 1630s Bharuch: Trading Post
of the Dutch East India Company had a Dutch ceme-
Garden houses were originally used as weekend houses
tery. Venrula: a warehouse was built for 3000 Guilders
for recreational use by the upper class British. Nonethe-
by Leendart Janszoons and a castle for the protection of
less, the garden house became ideal a full-time dwelling,
the Dutch. Ahmedabad: The Dutch cemetery lies on the
deserting the fort in the 19th Century.[34]
bank of Kankaria lake. It holds a mix of Indian and Euro-
Calcutta Madras and Calcutta were similar bordered by pean styled graves, with domed tombs, pyramids, walled
water and division of Indian in the north and British in and plain grave stones. Malabar Coast Kochi: The Dutch
the south. An Englishwoman noted in 1750 the banks Palace (Mattancherry Palace) The palace was origi-
of the river are as one may say absolutely studded with el- nally built by the Portuguese, it fell into the hands of the
egant mansions called here as at Madras, garden houses. Dutch when the Portuguese lost control of Kochi. Dutch
Esplanade-row is fronts the fort with lined palaces.[35][36] cemetery The cemetery runs parallel to the beach and
Indian villages in these areas consisted of clay and straw is the oldest European cemetery in India. It holds 104
houses which later transformed into metropolis of brick tombs that visually narrate the Dutch inuence in Archi-
and stone.[37] tecture during the era. The cemetery is guarded by heavy
walls and the entrance pillar still carries the original cal-
The Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, is the most eective ligraphic inscription 1724 David Hall which was the
symbolism of British Empire, built as a monument in trib- residence of the famous Dutch Commander and Gover-
ute to Queen Victorias reign. The plan of the building nor of Kochi, Adriaan van Reed lot Drakestein was built
consists of one large central part covered with a larger in 1695. The hall has been restored as a cultural cen-
dome. Colonnades separate the two chambers. Each tre and art caf for young, visual and performing artists.
corner holds a smaller dome and is oored with marble Bastion bungalow This Dutch styled building near the
plinth. The memorial stands on 26 hectares of garden Fort Kochi beach was built to protect the harbor. Thakur
surrounded by reective pools.[38] House the Dutch built this bungalow overlooking the
sea as a club. Sadras 17 km (11 mi) from the rock cut
temples of Mamallapuram is another Dutch settlement.
6.2 French: 1673 to 1954 Pullicat Pullicat lake 55 km north of Madras is a mil-
lion years old and the second largest lagoon in India. It
The French colonized a shing village (Pondicherry) in was the most important trading post of the Dutch. They
Tamil Nadu and transformed it into a ourishing port- built two cemeteries. One was ruined due to negligence
town. The town was built on the French grid pattern and at the entrance is anked by stone pillars, having 76
and features neat sectors and perpendicular streets and tombs. Images of skeletons are carved onto the grave-
divided into two sectors, French Quarter (Ville Blanche) stones, symbolizing life and death.[40]
6 8 GALLERY

6.4 Portuguese: 1498 to 1961 from rural areas to urban centres of industry, leading to
price rise in property in various cities of India.[44] Urban
The Portuguese arrived as merchants in the 1498 and housing in India balances space constrictions and is aimed
were more driven by a Catholic missionary zeal than gain- to serve the working class.[45] Growing awareness of ecol-
ing powers in India. The Portuguese gained a foothold in ogy has inuenced architecture in India during modern
Goa and ruled for 400 years[29] before being defeated and times.[46]
evicted by Operation Vijay. Climate responsive architecture has long been a feature
Portuguese presence in Goa still remains evident. Colo- of Indias architecture but has been losing its signi-
nizers missionary spirit built many cathedrals, churches, cance as of late.[47] Indian architecture reects its vari-
basilicas and seminaries. The Basilica of Bom Jesus ous socio-cultural sensibilities which vary from region to
(Good Jesus), Old Goa, former capital during the Por- region.[47] Certain areas are traditionally held to be be-
tuguese rule. The three storied Renaissance styled church longing to women.[47] Villages in India have features such
was built of plaster and laterite in 1605, and holds the as courtyards, loggias, terraces and balconies.[45] Calico,
mortal remains of St. Francis Xavier. The interior is built chintz, and palamporeof Indian originhighlight the
in a Mosaic-Corinthian style and adorned with wood and assimilation of Indian textiles in global interior design.[48]
gold leaf. The walls embrace old painting of saints as the Roshandans, which are skylights-cum-ventilators, are a
oor is laid with pure white marble.[41] common feature in Indian homes, especially in North In-
dia.[49][50]
The Portuguese Catholic houses faced the street with
unique large ornamental windows opening onto veran-
dahs. Bold colours were painted on houses constructing
distinct identity, allowing the sailors to recognize their 8 Gallery
houses from sea. The covered porches and verandas
were designed for socializing contrary to the Hindu styled
housing. Front doors were lined with columns, and rail-
ings were popular in embellishment.[42]
The interior of Goan-Portuguese houses consisted of
elaborate patterns created with tiles imported from Eu- Ranakpur Adinath Jain
rope and a false ceiling installed of wood. The walls Temple in Rajasthan, 15th Century.
are painted with bright colours contrasting to the earthy
coloured furniture.
The walls were made out of mud or laterite stone and
coloured with vegetable and natural dyes. Gateposts and
compound walls were carved with great detail.[43]

