Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130

www.elsevier.com/locate/soildyn

Semi-empirical procedures for evaluating liquefaction

potential during earthquakes
I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger*
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, USA

Received 15 April 2004; revised 1 October 2004; accepted 1 November 2004

Abstract
Semi-empirical procedures for evaluating the liquefaction potential of saturated cohesionless soils during earthquakes are re-examined and
revised relations for use in practice are recommended. The stress reduction factor (rd), earthquake magnitude scaling factor for cyclic stress
ratios (MSF), overburden correction factor for cyclic stress ratios (Ks), and the overburden normalization factor for penetration resistances
(CN) are discussed and recently modified relations are presented. These modified relations are used in re-evaluations of the SPT and CPT case
history databases. Based on these re-evaluations, revised SPT- and CPT-based liquefaction correlations are recommended for use in practice.
In addition, shear wave velocity based procedures are briefly discussed.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Liquefaction; SPT; CPT; Earthquakes

1. Introduction
Semi-empirical field-based procedures for evaluating
liquefaction potential during earthquakes have two
essential components: (1) the development of an
analytical framework to organize past case history
experiences, and (2) the development of a suitable in
situ index to represent soil liquefaction characteristics.
The original simplified procedure by Seed and Idriss [1]
for estimating earthquake-induced cyclic shear stresses
continues to be an essential component of the analysis
framework, although there have been a number of
refinements to the various components of this framework.
In situ penetration tests have continued to prove useful
for representing soil liquefaction characteristics because
they not only provide an indication of denseness, but also
reflect other important characteristics such as fabric,
gradation, cementation, age, and stress history, as was
articulated by Seed [2]. Overall, the major developments
in the past thirty years have included improvements in
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C1 530 752 2947; fax: C1 530 752 7872.
E-mail address: rwboulanger@ucdavis.edu (R.W. Boulanger).
0267-7261/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2004.11.023
the in situ index tests (e.g. SPT, CPT, BPT, shear wave
velocity), the refinements in the analysis framework, and
the continued collection of liquefaction/no-liquefaction
case histories.
The strength of the semi-empirical approach is the use
of theoretical considerations and experimental findings to
establish the framework of the analysis procedure and its
components. Sound theory provides the ability to make
sense out of the field observations, tying them together,
and thereby having more confidence in the validity of the
approach as it is used to interpolate or extrapolate to
areas with insufficient field data to constrain a purely
empirical solution. Purely empirical interpretations of the
field case histories, without any physics-based frame-
work, would leave unclear the conditions for which
the empirical relations truly are applicable. For example,
the purely empirical derivations of individual factors
of the analysis method (e.g. an MSF, rd, or Ks relation)
are complicated by their dependence on other com-
ponents of the analysis method, and thus a purely
empirical derivation is often not well constrained by the
available case history data.
This paper provides an update on the semi-empirical
field-based procedures for evaluating liquefaction potential
of cohesionless soils during earthquakes. This update
116 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130
includes recommended relations for each part of the
analytical framework, including the:
stress reduction coefficient rd,
magnitude scaling factor MSF,
overburden correction factor Ks for cyclic stress ratios,
and
overburden correction factor C N for penetration
resistances.
For each of these parameters, the emphasis has been on
developing relations that capture the essential physics while
being as simplified as possible. These updated relations
were then used in re-evaluations of the field case histories to
derive revised deterministic SPT-based and CPT-based
liquefaction correlations. Lastly, shear wave velocity (VS)
based liquefaction correlations are discussed briefly.
2. Overview of the framework used for semi-empirical
liquefaction procedures
A brief overview is provided for the framework that is
used as the basis for most semi-empirical procedures for
evaluating liquefaction potential of cohesionless soils
during earthquakes. This overview provides the context in
which the rd, MSF, Ks, and CN relations are derived and
used. Each of these factors is then revisited in subsequent
sections.
2.1. The simplified procedure for estimating cyclic shear
stress ratios induced by earthquake ground motions
The SeedIdriss [1] simplified procedure is used to
estimate the cyclic shear stress ratios (CSR) induced by
earthquake ground motions, at a depth z below the ground
surface, using the following expression:


svo amax
CSR Z 0:65 0 rd (1)
svo
amax
h
Depth
(max)r = hamax
Fig. 1. Schematic for determining maximum shear stress, tmax, and the stress reduction coefficient, rd.
in which amax is the maximum horizontal acceleration at the
0
ground surface in gs, svo is the total vertical stress and svo
is the effective vertical stress at depth z. The parameter rd is
a stress reduction coefficient that accounts for the flexibility
of the soil column (e.g. rdZ1 corresponds to rigid body
behavior) as illustrated in Fig. 1. The factor of 0.65 is used
to convert the peak cyclic shear stress ratio to a cyclic stress
ratio that is representative of the most significant cycles over
the full duration of loading.
2.2. Adjustment for the equivalent number of stress cycles
in different magnitude earthquakes
The values of CSR calculated using Eq. (1) pertain to the
equivalent uniform shear stress induced by the earthquake
ground motions generated by an earthquake having
a moment magnitude M. It has been customary to adjust
the values of CSR calculated by Eq. (1) so that the adjusted
values of CSR would pertain to the equivalent uniform shear
stress induced by the earthquake ground motions generated
by an earthquake having a moment magnitude MZ712 , i.e.
(CSR)MZ7.5. Accordingly, the values of (CSR)MZ7.5 are
given by:


CSR svo amax rd
CSRMZ7:5 Z Z 0:65 0 (2)
MSF svo MSF
2.3. Use of the SPT blow count and CPT tip resistance
as indices for soil liquefaction characteristics
The effective use of SPT blow count and CPT tip
resistance as indices for soil liquefaction characteristics
require that the effects of soil density and effective
confining stress on penetration resistance be separated.
Consequently, Seed et al. [3] included the normalization of
0
penetration resistances in sand to an equivalent svo of
one atmosphere (PaZ1.06 tsfZ101 kPa) as part of the
semi-empirical procedure. This normalization currently
Maximum Shear Stress rd = (max)d /(max)r
0 1
(max)r
(max)d
 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130 117

takes the form:
N1 60 Z CN N60 (3)
qC1 Z CN qC
in which the (N)60 value corresponds to the SPT N
value after correction to an equivalent 60% hammer
efficiency [4,5], and qC is the cone tip resistance. In
addition, qC is conveniently normalized by Pa to obtain a
dimensionless quantity (i.e. qC1NZqC1/Pa), as suggested by
Robertson and Wride [6]. The purpose of the overburden
normalization is to obtain quantities that are independent
0
of svo and thus more uniquely relate to the sands
relative density, DR. The correlation of the cyclic stress
ratio required to cause liquefaction (which will be
designated as CRR to distinguish it from the cyclic stress
ratio CSR induced by the earthquake ground motions) to
normalized penetration resistance is thus directly affected
by the choice of the CN relation, as will be illustrated later in
this paper.
2.4. Adjustment of cyclic resistance for the effects
of overburden stress and sloping ground conditions
The cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) of cohesionless soil
varies with effective confining stress and is affected by the
presence of static driving shear stresses such as exist
beneath slopes. Note that CRR is the cyclic stress ratio that
causes liquefaction for a MZ712 earthquake as obtained
from the case-history-based semi-empirical correlations.
Since the semi-empirical liquefaction correlations are based
primarily on data for level ground conditions and effective
overburden stresses in the range of 100G kPa, Seed [7]
recommended that the CRR be corrected for these effects
using the following expression:
CRR Z CRRsZ1;aZ0 Ks Ka
in which Ks is the overburden correction factor and Ks is the
static shear stress correction factor. Revised Ks relations are
described in more detail by Boulanger [8] and by Idriss and
Boulanger [9,10], and are not reviewed herein.
The shear stresses induced at any point in a level
soil deposit during an earthquake are primarily due to
the vertical propagation of shear waves in the deposit. These
stresses can be calculated using analytical procedures and
(4)
are particularly dependent on the earthquake ground motion
characteristics (e.g. intensity and frequency content), the
shear wave velocity profile of the site, and the dynamic soil
properties. Idriss [11], in extending the work of Golesorkhi
[12], performed several hundred parametric site response
analyses and concluded that for the conditions of most
practical interest, the parameter rd could be adequately
expressed as a function of depth and earthquake magnitude
(M). The following relation was derived using those results:
Lnrd Z az C bzM (6a)
 z 
az Z K1:012 K 1:126 sin C 5:133 (6b)
11:73
 z 
bz Z 0:106 C 0:118 sin C 5:142 (6c)
11:28
in which z is depth in meters and M is moment magnitude.
These equations are applicable to a depth z%34 m, whereas
the following expression is applicable for zO34:
rd Z 0:12 exp0:22M (6d)
The uncertainty in rd increases with increasing depth
such that Eq. (6) should only be applied for depths less than
about 20G m. Liquefaction evaluations at greater depths
often involve special conditions for which more detailed
analyses can be justified. For these reasons, it is
recommended that CSR (or equivalent rd values) at depths
greater than about 20 m should be based on site response
studies, providing, however, that a high quality response
calculation can be completed for the site.
Plots of rd calculated using Eq. (6) for MZ5.5, 6.5, 7.5
(5) and 8 are presented in Fig. 2. Also shown in this figure is the
average of the range published by Seed and Idriss [1].
Stress Reduction Coefficient, rd
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0
Depth Below Ground Surface - m

Average of Range Published

3. Stress reduction coefficient, rd 8 by Seed & Idriss (1971)

12
Seed and Idriss [1] introduced the stress reduction
coefficient rd as a parameter describing the ratio of cyclic 16
stresses for a flexible soil column to the cyclic stresses for a
rigid soil column, as illustrated in Fig. 1. They obtained 20
values of rd for a range of earthquake ground motions and Magnitude: M = 5 M = 6 M = 7 M=8
soil profiles having sand in the upper 15Gm (z50 ft) and 24

suggested an average curve for use as a function of depth.

28
The average curve, which was extended only to a depth of
about 12 m (z40 ft), was intended for all earthquake Fig. 2. Variations of stress reduction coefficient with depth and earthquake
magnitudes and for all profiles. magnitude (from Idriss [11]).
118 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130
The information in Fig. 2 indicates that the average of the
range published by Seed and Idriss is comparable to
the curve calculated using Eq. (6) with MZ8 for depths
shallower than about 4 m and is comparable to the curve
calculated using Eq. (6) with MZ712 for depths greater than
about 8 m.
Seed et al. [13] proposed the use of rd values that are not
only a function of depth and earthquake magnitude, but also
of the level of shaking and the average shear wave velocity
over the top 40 ft (z12 m) of the site. It is believed that this
adds another degree of complication and implied accuracy
that is not warranted at this time.
Therefore, it is suggested that the use of Eq. (6) would
provide a sufficient degree of accuracy for engineering
applications and it is recommended that these equations be
used in lieu of the figure originally published by Seed and
Idriss [1] or any of the equations that have been derived over
the past 30 or so years based on that figure.
4. Magnitude scaling factor, MSF
The magnitude scaling factor, MSF, has been used to
adjust the induced CSR during earthquake magnitude M to
an equivalent CSR for an earthquake magnitude, MZ712 .
The MSF is thus defined as:
MSF Z CSRM =CSRMZ7:5 (7)
Thus, MSF provides an approximate representation of
the effects of shaking duration or equivalent number of
stress cycles. Values of magnitude scaling factors were
derived by combining: (1) correlations of the number of
equivalent uniform cycles versus earthquake magnitude,
and (2) laboratory-based relations between the cyclic stress
ratio required to cause liquefaction and the number of
uniform stress cycles. These two relations are inter-
dependent, as described below, and thus must be developed
in parallel to maintain compatibility.
Methods for converting an irregular time series to
equivalent uniform cycles involve similar concepts to
those used in fatigue studies. The relation between CSR
required to cause liquefaction (i.e. CRR) and number of
uniform stress cycles (N), such as shown in Fig. 3,
provides the means to convert the irregular stress time
series into an equivalent number of uniform stress cycles.
For example, the data for Niigata sand in Fig. 3 indicate
that 10 uniform cycles at CRRZ0.44 would cause
liquefaction, while it would take 40 uniform cycles at
CRRZ0.28 to cause liquefaction. Thus, if an irregular
stress time series consists of two cycles, one cycle with a
peak of 0.44 and the other cycle having a peak of 0.28,
the irregular time series can be converted to an equivalent
uniform stress time series having 1.25 (i.e. 1C10/40)
cycles with a peak of 0.44, or 5 (i.e. 1C40/10) cycles
with a peak of 0.28.
2
Test results by Yoshimi et al (1984)
on frozen samples
1
0.9
Cyclic Stress Ratio
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Test results on frozen samples from Niigata
0.2 (after Yoshimi et al 1989)
Relative Density = 78%
Relative Density = 54%
(Adjusted by the ratio of 78/54)
0.1
0.09
1 10 100
Number of Cycles, N
Fig. 3. Cyclic stress ratio to cause liquefaction versus number of uniform
loading cycles for frozen samples tested by Yoshimi et al. [21,34].
This process can be carried out for any given irregular
time series to represent it by an equivalent number of stress
cycles each having the same peak stress. A unique
conversion is obtained when CRR is related to N by a
power relationship of the following form:
CRR Z Ao NKb (8)
where b is the slope of the CRR versus N line on a loglog
plot. Accordingly, the numbers of cycles to cause failure at
two different CSR are related as follows:


NA CSRB 1=b
Z (9)
NB CSRA
The number of equivalent uniform cycles determined for
any given irregular stress time series, therefore, depends on
the value of b in Eqs. (8) and (9).
Idriss [11] re-evaluated the MSF derivation, as summar-
ized in Figs. 3 through 6. Results of cyclic tests on high
quality samples obtained by frozen sampling techniques
were used to define the variation in CRR with the number of
uniform loading cycles, as shown in Fig. 3. The two sets of
test results shown in Fig. 3 have essentially the same slope
on the log(CRR) versus log(N) plot (i.e. bZ0.337), and
therefore will produce comparable estimates for
the equivalent number of uniform cycles produced by
earthquakes of different magnitudes, and thus comparable
MSF relations. In comparison, the original Seed and Idriss
[14] MSF values were based on data for reconstituted sands
that had significantly lower cyclic strengths than for these
field samples and a different slope on a log(CRR) versus
log(N) plot. Despite these differences, the re-evaluated
relation for the number of equivalent uniform stress cycles
versus earthquake magnitude turned out to be only slightly
different from the Seed et al. [15] results, as shown in Fig. 4.
The relations in Figs. 3 and 4 were then used to derive the
curve in Fig. 5, wherein CRR was further normalized by
the CRR value for 15 uniform stress cycles, which is the
number of cycles obtained for MZ712 as shown in Fig. 4.
 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130 119