The Se Cathedrallocated
7 Republic of India (1947 AD in Old Goais a cathedral dedicated to Catherine
of Alexandria.
present)
Further information: List of World Heritage Sites in In-
dia and Category:Indian architecture
In recent times there has been a movement of population

The famous jaali from the

16th-century Sidi Saiyyed mosque built by Ahmed
Shah of Gujarat, in Ahmedabad

Chowmahalla Palace in
Hyderabad
Lotus Temple, illuminated after dark in New Delhi, India
 7

The North Block in New The Jagannath Temple in

Delhi houses key government oces, built along Puri, Odisha
with Lutyens Delhi.

Vadakkunnathan Temple in
Thrissur, Kerala
Chandigarh Secretariat
designed by Le Corbusier.

9 See also
Western Chalukya architecture

Badami Chalukya architecture

Hoysala architecture
Akshardham Temple in
Delhi, completed in 2005 and one of the largest Vijayanagara architecture
Hindu temples in the world.
Dravidian architecture

Architecture of Karnataka

Hindu temple architecture

Hoysala architecture

Badami cave temples

Arakuzha Marth Mariam
Syro-Malabar Church in Kerala, founded in 999 is Temples of North Karnataka
a Saint Thomas Christian church.
Indian vernacular architecture

Rajasthani architecture

Hemadpanthi

Jainism in North Karnataka

The Taj Mahal in Agra, ar- List of Indian architects

guably the greatest example of Islamic architecture Kalinga Architecture
in India.
Architecture of Kerala

10 Notes
[1] See Raj Jadhav, pp. 713 in Modern Traditions: Contem-
porary Architecture in India.

[2] Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), Pagoda.

Charminar at Old City in [3] Chandra (2008)
Hyderabad
[4] Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), torii
8 11 REFERENCES

[5] Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System (2001), [31] Tadgell 1990, p. 14.
torii.
[32] Thapar 2004, p. 125.
[6] Livingston & Beach, xxiii
[33] Evenson 1989, p. 2.
[7] Livingstone & Beach, 19
[34] Evenson 1989, p. 6.
[8] Piercey & Scarborough (2008)
[35] Evenson 1989, p. 20.
[9] See Stanley Finger (2001), Origins of Neuroscience: A
[36] Dutta, Arindam (29 March 2010). Representing Cal-
History of Explorations Into Brain Function, Oxford Uni-
cutta: Modernity, Nationalism and the Colonial Un-
versity Press, p. 12, ISBN 0-19-514694-8.
canny. Journal of Architectural Education. 63 (2): 167
[10] Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), education, history of. 169. doi:10.1111/j.1531-314X.2010.01082.x.

[11] Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), South Indian temple ar- [37] Nilsson 1968, pp. 6667.
chitecture.
[38] Thapar 2004, p. 129.
[12] The sculpture of early medieval Rajasthan By Cynthia
[39] Nilsson 1968, pp. 9497.
Packert Atherton
[40] Wild, Anthony (2000). The East India Company: Trade
[13] Beginnings of Medieval Idiom c. A.D. 9001000 by and Conquest from 1600. New York: The Lyons Press.
George Michell pp. 32, 45, 74, 88, 89. ISBN 1-58574-059-4.
[14] The legacy of G.S. Ghurye: a centennial festschrift By [41] Thapar 2004, p. 124.
Govind Sadashiv Ghurye, A. R. Momin, p-205
[42] Mankekar 2004, p. 99.
[15] Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), North Indian temple ar-
chitecture. [43] Mankekar 2004, p. 17.