40 3

Magnitude Scaling Factor, MSF

Number of Equivalent Stress Cycles

Seed & Idriss (1982)

Seed & Idriss (1982) Tokimatsu & Yoshimi (1983)
Ambraseys (1988)
Idriss (1999)
30 Arango (1996)
Seed et al (2003)
2
Idriss (1999)

M
MSF = 6.9 exp 0.058
20 4

1
10

0 0
5 6 7 8 9
4 5 6 7 8 9
Earthquake Magnitude, M
Earthquake Magnitude, M
Fig. 6. Magnitude scaling factor, MSF, values proposed by various
Fig. 4. Number of equivalent stress cycles versus earthquake magnitude.
investigators.

The MSF relation produced by this re-evaluation was

then expressed by Idriss [11] as: smaller earthquake magnitudes result in smaller rd values

 and larger MSF values. Consequently, empirical deri-
KM vations of MSF that rely on magnitude-independent rd
MSF Z 6:9 exp K 0:058 (10a)
4 relations (e.g. [18,19]) are lumping both effects of
earthquake magnitude into the MSF parameter alone.
MSF% 1:8 (10b) For this reason, it is essential that rd and MSF relations be
The values of MSF obtained using Eq. (10) are presented used in the same combination in which they were derived.
in Fig. 6, together with those proposed by others. The However, even if the MSF relationships by Ambraseys
re-evaluated MSF values are somewhat greater than those [18] or Arango [19] are used with their corresponding
originally proposed by Seed and Idriss [14] and to those magnitude-independent stress reduction coefficients, it is
more recently derived by Cetin et al. [16] and summarized believed that they will produce unconservative results for
in Seed et al. [13,17]. The relations by Ambraseys [18], and shallow depths during small magnitude earthquakes (say,
Arango [19] give significantly larger MSF values for M%612 ).
earthquake magnitudes M!7, but these differences are The MSF relation by Idriss [11] is limited to a maximum
partly attributable to differences in the assumed rd relations, value of 1.8 at small earthquake magnitudes (M%514 ). This
as described below. limit arises from consideration of the effects of one single
MSF and rd relations are inter-related through their peak in the cyclic shear stress time series. For an earthquake
dependence on earthquake magnitude. For example, dominated by one single strong cycle of shaking,
the equivalent uniform cyclic loading can be no smaller
than 12 1 cycle at the peak cyclic stress. Taking this limiting
2.5
case to consist of 34 of a cycle at the peak stress, the
Magnitude = 5

equivalent number of uniform loading cycles at 0.65 times

CRR at N Cycles / CRR at N = 15

Magnitude = 6

2.0 the peak stress can be computed from Eq. (9) as:



Magnitude = 7

1:0 1=0:337 3
Nmin Z cycles Z 2:69 cycles (11)
Magnitude = 8

1.5
0:65 4
1.69

1.0
This minimum value for N applies for all M%514 , as
1.30 shown on Fig. 4. The corresponding maximum value of the
1.00
MSF at M%514 can then be computed using Eqs. (7) and (9)
0.5 rearranged as:
0.77


CSRM NMZ7:5 b
0.0 MSF Z Z (12a)
1 10 100 CSRMZ7:5 NM
Number of Cycles Required to Reach ru = 100% or 5% DA Strain

0:337
15
Fig. 5. Derivation of MSF for various earthquake magnitudes based on MSF Z Z 1:8 (12b)
laboratory cyclic test data on frozen samples. 2:69
120 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130
Thus, the maximum MSF value, expressed in Eq. (10)
and shown in Fig. 6, derives from the fact that the minimum
duration of small magnitude earthquakes would correspond
to about 34 of a cycle at the peak stress.
The rd and MSF relations described in Eqs. (6) and (10)
are recommended for use in practice because they
incorporate the primary features of behavior identified by
analytical and experimental studies, without becoming too
complex or implying undue accuracy. The actual behavior is
considerably more complicated, including the observations
by Liu et al. [20] regarding the dependence of MSF on
distance from the rupture source, the earlier work of
Yoshimi et al. [21] showing a dependence of MSF on DR,
and the recent work by Seed et al. [13,17] indicating the
influence of the level of shaking and stiffness of the profile
on rd. Nonetheless, it is believed that incorporating these
refinements into the semi-empirical procedure introduces
more complexity than is warranted at this time.
5. Overburden correction factor, Ks
The effect of overburden stress on CRR was recently re-
evaluated in some detail by Boulanger [22] and Boulanger
and Idriss [23]. This re-evaluation used a critical state
framework in which a relative state parameter index (xR), as
defined in Fig. 7, was introduced by Boulanger [8] as a
practical means to inter-relate the combined effects of DR
0
and svo on CRR. As shown in Fig. 7, xR is the difference
between the current DR and the critical state DR (denoted
DR,CS) for the same mean effective normal stress. The
empirical critical state line in Fig. 7 was derived from
Boltons [24] relative dilatancy index (IRD), which is an
empirical index that embodies critical state concepts. The
parameter Q determines the stress at which the critical state
line curves sharply downwards, indicating the onset of
Critical state line from IRD relation
(Bolton 1986) with Q = 10
0%
Relative density, DR
100%
0.01 0.1 1 10
Mean effective normal stress, p/ Pa
Fig. 7. Definition of the relative state parameter index (after Boulanger [8]).
significant particle crushing, and its value depends on grain
type, with Qz10 for quartz and feldspar [24]. The resulting
xR parameter enables the incorporation of critical state
concepts into the analytical framework that is used to
evaluate liquefaction potential. Boulanger [22] showed that
CRR could be expressed as a unique function of xR,
and Idriss and Boulanger [9] showed that xR could be
expressed in terms of SPT or CPT penetration resistance.
The studies described above showed that overburden
stress effects on CRR could be represented in either of two
ways: (1) through the additional normalization of
penetration resistances for relative state, thereby producing
the quantities (N1x)60 and qC1x, or (2) through a Ks factor. In
the first approach, the normalization for relative state is in
addition to the conventional normalization for overburden
stress [Eqs. (3) and (4)] and it eliminates the need for a Ks
factor. The first approach has several technical advantages,
while the second approach has been the standard approach
since 1983. More details regarding the use of either
approach are given in Boulanger and Idriss [23], and are
not repeated here. Instead, only the resulting relations for Ks
are summarized because they can more easily be compared
to the methods currently in use.
The recommended Ks relations, as expressed by
Boulanger and Idriss [23], are:

0 
s
Ks Z 1 K Cs ln Vo % 1:0 (13a)
Pa
1
Cs Z % 0:3 (13b)
18:9 K 17:3DR
Idriss and Boulanger [9] re-evaluated correlations
between (N1)60, qC1N and DR for the purpose of liquefaction
evaluations, and recommended the following expressions
for clean sands:
r
N1 60
DR Z (14)
46
DR Z 0:478qC1N 0:264 K 1:063 (15)
Boulanger and Idriss [23] subsequently expressed the
coefficient Cs in terms of (N1)60 or qC1N as:
1
Cs Z p (16)
18:9 K 2:55 N1 60
1
Cs Z (17)
37:3 K 8:27qc1N 0:264
with (N1)60 and qC1N limited to maximum values of 37
and 211, respectively, in these expressions (i.e. keeping
Cs%0.3).
100 The resulting Ks curves, calculated using Eqs. (13), (16)
and (17), are shown in Fig. 8 for a range of (N1)60 and qC1N.
Although it is recommended that Ks be restricted to %1 for
use with the liquefaction evaluation procedures developed
 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130 121

1.4 beyond which the empirical data are available, and thus
the Ks relations were derived to most closely match the xR-
1.2 based analysis results for 1!svo 0
=Pa !10 [23]. A conse-
quence of this focus on higher confining stresses was that
(N 1 ) 60 =4,q c1N =50
1 the derived Ks relations slightly overestimate the xR-based
Ks values at svo 0
=Pa !1 for the relative densities of most
0.8
interest. For example, for DRZ50% and svo 0
=Pa Z0.5,
the xR-based Ks value is 1.05 while Eq. (13) gives 1.07.
K

In contrast, the Hynes and Olsen [25] relations give

0.6
(N 1 ) 60 =10,q c1N =81 KsZ1.19 and the empirical relation by Seed et al. [17]
(N 1 ) 60 =20,q c1N =130 gives KsZ1.20 for this case. In effect, the xR-based analyses
0.4
show that Ks only slightly exceeds 1.0 at svo0
=Pa !1 because
(N 1 ) 60 =30,q c1N =177
the critical state line is relatively flat at low confining
0.2
stresses (Fig. 7). In addition, it was subsequently found that
letting Ks exceed 1.0 [using Eq. (13) but without an upper
0 limit of unity], caused four data points for the clean sands
0 2 4 6 8 10
Vertical effective stress, v/ Pa from shallower depths to fall somewhat below the
recommended CRRK(N1)60 curve. These points were not
Fig. 8. Ks relations derived from xR relations (from Boulanger and Idriss far below the curve, and would have been closer to the curve
[23]). if the xR-based Ks values had been used. Since the effect of
0
Ks at svo =Pa !1 is generally only a few percent, and since it
herein [Eq. (13)], the Ks curves are shown without this was desirable for the curve not to be controlled by these few
restriction in Figs. 8 and 9. The recommended Ks relations points from shallower depths, it was decided to maintain the
simple limit of Ks%1, for both re-evaluating the case
provide significantly higher Ks values at svo 0
=Pa O1 and
histories and for use in practical applications.
lower Ks values at svo =Pa !1 in comparison to the Ks curves
0

developed by Hynes and Olsen [25] and recommended in

Youd et al. [26], as shown in Fig. 9.
The Ks values were restricted to %1 [Eq. (13)] for the 6. Normalization of penetration resistances
re-evaluation of the SPT and CPT liquefaction correlations
presented later, although conceptually the Ks values should SPT and CPT penetration resistances are routinely
be allowed to exceed 1.0 when svo 0
=Pa is less than unity. The normalized to an equivalent svo0
Z1 atm to obtain quantities
reasons for imposing this restriction on Ks are as follows. that more uniquely relate to the relative density, DR, of sand
0
First, the primary purpose of the Ks relation is for the (i.e. they no longer depend on svo ). One of the most
extrapolation of the semi-empirical correlations to depths commonly used expressions for the overburden correction
(or normalization) factor in Eqs. (3) and (4) was proposed
by Liao and Whitman [27], viz:
1.4

0:5
Pa
1.2
CN Z 0 (18)
This study svo
DR=40%
1 DR=60% Boulanger [22] recently re-evaluated CN relations based
DR=80% on theoretical and experimental data for the CPT and
0.8
experimental data for the SPT. The CN relation for the CPT
is quite well constrained by both the theoretical solutions
K

and the calibration chamber test data against which

0.6
DR=40% the theoretical solutions have been calibrated. The resulting
DR=60% CN relation for the CPT was accurately expressed in the
0.4 DR=80% form:
Hynes & Olsen (1998)
m
0.2 Pa
CN Z 0 (19)
svo
0 where the exponent m was linearly dependent on DR, as
0 2 4 6 8 10
Vertical effective stress, v/ Pa m Z 0:784 K 0:521DR (20)
Fig. 9. Comparison of derived Ks relations to those recommended by Hynes For the SPT, Boulanger [22] re-evaluated the calibration
and Olsen [25] (from Boulanger and Idriss [23]). chamber test data by Marcuson and Bieganousky [28,29]
122 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130

(a) N value (b) N value (c) N value

0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
0
Rotating rainer
(with tamping
1

Vertical effective stress (atm)

at DR=73%)

6
25, 54, DR=91% 25, 51, DR=96% 30, 46, DR=73%
7
Platte River Standard concrete Reid Bedford
sand sand model sand

Fig. 10. Re-examination of the calibration chamber SPT data by Marcuson and Bieganousky [28,29] showing variation in SPT N values with vertical effective
stress and relative density for three sands.

using a least squares, weighted, nonlinear regression The NCEER/NSF workshop in 1996/98 [30] recommended
0
that assumed the functional form provided by Eq. (19). that CN%2. Considering the range of svo and (N1)60 for the
The resulting relations are compared in Fig. 10 to the SPT case histories of observed surface evidence of liquefaction
calibration chamber test data for the three sands studied, /no-liquefaction, it would appear more reasonable to limit
after adjusting each bin of SPT data to equivalent constant the value of CN to 1.7 as noted in Eqs. (21) and (22). The
DR values. This adjustment for slight variations in DR resulting CN curves are plotted in Fig. 12 showing the
among different SPT tests was based on the regressed DR- increasing importance of DR with increasing depth (with DR
versus-(N1)60 relation for the individual sand. The results of represented by (N1)60 and qC1N values in this figure).
these SPT regression analyses are summarized in Fig. 11 Solving for CN requires iteration because (N1)60 depends
showing the exponent m versus DR for the three sands. The on CN and CN depends on (N1)60 (and similarly for qC1N). As
SPT results are consistent with the CPT relation provided by suggested by Boulanger and Idriss [23], this iteration can be
Eq. (20) and plotted in Fig. 11 for comparison. In fact, easily accomplished in most software; e.g. in Excel, use a
Eq. (20) provides an adequate description of both the CPT circular reference with the Iteration option activated under
and SPT data over the range of DR values most relevant to the Tools/Options/Calculation tab.
practice.
Boulanger and Idriss [23] subsequently used the relations
in Eqs. (14) and (15) to obtain the following expressions for
determining CN: 1

a Platte river sand
Pa p
CN Z % 1:7 a Z 0:784 K 0:0768 N1 60 0.8 Standard concrete sand
0
svo Reid Bedford model sand
(21)
Exponent m