[16] Moett et al., 75 [44] See Raj Jadhav, p. 11 in Modern Traditions: Contempo-
rary Architecture in India.
[17] See Percy Brown in Sryantha Kmats A concise his-
tory of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present, [45] Gast, 77
p. 132.
[46] Gast, 119
[18] See Carla Sinopoli, Echoes of Empire: Vijayanagara and
[47] See Raj Jadhav, 13 in Modern Traditions: Contemporary
Historical Memory, Vijayanagara as Historical Memory,
Architecture in India.
p. 26.
[48] Savage 2008
[19] See Carla Sinopoli, The Political Economy of Craft Pro-
duction: Crafting Empire in South India, C. 13501650, p. [49] Thomas George Percival Spear; Margaret Spear, India re-
209. membered, Orient Longman, 1981, ISBN 978-0-86131-
265-8, ... The bungalow was a typical north Indian one,
[20] See Percy Brown in Sryantha Kmats A concise his-
with a large central room lit only by skylights (roshandans)
tory of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present,
and a number of others opening out from them ...
p. 182.
[50] Pavan K. Varma, Sondeep Shankar, Mansions at dusk: the
[21] MSN Encarta (2008), Hoysala_Dynasty. Archived 2009-
havelis of old Delhi, Spantech Publishers, 1992, ISBN
10-31.
978-81-85215-14-3, ... Thirdly, while obviating direct
[22] See Percy Brown in Sryantha Kmats A concise his- sunlight, it had to allow some light and air to enter through
tory of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present, overhead roshandans ...
p. 134.

[23] The Hindu (2004), Belur for World Heritage Status.

11 References
[24] Foekema, 16
Vastu-Silpa Kosha, Encyclopedia of Hindu Tem-
[25] Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), Mughal architecture.
ple architecture and Vastu/S.K.Ramachandara Rao,
[26] Lach, 5762 Delhi, Devine Books, (Lala Murari Lal Chharia Ori-
ental series) ISBN 978-93-81218-51-8 (Set)
[27] Thapar 2004, p. 122.
Chandra, Pramod (2008), South Asian arts, Ency-
[28] Nilsson 1968, p. 9.
clopdia Britannica.
[29] "(Brief) History of European Asian trade. European
Evenson, Norma (1989). The Indian Metropolis.
Exploration. Retrieved 14 October 2011.
New Haven and London: Yale University press.
[30] Jaar 1936, p. 230. ISBN 0-300-04333-3.
 9

Foekema, Gerard (1996), A Complete Guide to
Hoysaa Temples, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 81-
7017-345-0.
Gast, Klaus-Peter (2007), Modern Traditions: Con-
temporary Architecture in India, Birkhuser, ISBN
978-3-7643-7754-0.
Jaar, S.M (1936). The Mughal Empire From Babar
To Aurangzeb. Peshawar City: Muhammad Sadiq
Khan. OU_1 60252.
Lach, Donald F. (1993), Asia in the Making of Eu-
rope (vol. 2), University of Chicago Press, ISBN
0-226-46730-9.
Livingston, Morna & Beach, Milo (2002), Steps to
Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India, Princeton
Architectural Press, ISBN 1-56898-324-7.
Mankekar, Kamla (2004). Temples of Goa. India:
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of
Ind. ISBN 978-81-2301161-5.
Moett, Marion; Fazio, Michael W.; Wodehouse
Lawrence (2003), A World History of Architecture,
McGraw-Hill Professional, ISBN 0-07-141751-6.
Nilsson, Sten (1968). European Architecture in In-
dia 1750 1850. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN
0-571-08225-4.
Piercey, W. Douglas & Scarborough, Harold
(2008), hospital, Encyclopdia Britannica.
Tadgell, Christopher (1990). The history of archi-
tecture in India : from the dawn of civilization to the
end of the Raj. London: Architecture Design and
Technology Press. ISBN 1-85454-350-4.
Teresi, Dick (2002), Lost Discoveries: The Ancient
Roots of Modern Sciencefrom the Babylonians to
the Maya, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-83718-8.
Thapar, Bindia (2004). Introduction to Indian Ar-
chitecture. Singapore: Periplus Editions. ISBN 0-
7946-0011-5.
12 Further reading
Havell, E.B. (1913). Indian Architecture, its psy-
chology, structure, and history from the rst Muham-
madan invasion to the present day. J. Murray, Lon-
don.
Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1914). Vivakarm ;
examples of Indian architecture, sculpture, painting,
handicraft. London.
Havell, E. B. (1915). The Ancient and Medieval Ar-
chitecture of India: a study of Indo-Aryan civilisa-
tion. John Murray, London.
Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan, Sir Banister
Fletchers a History of Architecture, Architectural
Press, 20th edition, 1996 (rst published 1896).
ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. Cf. Part Four, Chapter 26.

Possehl, Gregory L. (1996), Mehrgarh, Oxford

Companion to Archaeology edited by Brian Fagan,
13 External links
Oxford University Press.
Kamiya, Taeko, The Architecture of India.
Rodda & Ubertini (2004), The Basis of Civilization-
Water Science?, International Association of Hydro- Indian Architecture on Architecture News Plus.
logical Science, ISBN 1-901502-57-0.

Savage, George (2008), interior design, Encyclop-

dia Britannica.

Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003), The Political Economy

of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India,
C. 13501650, Cambridge University Press, ISBN
0-521-82613-6.

Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003), Echoes of Empire: Vi-

jayanagara and Historical Memory, Vijayanagara
as Historical Memory, Archaeologies of memory
edited by Ruth M. Van Dyke & Susan E. Alcock,
Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-23585-X.

Singh, Vijay P. & Yadava, R. N. (2003), Water Re-

sources System Operation: Proceedings of the Inter-
national Conference on Water and Environment, Al-
lied Publishers, ISBN 81-7764-548-X.
10 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text
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Hardy, Chmouel, Sannse, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, Wik, KRS, Topbanana, Wetman, Robbot, Goethean, Alan Liefting, Fabiform, Graeme
Bartlett, Brona, Wouterhagens, Richard cocks, Falcon Kirtaran, Gadum, Utcursch, Ravikiran r, Pethan, Mozzerati, TonyW, Burschik, Kle-
men Kocjancic, Venu62, CALR, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Bender235, S.K., Pedant, VishalB, Kwamikagami, Bobo192, Cmdrjameson,
Richi, Man vyi, Sam Korn, Amcl, TheParanoidOne, ~shuri, Stemonitis, Kelly Martin, Satishgoda, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, BernardM,
Nemonoman, Je3000, Fred J, Wikiklrsc, Dangerous-Boy, SDC, Allen3, Dwaipayanc, Sj, Bhadani, Nihiltres, TheDJ, Gurubrahma,
King of Hearts, Bgwhite, Kjlewis, Siddhant, Deeptrivia, RussBot, Archelon, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Welsh, Tom Edwards, Mal-
colma, Vastu, Zirland, Lockesdonkey, DeadEyeArrow, Rayc, Deepak~enwiki, Closedmouth, Pratheepps, Garion96, SmackBot, Nihonjoe,
Prodego, Jagged 85, Thunderboltz, Finavon, Bradtcordeiro, Gilliam, Hmains, Holy Ganga, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Static Universe,
Quinsareth, ImpuMozhi, OrphanBot, BostonMA, Dineshkannambadi, Salamurai, Dogears, Ohconfucius, Apalaria, Khazar, Shyamsunder,
IronGargoyle, Knowlard, Beetstra, Skinsmoke, Gokulmadhavan, Hu12, Iridescent, Casull, Vissax, Nuttyskin, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2,
Nmadhubala, Dlohcierekim, Parmar uday, NKSCF, Mcginnly, Aristophanes68, Ramitmahajan, AroundTheGlobe, Mattisse, Young Pio-
neer, Merbabu, Philippe, Riction, Kaveri, Milton Stanley, Liquid-aim-bot, Dr. Blofeld, Ekabhishek, DuncanHill, Leolaursen, KaliKuduk,
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matth2, IPSOS, Anna Lincoln, Nikkul, Falcon8765, Roland zh, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, Chemako0606, Oculi, Lightmouse, Fratrep,
Sunrise, RegentsPark, Elassint, ClueBot, Pandudi, Bob1960evens, Ideal gas equation, Jan1nad, Mild Bill Hiccup, A.Savin, CounterVandal-
ismBot, Lokantha, Ivansevil, PixelBot, Sun Creator, Huntthetroll, Mathanagopal, BOTarate, Belasd, Apparition11, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot,
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ingservicesindia, Soonakuna, Soranoch, Mark Archello, Robevans123, Srolanh, Preerithu, , Zppix, Sreejanshilpa, Debjitpaul10,
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