0.6

b
Pa 0.4
CN Z 0 % 1:7 b Z 1:338 K 0:249qC1N 0:264
svo
(22) 0.2 SPT: m = 0.317DR0.716
CPT: m = 0.784 0.521DR
with (N1)60 limited to a maximum value of 46 and qC1N 0
limited to a maximum value of 254 in these CN expressions. 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Extrapolating the above expressions for CN to very shallow Relative density, DR
0
depths (i.e. svo values smaller than the values for which CN
was calibrated) gives CN/N as svo 0
/0. Therefore, a limit Fig. 11. Overburden normalization exponent m obtained by Boulanger
[22] from nonlinear regression on SPT calibration chamber test data by
must be imposed on the maximum value of CN because Marcuson and Bieganousky [28,29] and from CPT penetration theory and
of uncertainties in Eqs. (21) and (22) at shallow depths. calibration chamber test data.
 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130
CN
0 0.5 1 1.5
0 relations recommended herein. The CN and Ks relations
Vertical effective stress, v/Pa
2
(N1)60=40, qc1N=223
4 definition of how fines content affects these relations. For
(N1)60=30, qc1N=177
6 (N1)60=20, qc1N=130
(N1)60=10, qc1N=81
8
(N1)60=4, qc1N=50
10
Fig. 12. Overburden normalization factor CN calculated using equations
(21) or (22) (Boulanger and Idriss [23]).
7. SPT-based procedure for evaluating liquefaction
potential of cohesionless soils
Semi-empirical procedures for liquefaction evaluations
originally were developed using the Standard Penetration
Test (SPT), beginning with efforts in Japan to differentiate
between liquefiable and nonliquefiable conditions in the
1964 Niigata earthquake (e.g. [31]). Subsequent
developments have included contributions from many
researchers, especially in the investigations of individual
case histories where surface evidence of liquefaction was or
was not observed. The procedures recommended by Seed
et al. [4,5] to obtain and adjust the SPT blow count and to
obtain the values of CRR are particularly note worthy as
they have set the standard for almost two decades of
subsequent engineering practice. The NCEER/NSF work-
shop in 1996/98 resulted in a number of suggested revisions
to the SPT-based procedure but with only minor adjust-
ments to the CRRK(N1)60 curve for clean sands put forth by
Seed et al. [4].
Cetin et al. [16] re-examined and expanded the SPT case
history database. The data set by Seed et al. [4] had some
125 cases of liquefaction/no-liquefaction in 19 earthquakes,
of which 65 cases pertain to sands with fines content
FC%5%, 46 cases had 6%%FC%34%, and 14 cases had
FCR35%. Cetin et al. [16] included an additional 67 cases
of liquefaction/no-liquefaction in 12 earthquakes, of which
23 cases pertain to sands with FC%5%, 32 cases had
6%%FC%34%, and 12 cases had FCR35%. Cetin et al.
[16] used their expanded data set and site response
calculations for estimating CSR to develop revised
deterministic and probabilistic liquefaction relationships.
The results of Cetin et al. [16] were also summarized in
Seed et al. [13].
The re-evaluation of the SPT-based procedures that is
presented herein incorporates several different adjustments
123
and parameter revisions. The CSR and (N1)60 values were
re-calculated using the revised rd, MSF, Ks, and CN
for silty sands were computed using the equivalent clean
sand (N1)60 values (the specific relation for this correction
is described later in this section), which appears to be
a reasonable approximation pending better experimental
case histories where strong motion recordings showed that
liquefaction occurred early in shaking, CSR were adjusted
to reflect the number of equivalent cycles that had occurred
up to the time when liquefaction was triggered [32].
Experimental data and theoretical considerations that
provide guidance on the shape of the CRRK(N1)60 curve
at high (N1)60 values (where there is very limited case
history data) were re-examined. In particular, the SPT and
CPT correlations were developed in parallel to maintain
consistency between the two procedures. A few additional
comments on some of these aspects are provided below.
The revised rd [Eq. (6)] relation was used to estimate
CSR for each case history, as opposed to using site response
studies. The main reason is that, except for a few cases, the
available information for the liquefaction/no-liquefaction
case histories is insufficient to have confidence that detailed
site response analyses would be more accurate.
The Ks factor is normally applied to the capacity side of
the analysis during design [Eq. (5)], but it must also be used
0
to convert the site CSR to a common svo value for the
empirical derivation of a CRRK(N1)60 curve. This is
accomplished as:


s a rd 1
CSRMZ7:5; sZ1 Z 0:65 vo 0 max (23)
svo MSF Ks
0
such that the values of CSR correspond to an equivalent svo
of 1 atm, and thus the liquefaction correlation also
0
corresponds to an equivalent svo of 1 atm. Since Ks has
been restricted to %1 [Eq. (13)], this only affects a few of
the case history points. Note that in applying the
liquefaction correlation in design, the Ks factor is still
applied to the capacity side as indicated in Eq. (5).
The shape of the CRRK(N1)60 curve at the higher range
of (N1)60 values is guided by experimental and theoretical
considerations because there is insufficient case history data
to constrain the curve in this range. In 1982, Seed and Idriss
[14] set the CRRK(N1)60 curve asymptotic to vertical at
(N1)60z35 because the shake table results of De Alba et al.
[33] indicated that the slope of the CRRKDR relation would
increase substantially at high values of DR. Seed et al. [4]
similarly kept the CRRK(N1)60 curve asymptotic to
vertical, but at (N1)60z30. In the work presented herein,
the CRRK(N1)60 relation was assigned a very steep, but
non-vertical, slope based on a re-evaluation of experimental
results for high quality field samples obtained by frozen
sampling techniques (e.g. Yoshimi et al. [21,34]) and
judgments based on the conceptual relations between DR
124 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130

(which relates to (N1)60 values), effective confining stress 0.6

(which changes with applied shear stresses), and CRR as NCEER/NSF Workshop (1997)
derived through the xR framework (Fig. 7). In this regard, 0.5 Recommended Curve

Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR)

the application of probabilistic methods to the development
of liquefaction correlations has often suffered from 0.4
not including experimental and theoretical constraints on
the liquefaction correlations at high CRR and (N1)60 values. 0.3
Consequently, such probabilistic methods often predict
probabilities of liquefaction at high (N1)60 values that are 0.2
FC 5%
unreasonably high. It is believed that including experimen- Liquefaction
tal and theoretical findings in the development of 0.1
Marginal Liquefaction
probabilistic relations would improve the results in the No Liquefaction

upper range of CRR and (N1)60 values. 0.0

The SPT and CPT data were utilized together in
developing a consistent pair of liquefaction correlations
for the cases with FC%5%. The consistency between the
two in situ test types was achieved through a common
CRRKxR relation [23] as opposed to a constant qCN/N60
ratio as had been used in some past studies. Maintaining a
common CRRKxR relation results in a qCN/N60 ratio that is
dependent on DR. The corresponding qC1N/(N1)60 ratio
(in lieu of qCN/N60 ratio) can be determined using Eqs. (14)
and (15) to obtain:
qC1N 2:092DR C 2:2243:788
Z (24)
N1 60 46DR 2
The qC1N/(N1)60 ratios calculated using Eq. (24) are
plotted versus (N1)60 in Fig. 13, which shows values that
range from greater than 10 in very loose sands to about 5.5
in very dense sands. In the range of particular interest, which
is approximately 10%(N1 ) 60%25, the calculated
qC1N/(N1)60 ratio ranges from 6 to 8.
The variation of the qC1N/(N1)60 ratio with DR is
consistent with the expected differences in drainage
conditions for these two in situ tests. The CPT is a quasi-
static test that is largely drained or partially drained,
depending on the grain size distribution of the cohesionless
0 10 20 30 40
Modified Standard Penetration - (N1)60 - Blows/ft
Fig. 14. SPT case histories of clean sands with the curve proposed by the
0
NCEER Workshop [30] and the recommended curve for MZ712 and svo Z
1 atm (z1 tsf).
soils, whereas the SPT is a dynamic test that is largely
undrained. Thus, it would be expected that for SPT tests,
loose sand would develop positive excess pore pressures
while dense sand would more likely develop negative excess
pore pressures. This difference in drainage conditions can
explain, at least in part, the trend depicted in Fig. 13.
Revised CRRK(N1)60 relations, derived incorporating
the above considerations, are presented in Figs. 14 through
19. The cases for cohesionless soils having FC%5% are
plotted in Fig. 14 along with the curve agreed to at the
NCEER/NSF workshop. Also shown in Fig. 14 is the new
curve proposed herein. The individual cases are those from
Seed et al. [4] and Cetin et al. [16] subject to the previously
described adjustments. The proposed changes to the
CRRK(N1)60 relation are relatively modest. For (N1)60
values between 8 and 25, the maximum difference in CRR is
about 15% at (N1)60z20. The revised relation for FC%5%
is further compared to other published relations in Fig. 15,

12 0.6
Curves derived by 3
qC1N/(N1)60 ratio based on : 1 Seed (1979) 5
10 DR = [(N1)60/46] 0.5 0.5 2 Seed & Idriss (1982)
Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR)

3 Seed et al (1984)/NCEER Workshop (1997) 4

DR = 0.478(qC1N)0.264 1.063 4 Seed et al (2001)
5 Recommended Curve 2 1
8 0.4
qC1N /(N1)60

6 0.3

0.2
4 FC 5%
Liquefaction
0.1
2 Marginal Liquefaction
No Liquefaction
0.0
0 0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40 50
Modified Standard Penetration - (N1)60 - Blows/ft
(N1)60
Fig. 15. Curves relating CRR to (N1)60 published over the past 24 years for
0
Fig. 13. Ratio of CPT and SPT penetration resistances based on adopted clean sands and the recommended curve for MZ712 and svo Z1 atm
correlations to relative density. (z1 tsf).
 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130 125

0.6 0.6
NCEER (1997) NCEER/NSF (1997)
(FC 35%) (FC = 15%) Derived Curve
0.5 0.5 (FC = 15%)
Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR)

Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR)

Derived Curve Fines Content
(FC = 35%) (FC)
43
0.4 0.4 20
Derived Curve 20 25
Fines Content (FC 5%)
(FC) 29 22
0.3 50 38 0.3 22 15 25
37 27 2027
55 19
60 20 15 20
80 50 35 40 20 18
0.2 48 0.2 20
92 30 20
40 31
75 No 20 No
67 Liquefaction Liquefaction
0.1 75
50
Revised Values for
Liquefaction Liquefaction 0.1 Revised Values for
Cases Published in 1984
Cases Published in 1984
Revised Values for Revised Values for
Cases Published in 2000 Cases Published in 2000
0.0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Modified Standard Penetration - (N1)60 - Blows/ft Modified Standard Penetration - (N1)60 - Blows/ft

Fig. 16. SPT case histories of cohesionless soils with FCR35% and the Fig. 18. SPT case histories of cohesionless soils with 15%%FC!35% and
NCEER Workshop [30] curve and the recommended curves for both clean the NCEER Workshop [30] curve and the recommended curve for FCZ
0 0
sand and for FCZ35% for MZ712 and svo Z1 atm (z1 tsf). 15% for MZ712 and svo Z1 atm (z1 tsf).

cohesionless soils with 5%!FC!15%, while Fig. 18

including relations from early in their development shows the cases for 15%%FC!35%. The revised curve is
(i.e. Seed [2]) to a very recent relation by Cetin et al. [16] lower than the curve recommended at the NCEER/NSF
that is summarized in Seed et al. [13]. Note that the curves workshop, reflecting the influence of the revised case history
and the data points for the liquefaction/no-liquefaction case data set compiled by Cetin et al. [16].
histories pertain to magnitude MZ712 earthquakes and an The revised boundary curves proposed herein for
0
effective vertical stress svo Z1 atm (z1 tsf). cohesionless soils can be expressed using the following
The cases for cohesionless soils with FCR35% are equations. First, the SPT penetration resistance is adjusted
plotted in Fig. 16 along with the applicable curve agreed to to an equivalent clean sand value as:
at the NCEER/NSF workshop and the new curve proposed
herein. Several case history points fall well below the N1 60cs Z N1 60 C DN1 60 (25)
FCR35% boundary curve agreed to at the NCEER/NSF
workshop, and these points control the position of the

2 
9:7 15:7
revised curve. DN1 60 Z exp 1:63 C K
FC C 0:1 FC C 0:1
The FCZ15% boundary curve that was recommended at
(26)
the NCEER/NSF workshop and the revised FCZ15%
boundary curve proposed herein are compared in Figs. 17 The variation of D(N1)60 with FC (in percent), calculated
and 18. Fig. 17 shows the case history points for using the Eq. (26), is presented in Fig. 19. The value of CRR
for a magnitude MZ712 earthquake and an effective vertical
0
0.6
stress svo Z1 atm (z1 tsf) can be calculated based on
Derived Curve
(FC = 15%) 6
10 Derived Curve
0.5
Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR)

(FC 5%)

5
0.4
Fines Content
(FC) 4
0.3 12
13
(N1)60

15
7
10 10
8 3
0.2 10 10 8 8
8 12
12
Marginal No
0.1
13 Liquefaction Liquefaction Liquefaction 2
Revised Values for
Cases Published in 1984
Revised Values for

0.0
Cases Published in 2000
1
0 10 20 30 40
Modified Standard Penetration - (N1)60 - Blows/ft 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fig. 17. SPT case histories of cohesionless soils with 5%!FC!15% and Fines Content, FC - percent
the recommended curves for both clean sands and for FCZ15% for MZ712
0
and svo Z1 atm (z1 tsf). Fig. 19. Variation of D(N1)60 with fines content.
126 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130
(N1)60cs using the following expression:

 continuous record of the penetration resistance and is less
N1 60cs N1 60cs 2
CRR Z exp C vulnerable to operator error than is the SPT test, whereas its
14:1 126

3

N1 60cs N1 60cs 4
K C K 2:8 27
23:6 25:4
The use of these equations provides a convenient means
for evaluating the cyclic stress ratio required to cause
liquefaction for a cohesionless soils with any fines content.
The plasticity of the fines is a key parameter affecting
both the cyclic behavior of a soil and the choice
of procedures for evaluating that cyclic behavior. For
fine-grained soils, Idriss and Boulanger [35] suggested that a
PI of 5G was indicative of the transition from essentially
cohesionless (sand-like) soil behavior to essentially
cohesive (clay-like) soil behavior. Boulanger and Idriss
[36] have since recommended new procedures
for evaluating the cyclic failure potential of cohesive
fine-grained soils and recommended that a PI of 7 be used
for distinguishing between cohesionless and cohesive soils
unless site-specific laboratory testing indicates an adjust-
ment to this criterion is warranted. These issues are beyond
the scope of this paper, other than to conclude that the above
SPT-based procedures are considered applicable to
soils with fines that are nonplastic or of very low plasticity
(PI!7) and that the use of the Chinese Criteria or their
variants for identifying liquefiable soils should be
discontinued.
It must be stressed that the quality of the site
characterization work is extremely important for the reliable
evaluation of liquefaction potential. With regard to SPT
testing, it is vital that the testing procedures carefully adhere
to established standards (as summarized at the NCEER
Workshop [26]) and that, regardless of the test procedures,
SPT tests can produce misleading (N1)60 values near
contacts between soils of greatly differing penetration
resistances (e.g. sand overlying soft clay) and can miss
relatively thin critical strata. Such difficulties have been
reported in many cases (e.g. Boulanger et al. [37,38]) and
are generally recognized as requiring careful diligence in
the field investigations. In this regard, companion CPT
soundings are extremely valuable, whenever possible, for
identifying SPT (N1)60 values that might have been
adversely affected by overlying or underlying strata, and
for enabling a more reliable characterization of thin
liquefiable strata (e.g. Robertson and Wride [6], Moss [39]).
8. CPT-based procedure for evaluating liquefaction
potential of cohesionless soils
The cone penetration test (CPT) has proven to be a
valuable tool in characterizing subsurface conditions and in
assessing various soil properties, including estimating the
potential for liquefaction at a particular site. The main
advantages of using the CPT are that it provides a
main disadvantage is the unavailability of a sample.
Zhou [40] used observations from the 1978 Tangshan
earthquake to propose the first liquefaction correlation
based directly on CPT case histories. Seed and Idriss [41]
as well as Douglas et al. [42] proposed the use of
correlations between the SPT and CPT to convert the then
available SPT-based charts for use with the CPT. In recent
years, the expanding data-base for field case histories has
produced several CPT-based correlations (e.g. Shibata
and Teparaksa [43]; Stark and Olson [44]; Suzuki et al.
[45,46]; Robertson and Wride [6,47]; Olsen [48]; Moss [39];
Seed et al. [17]).
The CPT-based liquefaction correlation was re-evaluated
using case history data compiled by Shibata and Teparaksa
[43], Kayen et al. [49], Boulanger et al. [37,38], Stark and
Olson [44], Suzuki et al. [46], and Moss [39]. The work of
Moss [39] was particularly valuable in providing the most
comprehensive compilation of field data and associated
interpretations.
This re-evaluation of the CPT-based procedures
incorporated adjustments and parameter revisions that
are similar to those previously described for the SPT
re-evaluation. For case histories where strong motion
recordings showed that liquefaction occurred early in
shaking, CSR were adjusted to reflect the number of
equivalent cycles that had occurred up to the time when
liquefaction was triggered. All CSR and qC1N values were
re-calculated using the revised rd, MSF, Ks, and CN
relations summarized above. The shape of the CRRKqC1N
curve at high qC1N values was re-examined, and the CPT
and SPT correlations were developed in parallel to maintain
consistency between these procedures.
The revised CRRKqC1N relation, derived using the
above considerations, is shown in Fig. 20 with the case
0.6
0.5 Recommended
Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR)
Relationship
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 Clean Sands
Liquefaction
No Liquefaction
Earthquake Magnitude, M = 7; 'vo = 1 atm
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Normalized Corrected CPT Tip Resistance, qc1N
Fig. 20. CPT-based case histories and recommended relation for clean
0
sands for MZ712 and svo Z1 atm (z1 tsf).
 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130 127

0.6 0.6
Shibata & Teparaksa (1988)
Robertson & Wride (1997)
Suzuki et al (1997) Clean sand (FC 5%)
0.5 Recommended
0.25 D50 (mm) 2.0
Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR)

Moss (2003) - 5% Probability

Relationship 0.5
M = 7.5
0.4
0.4
0.3

CRR
0.3
0.2

Clean Sands 0.2

0.1
Liquefaction SPT correlation
No Liquefaction
Earthquake Magnitude, M = 7; 'vo = 1 atm
0.0 0.1
0 50 100 150 200 250
CPT correlation
Normalized Corrected CPT Tip Resistance, qc1N
0
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2
Fig. 21. CPT-based case histories and recommended relation for clean
sands with relations proposed by others. Relative state parameter index, R

history points for cohesionless soils having FC%5%. The Fig. 22. Field CRRKxR relations derived from liquefaction correlations for
derived relation can be conveniently expressed as: SPT and CPT.


qc1N  qc1N 2  qc1N 3  qc1N 4 and Davies [50]), which is a function of the tip resistance
CRR Z exp C K C K3
540 67 80 114 (qC) and sleeve friction ratio (Rf), to estimate the values of
(28) CRR for cohesionless soils with high fines content. The
curve recommended by Robertson and Wride [6] relating
This CRRKqC1N relation is compared in Fig. 21 to those CRRKqC1N at IcZ2.59 (defined by Robertson and Wride as
by Shibata and Teparaksa [43], Robertson and Wride [6], corresponding to an apparent fines content FCZ35%)
Suzuki et al. [46], and the 5% probability curve by Moss is presented in Fig. 23. Also shown in this figure are
[39] as summarized in Seed et al. [17]. The derived relation the CPT-based data points for the cases examined by Moss
[Eq. (28)] is comparable to the curve proposed by Suzuki [39] for cohesionless soils with FCR35%. As can be seen in
et al. [46] for clean sands. It is more conservative than the the figure, the curve recommended by Robertson and Wride
corresponding curves by Robertson and Wride [6] and by [6] is unconservative. Similarly, the relations by Suzuki
Seed et al. [17] for almost the entire range of qC1N. The et al. [46] for cohesionless soils with high fines content are
curve proposed by Shibata and Teparaksa [43] is less unconservative. The recent work by Moss [39] using friction
conservative than the derived relation except for qC1N ratio Rf in lieu of the parameter Ic as a proxy for fines
greater than about 165. Note that these relations and the content appears promising, but does require further scrutiny
plotted data pertain to magnitude MZ712 earthquakes and before it is adopted.
0
an effective vertical stress svo Z1 atm (z1 tsf).
As previously mentioned, the CPT and SPT liquefaction 0.6
correlations were developed in parallel to maintain Robertson & Wride (1997) Recommended
Ic = 2.59; FC = 35%
consistency in terms of their implied CRRKxR relations 0.5 Fines Content, FC
Relationship for
Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR)

Clean Sands
[data points from Moss (2003)]
for clean cohesionless soils. The relative state parameter 35 82
66
index (xR) for a given qC1N or (N1)60 can be estimated using 0.4 65 86
75
Eqs. (14) or (15) to estimate DR, after which xR can be 42
50
calculated using the expressions in Fig. 7. Following this 0.3 74 65
35
approach, the CRRKxR relations produced for the SPT
and CPT liquefaction correlations are compared in Fig. 22. 0.2
40
As intended, the two relations are basically identical. 75
92
The effect of fines content on the CRRKqC1N relation is 0.1 75 Clean Sands
Liquefaction
still being re-evaluated. This issue includes the actual effect Earthquake Magnitude, M = 7; 'vo = 1 atm
No Liquefaction

of fines content and the most reliable means of incorporating 0.0

0 50 100 150 200 250
this effect into CPT-based procedures. While revised
Normalized Corrected CPT Tip Resistance, qc1N
procedures are not provided herein, a few comments
regarding this issue are warranted. Fig. 23. Comparison of field case histories for cohesionless soils with high
Robertson and Wride [6] and Suzuki et al. [46] suggested fines content and curve proposed by Robertson and Wride [47] for soils
the use of the soil behavior type index, Ic (Jefferies with IcZ2.59 (apparent FCZ35%).
128 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130
Direct soil sampling should always be the primary
means for determining grain characteristics for the
purpose of liquefaction evaluations. The use of CPT data
alone for determining grain characteristics can lead to
unreliable results in many cases, particularly when dealing
with soils in the transitional range between silty sand and
silty clay.
The various difficulties that can be encountered using
CPT-only procedures, and the steps needed to avoid these
difficulties, were illustrated by Boulanger et al. [51] and
Kulasingam et al. [52] in their analyses of the CPT
soundings that were adjacent to the slope inclinometers at
Moss Landing in the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. The
three slope inclinometers were located at different positions
along a sloping shoreline that spread laterally toward the
adjacent channel. The displacement profiles from the
inclinometers identify the intervals over which significant
shear strains, and hence liquefaction, appear to have
developed. Subsequent comparisons of predicted and
observed soil displacement profiles illustrated the types
of difficulties/limitations that can be encountered with
automated CPT-only analysis procedures. For example,
measurements of qC and Rf near contacts between soils
of greatly different penetration resistances and in finely
inter-layered soils are not representative of the actual soil
conditions, and the automated point-by-point liquefaction
analysis of such data at Moss Landing resulted in
erroneous predictions of strains and deformations. In
addition, the default parameters for the CPT procedures
by Robertson and Wride [47] incorrectly predicted liquefac-
tion of a high-plasticity silt layer. Fortunately, many of these
types of common errors can be avoided by explicit
consideration of soil sample data and site stratigraphy
along with careful inspection of the analysis results.
9. VS-based procedure for evaluating liquefaction
potential of cohesionless soils
The shear wave velocity (VS) based procedure has
advanced significantly in recent years, with improved
correlations and more complete databases, as recently
summarized by Andrus and Stokoe [53] and Andrus et al.
[54]. This procedure can be particularly useful for sites
underlain by difficult to penetrate or sample soils
(e.g. gravels, cobbles, boulders). As such, VS-based
correlations provide a valuable tool that ideally is used
in conjunction with SPT- or CPT-based liquefaction
correlations if possible. The question that arises, however,
is which methodology should be given greater weight when
parallel analyses by SPT, CPT, and/or VS procedures
produce contradictory results.
SPT, CPT, and VS measurements each have their
particular advantages and disadvantages for liquefaction
evaluations, but a particularly important point to consider is
their respective sensitivity to the relative density, DR, of
the cohesionless soil under consideration. For example,
changing the DR of a clean sand from 30 to 80% would be
expected to increase the SPT blow count by a factor of about
7.1 and the CPT tip resistance by a factor of about 3.3 as
indicated by Eqs. (14) and (15), respectively. In contrast, the
same change in DR would be expected to only change the VS
by a factor of roughly 1.4 based on available correlations.
For example, Seed and Idriss [55] suggested the parameter
K2max would be 34 and 64 for DR of 30 and 80%,
respectively,
p which give VS values that vary by a factor of
64=34 Z 1:37. It is likely that this range will be somewhat
larger for gravelly soils.
Given that DR is known to have a strong effect on the
cyclic and post-cyclic loading behavior of saturated sand, it
appears that VS measurements would be the least sensitive
for distinguishing among different types of behavior. For
this reason, it may be more appropriate to view the VS case
history data-base as providing bounds that identify
conditions where liquefaction is potentially highly likely,
conditions where liquefaction is potentially highly unlikely,
and conditions where it is uncertain whether or not
liquefaction should be expected. As such, there continues
to be a need for an improved understanding of VS-based
correlations and an assessment of their accuracy relative to
SPT- and CPT-based correlations. In the mean time, it is
recommended that greater weight be given to the results of
SPT- or CPT-based liquefaction evaluations for materials
without large particle sizes.
10. Concluding remarks
An update was presented for the semi-empirical
field-based procedures that are used to evaluate the
liquefaction potential of cohesionless soils during
earthquakes. The analytical framework upon which the
case history data are organized includes several important
factors, including the parameters rd, MSF, Ks, and CN. The
updated relations for each of these factors have a strong
basis in experimental and theoretical findings, with an
appropriate balance between simplicity for practice and
rigor of coverage for key factors.
Revised SPT-based and CPT-based liquefaction
correlations for cohesionless soils were presented that
were based upon a re-examination of the field data,
incorporation of the updated analytical framework, and a
new approach for providing improved consistency between
the two correlations. The relative roles of SPT-, CPT- and
shear wave velocity- based liquefaction correlations were
briefly discussed.
The cyclic loading behavior of cohesive fine-grained
soils (PIR7) was not covered in this paper. The reader is
instead referred to Boulanger and Idriss [36] for guidance on
distinguishing between cohesionless and cohesive soils and
procedures for evaluating the cyclic failure potential of
cohesive soils.
 I.M. Idriss, R.W. Boulanger / Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 26 (2006) 115130
The reliability of any liquefaction evaluation depends
directly on the quality of the site characterization, including
the quality (and not necessarily the quantity) of the in situ
and laboratory test data. The importance of quality field and
laboratory work cannot be overstated, although the vital
details of the various testing methods were beyond the scope
of this paper. Furthermore, it is often the synthesis of
findings from several different procedures that provides the
most insight and confidence in making final decisions.
For this reason, the practice of using a number of in situ
testing methodologies, as best suited to a particular geologic
setting, should continue to be the basis for standard practice,
and the allure of relying on a single approach (e.g. CPT-only
procedures) should be avoided.
It is hoped that the various procedures recommended
herein will provide a useful and improved means for
evaluating liquefaction potential in engineering practice.
Acknowledgements
The authors extend their appreciation to Drs. K. O. Cetin
and R. E. S. Moss and Professor Raymond B. Seed and their
colleagues in sharing their compilations of case history data
and their work on liquefaction correlations as it progressed.
The authors are also grateful to Professors Jonathan
P. Stewart and James K. Mitchell for their valuable
comments and suggestions and to Professor Kenneth
H. Stokoe for his review and comments regarding the
section on shear wave velocity procedures.
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